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A
DICTIONARY
OF THE
ENGLISH LANGUAGE:
IN WHICH
THE WORDS ARE DEDUCED FROM THEIR ORIGINALS,
EXPLAINED IN THEIR DIFFERENT MEANINGS,
AND
AUTHORIZED BY THE NAMES OF THE WRITERS IN WHOSE WORKS
THEY ARE FOUND.
ABSTRACTED FROM THE FOLIO EDITION,
BY THE AUTHOR,
SAMUEL JOHNSON, LL.D.
* * * * *
TO WHICH IS PREFIXED,
DR. JOHNSON'S PREFACE TO THE ORIGINAL FOLIO EDITION,
AND
HIS GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
1812.
* * * * *
A GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE.
GRAMMAR, which is the art of using words properly, comprises four parts:
Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody.
In this division and order of the parts of grammar I follow the common
grammarians, without inquiring whether a fitter distribution might not
be found. Experience has long shown this method to be so distinct as to
obviate confusion, and so comprehensive as to prevent any inconvenient
omissions. I likewise use the terms already received, and already
understood, though perhaps others more proper might sometimes be
invented. Sylburgius, and other innovators, whose new terms have sunk
their learning into neglect, have left sufficient warning against the
trifling ambition of teaching arts in a new language.
ORTHOGRAPHY is the art of combining letters into syllables, and syllables
into words. It therefore teaches previously the form and sound of letters.
The letters of the English language are,
Roman. Italick. Name.
A a A a a
B b B b be
C c C c see
D d D d dee
E e E e e
F f F f eff
G g G g jee
H h H h aitch
I i I i i (or ja)
J j J j j conson.
K k K k ka
L l L l el
M m M m em
N n N n en
O o O o o
P P P p pee
Q q Q q cue
R r R r ar
S s S s ess
T t T t tee
U u U u u (or va)
V v V v v conson.
W w W w double u
X x X x ex
Y y Y y wy
Z z Z z zed
To these may be added certain combinations of letters universally used in
printing; as, fl, ff, fi, ffi, ffl, and &, or and per se, and.
Our letters are commonly reckoned twenty-four, because anciently i and
j as well as u and v were expressed by the same character; but as those
letters, which had always different powers, have now different forms,
our alphabet may be properly said to consist of twenty-six letters
Vowels are five, a, e, i, o, u.
Such is the number generally received; but for i it is the practice to
write y in the end of words, as thy, holy; before i, as from die, dying;
from beautify, beautifying; in the words says, days, eyes; and in words
derived from the Greek, and written originally with υ, as sympathy,
συμπαθεια, system, συστημα.
For u we often write w after a vowel, to make a diphthong; as, raw, grew,
view, vow, flowing; lowness.
The sounds of all the letters are various.
In treating on the letters, I shall not, like some other grammarians,
inquire into the original of their form, as an antiquarian; nor into
their formation and prolation by the organs of speech, as a mechanick,
anatomist, or physiologist; nor into the properties and gradation of
sounds, or the elegance or harshness of particular combinations, as a
writer of universal and transcendental grammar. I consider the English
alphabet only as it is English; and even in this narrow disquisition I
follow the example of former grammarians, perhaps with more reverence
than judgment, because by writing in English I suppose my reader
already acquainted with the English language, and consequently able to
pronounce the letters of which I teach the pronunciation; and because
of sounds in general it may be observed, that words are unable to
describe them. An account, therefore, of the primitive and simple
letters, is useless, almost alike to those who know their sound, and
those who know it not.
OF VOWELS
A.
A has three sounds, the slender, open, and broad.
A slender is found in most words, as face, mane, and in words ending in
ation, as creation, salvation, generation.
The a slender is the proper English a, called very justly by Erpenius,
in his Arabick Grammar, a Anglicum cum e mistum, as having a middle
sound between the open a and the e. The French have a similar sound in
the word pais, and in their e masculine.
A open is the a of the Italian, or nearly resembles it; as father, rather,
congratulate, fancy, glass.
A broad resembles the a of the German; as all, wall, call.
Many words pronounced with a broad were anciently written with au; as
sault, mault; and we still say, fault, vault. This was probably the
Saxon sound, for it is yet retained in the northern dialects, and in
the rustick pronunciation; as maun for man, haund for hand.
The short a approaches to the a open, as grass.
The long a, if prolonged by e at the end of the word, is always slender, as
graze, fame.
A forms a diphthong only with i or y, and u or w. Ai or ay, as in plain,
wain, gay, clay, has only the sound of the long and slender a, and differs
not in the pronunciation from plane, wane.
Au or aw has the sound of the German a, as raw, naughty.
Ae is sometimes found in Latin words not completely naturalized or
assimilated, but is no English diphthong; and is more properly
expressed by single e, as Cesar, Eneas.
E.
E is the letter which occurs most frequently in the English language.
E is long, as in scēne; or short, as in cĕllar, sĕparate, cĕlebrate, mĕn,
thĕn.
It is always short before a double consonant, or two consonants, as in vĕx,
pĕrplexity, relĕnt, mĕdlar, rĕptile, sĕrpent, cĕllar, cĕssation, blĕssing,
fĕll, fĕlling, dĕbt.
E is always mute at the end of a word, except in monosyllables that have no
other vowel, as the; or proper names, as Penelope, Phebe, Derbe; being used
to modify the foregoing consonants, as since, once, hedge, oblige; or to
lengthen the preceding vowel, as băn, bāne; căn, cāne; pĭn, pīne; tŭn,
tūne; rŭb, rūbe; pŏp, pōpe; fĭr, fīre; cŭr, cūre; tŭb, tūbe.
Almost all words which now terminate in consonants ended anciently in
e, as year, yeare; wildness, wildnesse; which e probably had the force
of the French e feminine, and constituted a syllable with its associate
consonant; for in old editions words are sometimes divided thus,
clea-re, fel-le, knowled-ge. This e was perhaps for a time vocal or
silent in poetry as convenience required; but it has been long wholly
mute. Camden in his Remains calls it the silent e.
It does not always lengthen the foregoing vowel, as glŏve, lĭve, gĭve.
It has sometimes in the end of words a sound obscure, and scarcely
perceptible, as open, shapen, shotten, thistle, participle, metre, lucre.
This faintness of sound is found when e separates a mute from a liquid,
as in rotten, or follows a mute and liquid, as in cattle.
E forms a diphthong with a, as near; with i, as deign, receive; and with u
or w, as new, stew.
Ea sounds like e long, as mean; or like ee, as dear, clear, near.
Ei is sounded like e long, as seize, perceiving.
Eu sounds as u long and soft.
E, a, u, are combined in beauty and its derivatives, but have only the
sound of u.
E may be said to form a diphthong by reduplication, as agree, sleeping.
Eo is found in yeoman, where it is sounded as o short; and in people,
where it is pronounced like ee.
I.
I has a sound long, as fīne; and short as fĭn.
That is eminently observable in i, which may be likewise remarkable in
other letters, that the short sound is not the long sound contracted,
but a sound wholly different.
The long sound in monosyllables is always marked by the e final, as thĭn,
thīne.
I is often sounded before r, as a short u; as flirt, first, shirt.
It forms a diphthong only with e, as field, shield, which is sounded as the
double ee; except friend, which is sounded as frĕnd.
I is joined with eu in lieu, and ew in view; which triphthongs are
sounded as the open u.
O.
O is long, as bōne, ōbedient, corrōding; or short, as blŏck, knŏck,
ŏblique, lŏll.
Women is pronounced wimen.
The short o has sometimes the sound of close u, as son, come.
O coalesces into a diphthong with a, as moan, groan, approach: oa has the
sound of o long.
O is united to e in some words derived from Greek, as œconomy; but as
being not an English diphthong, they are better written as they are
sounded, with only e, economy.
With i, as oil, soil, moil, noisome.
This coalition of letters seems to unite the sounds of the two letters,
as far as two sounds can be united without being destroyed, and
therefore approaches more nearly than any combination in our tongue to
the notion of a diphthong.
With o, as boot, hoot, cooler; oo has the sound of the Italian u.
With u or w, as our, power, flower; but in some words has only the sound of
o long, as in soul, bowl, sow, grow. These different sounds are used to
distinguish different significations: as bow an instrument for shooting;
bow, a depression of the head; sow, the she of a boar; sow, to scatter
seed; bowl, an orbicular body; bowl, a wooden vessel.
Ou is sometimes pronounced like o soft, as court; sometimes like o short,
as cough; sometimes like u close, as could; or u open, as rough, tough,
which use only can teach.
Ou is frequently used in the last syllable of words which in Latin end
in or and are made English, as honour, labour, favour, from honor,
labor, favor.
Some late innovators have ejected the u, without considering that the
last syllable gives the sound neither of or nor ur, but a sound between
them, if not compounded of both; besides that they are probably derived
to us from the French nouns in eur, as honeur, faveur.
U.
U is long in ūse, confūsion; or short, as ŭs, concŭssion.
It coalesces with a, e, i, o; but has rather in these combinations the
force of the w consonant, as quaff, quest, quit, quite, languish; sometimes
in ui the i loses its sound, as in juice. It is sometimes mute before a, e,
i, y, as guard, guest, guise, buy.
U is followed by e in virtue, but the e has no sound.
Ue is sometimes mute at the end of a word, in imitation of the French,
as prorogue, synagogue, plague, vague, harangue.
Y.
Y is a vowel, which, as Quintilian observes of one of the Roman letters, we
might want without inconvenience, but that we have it. It supplies the
place of i at the end of words, as thy, before an i, as dying; and is
commonly retained in derivative words where it was part of a diphthong, in
the primitive; as, destroy, destroyer; betray, betrayed, betrayer; pray,
prayer; say, sayer; day, days.
Y being the Saxon vowel y, which was commonly used where i is now put,
occurs very frequently in all old books.
GENERAL RULES.
A vowel in the beginning or middle syllable, before two consonants, is
commonly short, as ŏppŏrtunity.
In monosyllables a single vowel before a single consonant is short; as
stag, frog.
Many is pronounced as if it were written manny.
* * * * *
OF CONSONANTS.
B.
B has one unvaried sound, such as it obtains in other languages.
It is mute in debt, debtor, subtle, doubt, lamb, limb, dumb, thumb, climb,
comb, womb.
It is used before l and r, as black, brown.
C.
C has before e and i the sound of s; as sincerely, centrick, century,
circular, cistern, city, siccity: before a, o, and u, it sounds like k, as
calm, concavity, copper, incorporate, curiosity, concupiscence.
C might be omitted in the language without loss, since one of its
sounds might be supplied by, s, and the other by k, but that it
preserves to the eye the etymology of words, as face from facies,
captive from captivus.
Ch has a sound which is analyzed into tsh, as church, chin, crutch. It is
the same sound which the Italians give to the c simple before i and e, as
citta, cerro.
Ch is sounded like k in words derived from the Greek, as chymist, scheme,
choler. Arch is commonly sounded ark before a vowel, as archangel, and with
the English sound of ch before a consonant, as archbishop.
Ch, in some French words not yet assimilated, sounds like sh, as
machine, chaise.
C, according to English orthography, never ends a word; therefore we
write stick, block, which were originally, sticke, blocke. In such
words c is now mute.
It is used before l and r, as clock, cross.
D.
Is uniform in its sound, as death, diligent.
It is used before r, as draw, dross; and w as dwell.
F.
F, though having a name beginning with a vowel, is numbered by the
grammarians among the semivowels, yet has this quality of a mute, that it
is commodiously sounded before a liquid, as flask, fry, freckle. It has an
unvariable sound, except that of is sometimes spoken nearly as ov.
G.
G has two sounds; one hard, as in gay, go, gun; the other soft, as in gem,
giant.
At the end of a word it is always hard, as ring, snug, song, frog.
Before e and i the sound is uncertain.
G before e is soft, as gem, generation, except in gear, geld, geese, get,
gewgaw, and derivatives from words ending in g, as singing, stronger, and
generally before er at the ends of words, as finger.
G is mute before n, as gnash, sign, foreign.
G before i is hard, as give, except in giant, gigantick, gibbet, gibe,
giblets, Giles, gill, gilliflower, gin, ginger, gingle, to which may be
added Egypt and gypsy.
Gh in the beginning of a word has the sound of the hard g, as ghostly; in
the middle, and sometimes at the end, it is quite silent, as though, right,
sought, spoken tho', rite, soute.
It has often at the end the sound of f, as laugh; whence laughter retains
the same sound in the middle; cough, trough, sough, tough, enough, slough.
It is not to be doubted, but that in the original pronunciation gh has
the force of a consonant deeply guttural, which is still continued
among the Scotch.
G is used before h, l, and r.
H.
H is a note of aspiration, and shows that the following vowel must be
pronounced with a strong emission of breath, as hat, horse.
It seldom begins any but the first syllable, in which it is always sounded
with a full breath, except in heir, herb, hostler, honour, humble, honest,
humour and their derivatives.
It sometimes begins middle or final syllables in words compounded, as
blockhead; or derived from the Latin, as comprehend.
J.
J consonant sounds uniformly like the soft g, and is therefore a letter
useless, except in etymology, as ejaculation, jester, jocund, juice.
K.
K has the sound of hard c, and is used before e and i, where, according to
English analogy, c would be soft, as kept, king, skirt, skeptick, for so it
should be written, not sceptick, because sc is sounded like s, as in scene.
It is used before n, as knell, knot, but totally loses its sound in
modern pronunciation.
K is never doubled; but c is used before it to shorten the vowel by a
double consonant, as cockle, pickle.
L.
L has in English the same liquid sound as in other languages.
The custom is to double the l at the end of monosyllables, as kill,
will, full. These words were originally written kille, wille, fulle;
and when the e first grew silent, and was afterward omitted, the ll was
retained, to give force, according to the analogy of our language, to
the foregoing vowel.
L, is sometimes mute, as in calf, half, halves, calves, could, would,
should, psalm, talk, salmon, falcon.
The Saxons, who delighted in guttural sounds, sometimes aspirated the l
at the beginning of words, as hlaf, a loaf, or bread; hlaford, a lord;
but this pronunciation is now disused.
Le at the end of words is pronounced like a weak el, in which the e is
almost mute, as table, shuttle.
M.
M has always the same sound, as murmur, monumental.
N.
N has always, the same sound, as noble, manners.
N is sometimes mute after m, as damn, condemn, hymn.
P.
P has always the same sound which the Welsh and Germans confound with b.
P is sometimes mute, as in psalm, and between m and t, as tempt.
Ph is used for f in words derived from the Greek, as philosopher,
philanthropy, Philip.
Q.
Q, as in other languages, is always followed by u, and has a sound which
our Saxon ancestors well expressed by cw, as quadrant, queen, equestrian,
quilt, inquiry, quire, quotidian. Qu is never followed by u.
Qu is sometimes sounded, in words derived from the French, like k, as
conquer, liquor, risque, chequer.
R.
R has the same rough snarling sound as in the other tongues.
The Saxons used often to put h before it, as before l at the beginning
of words.
Rh is used in words derived from the Greek, as myrrh, myrrhine,
catarrhous, rheum, rheumatick, rhyme.
Re, at the end of some words derived from the Latin or French, is
pronounced like a weak er, as theatre, sepulchre.
S.
S has a hissing sound, as sibilation, sister.
A single s seldom ends any word, except in the third person of verbs,
as loves, grows; and the plurals of nouns, as trees, bushes,
distresses; the pronouns this, his, ours, yours, us; the adverb thus;
and words derived from Latin, as rebus, surplus; the close being always
either in se, as house, horse, or in ss, as grass, dress, bliss, less,
anciently grasse, dresse.
S, single at the end of words, has a grosser sound, like that of z, as
trees, eyes, except this, thus, us, rebus, surplus.
It sounds like z before ion, if a vowel goes before it, as intrusion; and
like s, if it follows a consonant, as conversion.
It sounds like z before e mute, as refuse, and before y final, as rosy; and
in those words, bosom, desire, wisdom, prison, prisoner, present, present,
damsel, casement.
It is the peculiar quality of s, that it may be sounded before all
consonants, except x and z, in which s is comprised, x being only ks,
and z a hard or gross s. This s is therefore termed by grammarians suæ
potestatis litera; the reason of which the learned Dr. Clarke
erroneously supposed to be, that in some words it might be doubled at
pleasure. Thus we find in several languages.
Σβεννυμι, scatter, sdegno, sdrucciolo, sfavellare, σφιγξ, sgombrare,
sgranare, shake, slumber, smell, snipe, space, splendour, spring, squeeze,
shrew, step, strength, stramen, stripe, sventura, swell.
S is mute in isle, island, demesne, viscount.
T.
T has its customary sound; as take, temptation.
Ti before a vowel has the sound of si as salvation, except an s goes
before, as question; excepting likewise derivatives from words ending in
ty, as mighty, mightier.
Th has two sounds; the one soft, as thus, whether; the other hard, as
thing, think. The sound is soft in these words, then, thence, and there,
with their derivatives and compounds, and in that, these, thou, thee, thy,
thine, their, they, this, those, them, though, thus; and in all words
between two vowels, as, father, whether; and between r and a vowel, as
burthen.
In other words it is hard, as thick, thunder, faith, faithful. Where it is
softened at the end of a word, an e silent must be added, as breath,
breathe; cloth, clothe.
V.
V has a sound of near affinity to that of f, as vain, vanity.
From f in the Islandick alphabet, v is only distinguished by a
diacritical point.
W.
Of w, which in diphthongs is often an undoubted vowel, some grammarians
have doubted whether it ever be a consonant; and not rather as it is called
a double u, or ou, as water may be resolved into ouater; but letters of the
same sound are always reckoned consonants in other alphabets: and it may be
observed, that w follows a vowel without any hiatus or difficulty of
utterance, as frosty winter.
Wh has a sound accounted peculiar to the English, which the Saxons better
expressed by hw, as, what, whence, whiting; in whore only, and sometimes in
wholesome, wh is sounded like a simple h.
X.
X begins no English word: it has the sound of ks, as axle, extraneous.
Y.
Y, when it follows a consonant, is a vowel; when it precedes either a vowel
or a diphthong, is a consonant, as ye, young. It is thought by some to be
in all cases a vowel. But it may be observed of y as of w, that it follows
a vowel without any hiatus, as rosy youth.
The chief argument by which w and y appear to be always vowels is, that
the sounds which they are supposed to have as consonants, cannot be
uttered after a vowel, like that of all other consonants; thus we say
tu, ut; do, odd; but in wed, dew; the two sounds of w have no
resemblance to each other.
Z.
Z begins no word originally English; it has the sound, as its name izzard
or s hard expresses, of an s uttered with a closer compression of the
palate by the tongue, as freeze, froze.
In orthography I have supposed orthoepy, or just utterance of words, to
be included; orthography being only the art of expressing certain
sounds by proper characters. I have therefore observed in what words
any of the letters are mute.
Most of the writers of English grammar have given long tables of words
pronounced otherwise than they are written, and seem not sufficiently
to have considered, that of English, as of all living tongues, there is
a double pronunciation, one cursory and colloquial, the other regular
and solemn. The cursory pronunciation is always vague and uncertain,
being made different in different mouths by negligence, unskilfulness,
or affectation. The solemn pronunciation, though by no means immutable
and permanent, is yet always less remote from the orthography, and less
liable to capricious innovation. They have however generally formed
their tables according to the cursory speech of those with whom they
happened to converse; and concluding that the whole nation combines to
vitiate language in one manner, have often established the jargon of
the lowest of the people as the model of speech.
For pronunciation the best general rule is, to consider those as the
most elegant speakers who deviate least from the written words.
There have been many schemes offered for the emendation and settlement
of our orthography, which, like that of other nations, being formed by
chance, or according to the fancy of the earliest writers in rude ages,
was at first very various and uncertain, and is yet sufficiently
irregular. Of these reformers some have endeavoured to accommodate
orthography better to the pronunciation, without considering that this
is to measure by a shadow, to take that for a model or standard which
is changing while they apply it. Others, less absurdly indeed, but with
equal unlikelihood of success, have endeavoured to proportion the
number of letters to that of sounds, that every sound may have its own
character, and every character a single sound. Such would be the
orthography of a new language, to be formed by a synod of grammarians
upon principles of science. But who can hope to prevail on nations to
change their practice, and make all their old books useless? or what
advantage would a new orthography procure equivalent to the confusion
and perplexity of such an alteration?
Some ingenious men, indeed, have endeavoured to deserve well of their
country, by writing honor and labor for honour and labour, red for read
in the preter-tense, sais for says, repete tor repeat, explane for
explain, or declame for declaim. Of these it may be said, that as they
have done no good they have done little harm; both because they have
innovated little, and because few have followed them.
The English language has properly no dialects; the style of writers has
no professed diversity in the use of words, or of their flexions and
terminations, nor differs but by different degrees of skill or care.
The oral diction is uniform in no spacious country, but has less
variation in England than in most other nations of equal extent. The
language of the northern counties retains many words now out of use,
but which are commonly of the genuine Teutonick race, and is uttered
with a pronunciation which now seems harsh and rough, but was probably
used by our ancestors. The northern speech is therefore not barbarous,
but obsolete. The speech in the western provinces seems to differ from
the general diction rather by a depraved pronunciation, than by any
real difference which letters would express.
* * * * *
ETYMOLOGY.
Etymology teaches the deduction of one word from another, and the various
modifications by which the sense of the same word is diversified; as horse,
horses; I love, I loved.
Of the ARTICLE.
The English have two articles, an or a, and the.
AN, A.
A has an indefinite signification, and means one, with some reference to
more; as This is a good book; that is, one among the books that are good;
He was killed by a sword; that is, some sword; This is a better book for a
man than a boy; that is, for one of those that are men than one of those
that are boys; An army might enter without resistance; that is, any army.
In the senses in which we use a or an in the singular, we speak in the
plural without an article; as these are good books.
I have made an the original article, because it is only the Saxon an,
or æn, one, applied to a new use, as the German ein, and the French un;
the n being cut off before a consonant in the speed of utterance.
Grammarians of the last age direct, that an should be used before h; whence
it appears that the English anciently asperated less. An is still used
before the silent h; as an herb, an honest man; but otherwise a; as
A horse, a horse, my kingdom for a horse. Shakespeare.
An or a can only be joined with a singular: the correspondent plural is the
noun without an article, as, I want a pen, I want pens; or with the
pronominal adjective some, as, I want some pens.
THE.
The has a particular and definite signification.
The fruit
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste
Brought death into the world. Milton.
That is, that particular fruit, and this world in which we live. So, He
giveth fodder for the cattle, and green herbs for the use of man; that is,
for those beings that are cattle, and his use that is man.
The is used in both numbers.
I am as free as Nature first made man,
Ere the base laws of servitude began,
When wild in woods the noble savage ran. Dryden.
Many words are used without articles; as
1. Proper names, as John, Alexander, Longinus, Aristarchus, Jerusalem,
Athens, Rome, London. GOD is used as a proper name.
2. Abstract names, as blackness, witch-craft, virtue, vice, beauty,
ugliness, love, hatred, anger, good-nature, kindness.
3. Words in which nothing but the mere being of any thing is implied: This
is not beer, but water; this is not brass, but steel.
* * * * *
Of NOUNS SUBSTANTIVE.
The relations of English nouns to words going before or following are not
expressed by cases, or changes of termination, but, as in most of the other
European languages, by prepositions, unless we may be said to have a
genitive case.
Singular.
Nom. Magister, a Master, the Master.
Gen. Magistri, of a Master, of the Master,
or Master's, the Master's.
Dat. Magistro, to a Master, to the Master.
Acc. Magistrum, a Master, the Master.
Voc. Magister, Master, O Master.
Abl. Magistro, from a Master, from the Master.
Plural.
Nom. Magistri, Masters, the Masters.
Gen. Magistrorum, of Masters, of the Masters.
Dat. Magistris, to Masters, to the Masters.
Acc. Magistros, Masters, the Masters.
Voc. Magistri, Masters, O Masters.
Abl. Magistris, from Masters, from the Masters.
Our nouns are therefore only declined thus:
Master, Gen. Master's. Plur. Masters.
Scholar, Gen. Scholar's. Plur. Scholars.
These genitives are always written with a mark of elision, master's,
scholar's, according to an opinion long received, that the 's is a
contraction of his, as the soldier's valour, for the soldier his
valour: but this cannot be the true original, because 's is put to
female nouns, Woman's beauty; the Virgin's delicacy; Haughty Juno's
unrelenting hate; and collective nouns, as Women's passions; the
rabble's insolence; the multitude's folly: in all these cases it is
apparent that his cannot be understood. We say likewise the
foundation's strength; the diamond's lustre; the winter's severity: but
in these cases his may be understood, he and his having formerly been
applied to neuters in the place now supplied by it and its.
The learned and sagacious Wallis, to whom every English grammarian owes
a tribute of reverence, calls this modification of the noun an
adjective possessive; I think with no more propriety than he might have
applied the same to the genitive in equitum decus, Trojæ oris, or any
other Latin genitive. Dr. Lowth, on the other part, supposes the
possessive pronouns mine and thine to be genitive cases.
This termination of the noun seems to constitute a real genitive
indicating possession. It is derived to us from the Saxon's who
declined smith, a smith; Gen. smither, of a smith; Plur. smither or
smithar, smiths; and so in two other of their seven declensions.
It is a further confirmation of this opinion, that in the old poets
both the genitive and plural were longer by a syllable than the
original word: knitis for knight's, in Chaucer; leavis for leaves, in
Spenser.
When a word ends in s, the genitive may be the same with the
nominative, as Venus temple.
The plural is formed by adding s, as table, tables; fly, flies; sister,
sisters; wood, woods; or es where s could not otherwise be sounded, as
after ch, s, sh, x, z; after c sounded like s, and g like j; the mute e is
vocal before s, as lance, lances; outrage, outrages.
The formation of the plural and genitive singular is the same.
A few words still make the plural in n, as men, women, oxen, swine, and
more anciently eyen, shoon. This formation is that which generally
prevails in the Teutonick dialects.
Words that end in f commonly form their plural by ves, as loaf, loaves;
calf, calves.
Except a few, muff, muffs; chief, chiefs. So hoof, roof, proof, relief,
mischief, puff, cuff, dwarf, handkerchief, grief.
Irregular plurals are teeth from tooth, lice from louse, mice from
mouse, geese from goose, feet from foot, dice from die, pence from
penny, brethren from brother, children from child.
Plurals ending in s have no genitives; but we say, Womens excellencies, and
Weigh the mens wits against the ladies hairs.
Dr. Willis thinks the Lords' house may he said for the house of Lords;
but such phrases are not now in use; and surely an English ear rebels
against them. They would commonly produce a troublesome ambiguity, as
the Lord's house may be the house of Lords, or the house of a Lord.
Besides that the mark of elision is improper, for in the Lords' house
nothing is cut off.
Some English substantives, like those of many other languages, change
their termination as they express different sexes; as prince, princess;
actor, actress; lion, lioness; hero, heroine. To these mentioned by Dr.
Lowth may be added arbitress, poetess, chauntress, duchess, tigress,
governess, tutress, peeress, authoress, traytress, and perhaps othets.
Of these variable terminations we have only a sufficient number to make
us feel our want; for when we say of a woman that she is a philosopher,
an astronomer, a builder, a weaver, a dancer, we perceive an
impropriety in the termination which we cannot avoid; but we can say
that she is an architect, a botanist, a student. because these
terminations have not annexed to them the notion of sex. In words which
the necessities of life are often requiring, the sex is distinguished
not by different terminations but by different names, as a bull, a cow;
a horse, a mare; equus, equa; a cock, a hen; and sometimes by pronouns
prefixed, as a he-goat, a, she-goat.
* * * * *
Of ADJECTIVES.
Adjectives in the English language are wholly indeclinable; having neither
case, gender, nor number, and being added to substantives in all relations
without any change; as, a good woman, good women, of a good woman; a good
man, good men, of good men.
The Comparison of Adjectives.
The comparative degree of adjectives is formed by adding er, the
superlative by adding est, to the positive; as, fair, fairer, fairest;
lovely, lovelier, loveliest; sweet, sweeter, sweetest; low, lower, lowest;
high, higher, highest.
Some words are irregularly compared; as, good, better, best; bad, worse,
worst; little, less, least; near, nearer, next; much, more, most; many (for
moe), more (for moer) most (for moest); late, later, latest or last.
Some comparatives form a superlative by adding, most, as nether,
nethermost; outer, outermost; under, undermost; up, upper, uppermost; fore,
former, foremost.
Most is sometimes added to a substantive, as, topmost, southmost.
Many adjectives do not admit of comparison by terminations, and are only
compared by more and most, as, benevolent, more benevolent, most
benevolent.
All adjectives may be compared by more and most, even when they have
comparatives and superlatives regularly formed; as, fair, fairer, or more
fair; fairest, or most fair.
In adjectives that admit a regular comparison, the comparative more is
oftener used than the superlative most, as more fair is oftener written
for fairer, than most fair for fairest.
The comparison of adjectives is very uncertain; and being much regulated by
commodiousness of utterance, or agreeableness of sound, is not easily
reduced to rules.
Monosyllables are commonly compared.
Polysyllables, or words of more than two syllables, are seldom compared
otherwise than by more and most, as, deplorable, more deplorable, most
deplorable.
Dissyllables are seldom compared if they terminate in some, as fulsome,
toilsome; in ful, as, careful, spleenful, dreadful; in ing, as trifling,
charming; in ous, as porous; in less, as, careless, harmless; in ed, as
wretched; in id, as candid; in al, as mortal; in ent, as recent, fervent;
in ain, as certain; in ive, as missive; in dy, as woody; in fy, as puffy;
in ky, as rocky, except lucky; in my, as roomy; in ny, as skinny; in py, as
ropy, except happy; in ry, as hoary.
Some comparatives and superlatives are yet found in good writers formed
without regard to the foregoing rules; but in a language subjected so
little and so lately to grammar, such anomalies must frequently occur.
So shady is compared by Milton.
She in shadiest covert hid,
Tun'd her nocturnal note. Par. Lost.
And virtuous.
What she wills to say or do,
Seems wisest, virtuousest, discreetest, best. Par. Lost.
So trifling by Ray, who is indeed of no great authority.
It is not so decorous, in respect of God, that he should immediately do
all the meanest and triflingest things himself, without making use of
any inferior or subordinate minister. Ray on the Creation.
Famous, by Milton.
I shall be nam'd among the famousest
Of women, sung at solemn festivals. Milton's Agonistes.
Inventive, by Ascham.
Those have the inventivest heads for all purposes, and roundest tongues
in all matters. Ascham's Schoolmaster.
Mortal, by Bacon.
The mortalest poisons practised by the West Indians, have some mixture
of the blood, fat, or flesh of man. Bacon.
Natural, by Wotton.
I will now deliver a few of the properest and naturalest considerations
that belong to this piece. Wotton's Architecture.
Wretched, by Jonson.
The wretcheder are the contemners of all helps; such as presuming on
their own naturals, deride diligence, and mock at terms when they
understand not things. Ben Jonson.
Powerful, by Milton.
We have sustain'd one day in doubtful fight,
What heav'n's great king hath pow'rfullest to send
Against us from about his throne. Par. Lost.
The termination in ish may be accounted in some sort a degree of
comparison, by which the signification is diminished below the
positive, as black, blackish, or tending to blackness; salt, saltish,
or having a little taste of salt; they therefore admit no comparison.
This termination is seldom added but to words expressing sensible
qualities, nor often to words of above one syllable, and is scarcely
used in the solemn or sublime style.
* * * * *
Of PRONOUNS.
Pronouns, in the English language, are, I, thou, he, with their plurals,
we, ye, they; it, who, which, what, whether, whosoever, whatsoever, my,
mine, our, ours, thy, thine, your, yours, his, her, hers, theirs, this,
that, other, another, the same, some.
The pronouns personal are irregularly inflected.
Singular. Plural.
Nom. I, We.
Accus. and Me, Us.
other oblique
cases.
Nom. Thou, Ye.
Oblique. Thee, You.
You is commonly used in modern writers for ye, particularly in the language
of ceremony, where the second person plural is used for the second person
singular, You are my friend.
Singular. Plural.
Nom. He, They, Applied to masculines.
Oblique. Him, Them.
Nom. She, They, Applied to feminines.
Oblique. Her, Them.
Nom. It, They, Applied to neuters or things.
Oblique. Its, Them.
For it the practice of ancient writers was to use he, and for its, his.
The possessive pronouns, like other adjectives, are without cases or change
of termination.
The possessive of the first person is my, mine, our, ours; of the second,
thy, thine, your, yours; of the third, from he, his; from she, her, and
hers; and in the plural, their, theirs, for both sexes.
Ours, yours, hers, theirs, are used when the substantive preceding is
separated by a verb, as These are our books. These books are ours. Your
children excel ours in stature, but ours surpass yours in learning.
Ours, yours, hers, theirs, notwithstanding their seeming plural
termination, are applied equally to singular and plural substantives,
as, This book is ours. These books are ours.
Mine and thine were formerly used before a vowel, as mine amiable lady:
which though now disused in prose, might be still properly continued in
poetry: they are used as ours and yours, when they are referred to a
substantive preceding, as thy house is larger than mine, but my garden
is more spacious than thine.
Their and theirs are the possessives likewise of they, when they is the
plural of it, and are therefore applied to things.
Pronouns relative are, who, which, what, whether, whosoever, whatsoever.
Nom. Who.
Gen. Whose.
Other oblique cases. Whom.
Nom. Which.
Gen. Of which, or whose.
Other oblique cases. Which.
Who is now used in relation to persons, and which in relation to
things; but they were anciently confounded. At least it was common to
say, the man which, though I remember no example of the thing who.
Whose is rather the poetical than regular genitive of which.
The fruit
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste
Brought death into the world. Milton.
Whether is only used in the nominative and accusative cases; and has no
plural, being applied only to one of a number, commonly to one of two, as
Whether of these is left I know not. Whether shall I choose? It is now
almost obsolete.
What, whether relative or interrogative, is without variation.
Whosoever, whatsoever, being compounded of who or what, and soever, follow
the rule of their primitives.
Singular. Plural.
This These
In all cases. That Those.
Other, Others.
Whether.
The plural others is not used but when it is referred to a substantive
preceding, as I have sent other horses. I have not sent the same
horses, but others.
Another, being only an other, has no plural.
Here, there, and where, joined with certain particles, have a relative and
pronominal use. Hereof, herein, hereby, hereafter, herewith, thereof,
therein, thereby, thereupon, therewith, whereof, wherein, whereby,
whereupon, wherewith, which signify, of this, in this, &c. of that, in
that, &c. of which, in which, &c.
Therefore and wherefore, which are properly there for and where for, for
that, for which, are now reckoned conjunctions, and continued in use. The
rest seem to be passing by degrees into neglect, though proper, useful, and
analogous. They are referred both to singular and plural antecedents.
There are two more words used only in conjunction with pronouns, own and
self.
Own is added to possessives, both singular and plural, as my own hand, our
own house. It is emphatical, and implies a silent contrariety, or
opposition; as, I live in my own house, that is, not in a hired house. This
I did with my own hand, that is, without help or not by proxy.
Self is added to possessives, as myself, yourselves; and sometimes to
personal pronouns, as himself, itself, themselves. It then, like own,
expresses emphasis and opposition, as I did this myself, that is, not
another; or it forms a reciprocal pronoun, as We hurt ourselves by vain
rage.
Himself, itself, themselves, are supposed by Wallis to be put by
corruption, for his self, it self, their selves; so that self is always
a substantive. This seems justly observed, for we say, He came himself;
Himself shall do this; where himself cannot be an accusative.
* * * * *
Of the VERB.
English verbs are active, as I love; or neuter, as I languish. The neuters
are formed like the actives.
Most verbs signifying action may likewise signify condition or habit,
and become neuters; as I love, I am in love; I strike, I am now
striking.
Verbs have only two tenses inflected in their terminations, the present,
and simple preterit; the other tenses are compounded of the auxiliary
verbs, have, shall, will, let, may, can, and the infinitive of the active
or neuter verb.
The passive voice is formed by joining the participle preterit to the
substantive verb, as I am loved.
To have. Indicative Mood.
Present Tense.
Sing. I have, thou hast, he hath or has,
Plur. We have, ye have, they have.
Has is a termination connoted from hath, but now more frequently used
both in verse and prose.
Simple Preterit.
Sing. I had, thou hadst, he had
Plur. We had, ye had, they had.
Compound Preterit.
Sing. I have had, thou hast had, he has or hath had;
Plur. We have had, ye have had, they have had.
Preterpluperfect.
Sing. I had had, thou hadst had, he had had.
Plur. We had had, ye had had, they had had.
Future.
Sing. I shall have, thou shalt have, he shall have;
Plur. We shall have, ye shall have, they shall have.
Second Future.
Sing. I will have, thou wilt have, he will have;
Plur. We will have, ye wilt have, they will have.
By reading these future tenses may be observed the variations of shall
and will.
Imperative Mood.
Sing. Have, or have thou, let him have;
Plur. Let us have, have or have ye, let them have.
Conjunctive Mood.
Present.
Sing. I have, thou have, he have;
Plur. We have, ye have, they have.
Preterit simple as in the Indicative.
Preterit compound.
Sing. I have had, thou have had, he have had;
Plur. We have had, ye have had, they have had.
Future.
Sing. I shall have, as in the Indicative.
Second Future.
Sing. I shall have had, thou shalt have had, he shall have had;
Plur. We shall have had, ye shall have had, they shall have had.
Potential.
The potential form of speaking is expressed by may, can, in the present;
and might, could, or should, in the preterit, joined with the infinitive
mood of the verb.
Present.
Sing. I may have, thou mayst have, he may have;
Plur. We may have, ye may have, they may have.
Preterit.
Sing. I might have, thou mightst have, he might have;
Plur. We might have, ye might have, they might have.
Present.
Sing. I can have, thou canst have, he can have;
Plur. We can have, ye can have, they can have.
Preterit.
Sing. I could have, thou couldst have, he could have;
Plur. We could have, ye could have, they could have.
In like manner should is united to the verb.
There is likewise a double Preterit.
Sing. I should have had, thou shouldst have had, he should have had;
Plur. We should have had, ye should have had, they should have had.
In like manner we use, I might have had; I could have had, &c.
Infinitive Mood.
Present. To have.
Preterit. To have had.
Participle present. Having.
Participle preterit. Had.
Verb Active. To love.
Indicative. Present.
Sing. I love, thou lovest, he loveth or loves;
Plur. We love, ye love, they love.
Preterit simple.
Sing. I loved, thou lovedst, he loved;
Plur. We loved, ye loved, they loved.
Preterperfect compound. I have loved, &c.
Preterpluperfect. I had loved, &c.
Future. I shall love, &c. I will love, &c.
Imperative.
Sing. Love or love thou, let him love;
Plur. Let us love, love or love ye, let them love.
Conjunctive. Present.
Sing. I love, thou love, he love;
Plur. We love, ye love, they love.
Preterit simple, as in the indicative.
Preterit compound. I have loved, &c.
Future. I shall love, &c.
Second Future. I shall have loved, &c.
Potential.
Present. I may or can love, &c.
Preterit. I might, could, or should love, &c.
Double Preterit. I might, could, or should have
loved, &c.
Infinitive.
Present. To love.
Preterit. To have loved.
Participle present. Loving.
Participle past. Loved.
The passive is formed by the addition of the participle preterit to the
different tenses of the verb to be, which must therefore be here exhibited.
Indicative. Present.
Sing. I am, thou art, he is;
Plur. We are or be, ye are or be, they are or be.
The plural be is now little in use.
Preterit.
Sing. I was, thou wast or wert, he was;
Plur. We were, ye were, they were.
Wert is properly of the conjunctive mood, and ought not to be used in the
indicative.
Preterit compound. I have been, &c.
Preterpluperfect. I had been, &c.
Future. I shall or will be, &c.
Imperative.
Sing. Be thou; let him be;
Plur. Let us be; be ye; let them be.
Conjunctive. Present.
Sing. I be, thou beest, he be;
Plur. We be, ye be, they be.
Preterit.
Sing. I were, thou wert, he were;
Plur. We were, ye were, they were.
Preterit compound. I have been, &c.
Future. I shall have been, &c.
Potential.
I may or can; would, could, or should be; could,
would, or should have been, &c.
Infinitive.
Present. To be.
Preterit. To have been.
Participle present. Being.
Participle preterit. Having been.
Passive Voice. Indicative Mood.
I am loved, &c. I was loved, &c. I have been
loved, &c.
Conjunctive Mood.
If I be loved, &c. If I were loved, &c. If I shall
have been loved, &c.
Potential Mood.
I may or can be loved, &c. I might, could, or
should be loved, &c. I might, could, or should
have been loved, &c.
Infinitive.
Present. To be loved.
Preterit. To have been loved.
Participle. Loved.
There is another form of English verbs, in which the infinitive mood is
joined to the verb do in its various inflections, which are therefore to be
learned in this place.
To do.
Indicative. Present.
Sing. I do, thou dost, he doth;
Plur. We do, ye do, they do.
Preterit.
Sing. I did, thou didst, he did;
Plur. We did, ye did, they did.
Preterit., &c. I have done, &c. I had done, &c.
Future. I shall or will do, &c.
Imperative.
Sing. Do thou, let him do;
Plur. Let us do, do ye, let them do.
Conjunctive. Present.
Sing. I do, thou do, he do;
Plur. We do, ye do, they do.
The rest are as in the Indicative.
Infinite. To do, to have done.
Participle present. Doing.
Participle preterit. Done.
Do is sometimes used superfluously, as I do love, I did love; simply for I
love, or I loved; but this is considered as a vitious mode of speech.
It is sometimes used emphatically; as,
I do love thee, and when I love thee not,
Chaos is come again. Shakespeare.
It is frequently joined with a negative; as, I like her, but I do not love
her; I wished him success, but did not help him. This, by custom at least,
appears more easy than the other form of expressing the same sense by a
negative adverb after the verb, I like her, but love her not.
The imperative prohibitory is seldom applied in the second person, at least
in prose, without the word do; as, Stop him, but do not hurt him; Praise
beauty, but do not dote on it.
Its chief use is in interrogative forms of speech, in which it is used
through all the persons; as, Do I live? Dost thou strike me? Do they rebel?
Did I complain? Didst thou love her? Did she die? So likewise in negative
interrogations; Do I not yet grieve? Did she not die?
Do and did are thus used only for the present and simple preterit.
There is another manner of conjugating neuter verbs, which, when it is
used, may not improperly denominate them neuter passives, as they are
inflected according to the passive form by the help of the verb substantive
to be. They answer nearly to the reciprocal verbs in French; as, I am
risen, surrexi, Latin; Je me suis levé, French. I was walked out, exieram:
Je m'étois promené.
In like manner we commonly express the present tense; as, I am going, eo. I
am grieving, doleo, She is dying, illa moritur. The tempest is raging,
furit procella. I am pursuing an enemy, hostem insequor. So the other
tenses, as, We were walking, ετυγχανομεν περιπατουντες, I have been
walking, I had been walking, I shall or will be walking.
There is another manner of using the active participle, which gives it a
passive signification: as, The grammar is now printing, grammatica jam nunc
chartis imprimitur. The brass is forging, ara excuduntur. This is, in my
opinion, a vitious expression, probably corrupted from a phrase more pure,
but now somewhat obsolete: The book is a printing, The brass is a forging;
a being properly at, and printing and forging verbal nouns signifying
action, according to the analogy of this language.