CHAPTER V.

PUNCTUATION.

Printers and proof-readers are to take for granted, that, in every

work which falls under their supervision, the proper agreement between

thought and expression has been effected by the author. He alone has

the right to change the words and their collocation; and, if fairly

punctuated, the manuscript should be closely followed, word for word,

and point for point.

Every person who writes for the press should punctuate his work

presentably; but—since the majority of writers are inattentive to

punctuation—custom and convenience, if not necessity, have thrown upon

the compositor and proof-reader the task of inserting in their proper

places the grammatical points, and such other points and marks as shall

assist a reader in obtaining a ready apprehension of the author’s

meaning. These are the period (.), the colon (:), the semicolon (;),

the comma (,), the note of interrogation (?), the note of exclamation

(!), the parenthesis ( ), and the dash (—).

Besides these principal characters, there are other marks and signs

used in writing and printing,—the hyphen (‐), the apostrophe (’), and

others; all which may be found in the concluding division of {p72}

this chapter, numbered VIII., and should be referred to as occasion

may require.

Books which treat of English grammar speak of four of the points

in common use—to wit, the period, the colon, the semicolon, and

the comma—as “grammatical” points; while the dash, the note of

interrogation, the note of exclamation, and the parenthesis are

classified as “rhetorical,”—being used to indicate various effects

produced in conversation by changes in the tone of the voice. But as

“English grammar is the art of speaking and writing [or printing] the

English language with propriety,” and as all points and marks in the

printer’s case are necessary to printing with propriety, it is not

essential in this work to make the distinctions alluded to above. Nor

shall we treat at length, if at all, of technical marks not in common

use; as, for instance, signs used in algebra and chemistry, and in

various arts and sciences. These can be referred to, should occasion

require, in handbooks, and in Webster’s Dictionary, pp. 1864–68, or in

Worcester’s, pp. 1773–75.

Our school-books used to tell us, that at the period we should stop

long enough to count four; at the colon, three; at the semicolon,

two; at the comma, one. But pauses vary in length, as readers and

speakers wish to affect or impress their hearers: hence reporters of

speeches and orations sometimes—finding ordinary points and marks

insufficient—insert, in brackets, some comment indicating that there

was a pause made which outreached the time {p73} allowed for an

ordinary period. We listened in April, 1861, to a speech by Wendell

Phillips, in which, at the close of one sentence, the orator paused

long enough to count ten or twelve; the reporters at that place

inserted in brackets the words “[An impressive pause].”⁠[7] To denote

by distinctive characters every possible length of pause would require

an infinitude of signs, types, and cases. We must therefore do the

best we can with the few points now in use, leaving much to the taste

of authors, printers, and readers. Still, the immense advantage

modern students have over those of ancient times is made obvious

by a comparison of antique and modern writings,—for punctuation is

comparatively a modern affair, whose origin and changes it will be both

useful and interesting to trace,—and in doing this, we shall endeavor

to avoid the charge of prolixity, by condensing into brief space

information gained from a variety of sources.

[7] “There is only one thing those cannon shot in the harbor of

Charleston settle,—that there never can be a compromise. . . . During

these long and weary weeks we have waited to hear the Northern

conscience assert its purpose. It comes at last. [An impressive

pause.] Massachusetts blood has consecrated the pavements of

Baltimore, and those stones are now too sacred to be trodden by

slaves.”

The most ancient Greek manuscript known is among the papyri of the

Louvre. It is a work on astronomy, and is indorsed with deeds of 165

and 164 B.C. This has “a certain sort of separation of words.” In

a copy of Homer, written B.C., a wedge-shaped sign > is inserted

“between the beginnings of {p74} lines” to mark a new passage. But even

these marks were soon lost sight of; subsequent Greek and Latin writing

runs on continuously without distinction of words. In the fifth century

of our era, the fourth verse of the Second Epistle of John was thus

written:

τεκνωνσουπεριπατουν

τασεναληθειακαθωσεντο

ληνελαβομεναποτουπρς (The πρς a contraction for πατρος.)

In Greek MSS. this method continued until the fourteenth century.

HOWTHEANCIENTSREADTHEIRWORKSWRITTENIN

THISMANNERITISNOTEASYTOCONCEIVE

St. Jerome (A.D. 324–420) wrote a Latin version of the Bible—“the

foundation of the Vulgate”—“per _cola_ et _commata_”; not with colons

and commas as we understand those words, but by a stichometric

arrangement,—dividing the text into short sentences or lines, according

to the sense, chiefly with a view to a better understanding of the

meaning, and a better delivery in public reading. It is not until the

latter part of the seventh century that there is some separation of

words in Latin MSS. In the later Latin (eighth century) the full point

in various positions was introduced,—being placed on a level with the

top, bottom, or middle of the letters,—as the students of “Andrews and

Stoddard” are well aware. In still later MSS. in small letter, the full

point on the line or high was first used; then the comma and {p75}

semicolon; and the inverted semicolon (؛), whose power was stronger

than the comma.

In early Irish and English MSS., separation of words is quite

consistently followed; and in these the common mark of punctuation was

the full point, while to denote the final stop or period one or two

points with a comma (..,) were used.

Contractions were much used in ancient MSS. to save time and labor.

Some of these were denoted by a semicolon ; as b; = bus; q; = que; vi;

= videlicet,—this character, in cursive writing, readily became a _z_,

whence we have our viz = videlicet.

The Roman numerals in ancient texts were placed between full points;

e.g., .CXL., to prevent confusion.

Punctuation remained very uncertain until the end of the fifteenth

century, when the Manutii, three generations of printers,—the

elder (1450–1515) the most learned, skillful, and energetic of the

three,—increased the number of points, and made rules for their

application; and these were so generally adopted, that Aldus Manutius

and his son and grandson may be considered inventors of the present

system of punctuation, notwithstanding it has been changed, and perhaps

improved upon, since their time,—notably in the use of the colon.

But scholars differ so widely in some respects as to the insertion

of commas, as well as other points, that not many rules are as yet

absolutely fixed.

Modern writers tell us that “points are used to mark the _sense_

rather than the _pauses_.” We would {p76} substitute “as well as”

for “rather.” In writing from dictation we place points where the

_dictator_ makes pauses; and in reading we make pauses where the writer

has put the points. For example, note the difference in sense and

pause, according as the comma is placed before or after “to the end,”

in the following sentence:

I have advised the Attorney-General to read this letter to the end,

that he may see precisely how this matter will affect public interest.

I have advised the Attorney-General to read this letter, to the end

that he may see precisely how this matter will affect public interest.

Murray’s large octavo English Grammar and countless common-school

grammars, from Murray’s time to the present day, contain rules for

aiding students and writers to decide where points, and what points,

should be placed. These are of great utility, and every young person

should familiarize himself with them as found, briefly stated, in books

now in use. It should be borne in mind, however, that a close and

slavish adherence to stated forms, without ascertaining their bearings

in individual cases, tends to becloud the judgment, and may cause

an author’s meaning to be obscured, or even concealed, rather than

elucidated.

In books issued by different houses will be found great diversity in

the manner of pointing similar and even the same sentences; and some

part of what we have called “style” results from the effort of a {p77}

house to be consistent with itself, and to establish a uniformity

among its own issues.

The rules given in this chapter, and the observations accompanying

them, are mainly the results of our own training and experience as

compositor and proof-reader at different periods, covering in the

aggregate more than twenty years. To bring out by punctuation the

sense of difficult and involved sentences—which are of frequent

occurrence—requires close attention and careful study,—attention not

the less close, nor study the less careful, because prompted by the

necessity of immediate practical application.

As all rules suitable to guide human conduct lie folded up in the

golden rule, so all rules for pointing sentences are embraced in

this: Punctuate so as to bring out the author’s meaning. And by their

consonance with this great rule all special rules must be judged. Yet

in this, as in all other matters, men disagree in their judgments; and

we must be content in our diversities, until the academy desiderated by

the “Spectator” shall have become an actual institution, invested with

a _quasi_ grammatical infallibility.

For instance, as to placing a comma between a nominative phrase or

sentence and the predicate, the best authorities differ. Wilson’s rule

is,—

“No point or pause-mark is admissible between the subject or

nominative and the predicate, . . . .”

The “Practical Grammar,” by S. W. Clark, A.M., published by A. S.

Barnes & Co., New York, gives the following rule: {p78}

“A phrase or sentence used as the subject of a verb, requires a comma

between it and the verb.”

Of course the examples under the rule exhibit a corresponding

difference.

“To be totally indifferent to praise or censure is a real defect in

character.”—_Wilson._

“To do good to others, constitutes an important object of

existence.”—_Clark._

Ingersoll’s Grammar (Portland, 1828) and Kerl’s—which last is now

very extensively used—agree with Clark. Both have the same example as

Wilson, but pointed as follows:—

“To be totally indifferent to praise or censure, is a real defect in

character.”

Goold Brown (Grammar of Grammars) inserts the comma. Cobbett’s Grammar

omits it.

Take up the first dozen books that come to hand, and you will find

diversity of practice.

“The influences which Atterbury had fostered long lingered in the

precincts.”—_Stanley’s Westminster Abbey._

“The distinction between transcendental and transcendent, is observed

by our elder divines and philosophers.”—_Coleridge’s Biographia._

“The interruption of friendly relations between England and Spain was

the fault . . . of the Emperor.”—_Froude’s England._

The better method is to omit the comma, except in those cases where

its insertion would prevent ambiguity; as in the quotation above, from

Stanley, where there should have been a comma after “fostered”; {p79}

as it stands, the word “long” may qualify either the word before or

after it.

So, if you examine any number of volumes with reference to placing a

comma before _and_, _or_, or _nor_, when three or more words, in the

same category, are connected,—in some you will find “Faith, and hope,

and charity”; in others, “Faith and hope and charity.” We have just met

with the following lines in a well-known paper:

“Round and round the atoms fly,

Turf, and stone, and sea, and sky.”

Wilson’s example is (p. 38),—

“Let us freely drink in the soul of love and beauty and

wisdom from all nature and art and history.”

In view of these and similar differences of practice, and contradiction

of rules, one is tempted to say that it is of no moment whether the

commas are inserted or not. But, leaving “style” out of the question,

a proof-reader should endeavor to have a reason for every omission

he allows, and for every insertion he makes. We advise him, then, in

the first place to note which method seems required by the golden

rule of elucidating the meaning; then consider, further, if the

sentence already contains commas, whether inserting more would offend

the eye. Let him decide each case on its own merits; leaning, when

in doubt, in favor of such grammatical rule as he may have adopted.

But use judgment; for the most precise grammarians lay down pages of

exceptions; and Cobbett (Grammar, Letter XIV.) cannot be gainsaid when

{p80} he writes, “It is evident, that, in many cases, the use of the

comma must depend upon taste.”

When a phrase or clause, in its nature parenthetic, is quite closely

connected with the parts of the sentence in which it is placed, the

insertion of the comma before and after such phrase or clause “must

depend upon taste.” The former comma especially, may often be omitted

(see Obs. 10, under Rule 16, _post_). If the commas are inserted, we

have a specimen of what is called “close pointing”; if omitted, we have

“liberal pointing.”

Close pointing prevails in almost all publications except law-work,

and in all doubtful cases puts in the comma. Liberal pointing, on the

other hand, omits the points except when absolutely necessary to avoid

ambiguity.

A middle course, retaining the spirit rather than adhering to the

letter of the rules, will be found the safest. When, as will often

be the case, a passage occurs, the meaning of which varies with the

insertion or omission of a comma, while it would be grammatical either

way, the compositor should _follow the copy_; the proof-reader should

mark the passages with his quære; but if he first notices the fault

when reading the press-proof, he should suffer it to stand as the

author left it, letting all responsibility remain where it rightfully

belongs.

Abbreviated words, besides the period denoting their abbreviation,

require the same pointing as if they were spelled in full. Thus “Jno.

Smith, Esq., of Worcester; Abel Soane, M.D.; and James Doe, {p81}

LL.D.,—were appointed a comm. to take care of books, docs., etc.,

etc.,” has the same pointing as “John Smith, Esquire, of Worcester;

Abel Soane, Doctor of Medicine; and James Doe, Doctor of Laws,—were

appointed a committee to take care of books, documents, and so forth,

and so forth.” But in some classes of work, as Directories, Catalogues

of books, Genealogies, and where titles and abbreviations are of

frequent occurrence, double pointing may be partially avoided by

omitting the comma after a period which denotes an abbreviation.

Neatness requires the omission of the comma before leaders; thus,

John Roe . . . . . . . . New Orleans.

James Doe. . . . . . . . San Francisco.

is more pleasing to the eye than

John Roe, . . . . . . . . New Orleans.

James Doe,  . . . . . . . San Francisco.

Preambles to resolutions and laws are usually begun with “Whereas.”

After this word a comma is sometimes heedlessly inserted, although the

introductory word is not followed by a parenthetic clause. We append

the most improved forms for punctuating and capitalizing preambles,

resolves, and provisos:

Whereas the present national interest in the matter of the American

fisheries has, &c.—_Cong. Record, July, 11, 1888._

Whereas, owing to the sudden demise of the secretary, no notice was

given of the receipts of the plans, etc.:

_Resolved_, That the whole matter be referred to a committee:

_Provided_, [or _Provided however_,] That the whole expense shall not

exceed, etc. {p82}

The semicolon should be placed before _as_, in an enumeration of

particulars following a general statement; thus:

Many proper names admit of convenient contractions; as Jno., Wm.,

Benj., Jas., Chas.

But when _as_ is not preceded by a general or formal statement, no

point is necessary unless _as_ is followed by a parenthetic clause; as:

Such names as John, Benjamin, William, admit of convenient

contractions.

Some fishes, as, for instance, the cod, delight in cold baths, and are

never found in water above 40° Fahr., unless in care of the cook.

But in liberal pointing, the commas before and after “for instance”

would be omitted.

In regard to the points or marks connected with “viz.,” “namely,”

and “to wit,” the punctuation varies according to the structure

of the sentences in which they occur; but this does not prevent a

publishing-house from having a style of its own. It is interesting to

note the varieties which different offices present. We annex a few

examples, which may be serviceable; to wit:

“Sussex Co., Del., July 5, 1776. We are sorry to say, that it is

our opinion that they (viz: the enemies of the war) are not better

affected than they were before the troops came.”—_Am. Archives_, 5th

series, Vol. 1, p. 10.

I never depended on him for any men, or for any participation in the

Georgia Campaign. Soon after, viz., May 8th, that department was

transferred, etc.—_Memoirs Gen. Sherman._ {p83}

There is one case in which it is never right to do this; viz., when

the opposite party, etc.—_Cavendish’s style._

The library is open every secular day throughout the year, except the

legal holidays, viz.,—Washington’s Birthday, Fast Day, Decoration Day,

Fourth of July, Labor Day, Thanksgiving, and Christmas.—_Brookline,

Mass., Pub. Lib. Report, 1887._

Seven of the bishops lived to be over 80—viz. Llandaff 84, Winchester

84, etc.—_Nineteenth Century, March, ’88._

Woburn has a population of about 12,000, grouped at four principal

centers: namely, Woburn Centre, about 8000, etc.—_Mass. Drainage Comm._

The Dawes bill deals with two subjects only, namely, the ownership of

land and citizenship.—_N. A. Review, March, ’88._

This, then, is the upshot of the second part of the law, namely: (1)

that all to whom land is patented become at once citizens of the

United States; (2) that all, etc.—_ib._

There are four seasons, namely: spring, summer, autumn, winter.

Four administrative areas are thus created: two primary areas—namely,

counties at large, and boroughs of 100,000 inhabitants and

upwards.—_Nineteenth Century Maga._

Annapolis, June 25, 1776. That four battalions be instantly raised

. . . . each company to consist of ninety men, to wit: one captain,

two lieutenants, etc.—_Am. Archives._

When _viz._ or _namely_ or _as follows_ ends a paragraph, the colon

is commonly inserted; but the dash or comma-dash or colon-dash may

sometimes be noticed,—it is a matter of office style. (See Punctuation,

Rule 8, _post_.)

But if, referring to a succeeding sentence or paragraph, the words “the

following” or “as follows” appear, the sentence in which they occur

should be closed with the colon or colon-dash, as in the following

examples: {p84}

The description given of the English Nonconformists in many pages

that stand for history, is as follows: That they started forth under

a well-settled order of constitution and discipline of the Church of

England, etc.—_Ellis’s Puritan Age._

Mr. Faulkner, from the Committee on Pensions, to whom were referred

the following bills, reported them severally without amendment, and

submitted reports thereon:

A bill (H. R. 10318) granting a pension to Mary C. Davis; and

A bill (H. R. 8400) to place the name of John J. Mitchell on the

pension-roll.—_Congressional Record, July 22, ’88._

The hyphen is used to connect the parts of a compound word; to show the

divisions of words into syllables; it is placed at the end of a line

when a word is not finished; and it is sometimes placed between vowels,

to show that they belong to different syllables (as “co-ordinate”). In

regard to its use in compound words great diversity exists; and the

proof-reader can have, as we believe, no fixed system which will apply

to all varieties of work. In specifications for bridges, buildings,

etc., the better way is to avoid compounding; for, in everything

of that kind, one will find so many “door-sills,” “newel-posts,”

“stair-balusters,” “pulley-stiles,” etc., that if he begin marking

in the hyphens he will scarcely make an end of it, and many hyphens

sadly deform a page: better put “door knobs,” “window frames,” “stair

nosings,” etc., omitting hyphens.

Here, too, the dictionaries can scarcely be said to assist, if they

do not even mislead. Worcester has “brickwork,” “brasswork,” without

hyphens; {p85} “wood-work,” “iron-work,” with them. “Greenhouse” is

closed up, while “school-house” is not; “wood-house” has a hyphen,

“almshouse” has none. (Wilson writes “schoolhouse.”) Webster has

“brick-work” with the hyphen, “woodwork” without it,—just reversing

Worcester. Again, Worcester writes, “humblebee” and “bumblebee”:

Webster, under B, has “bumble-bee, . . . . sometimes called

humble-bee”; and, under H, writes “humblebee, . . . . often called

bumblebee,” apparently forgetful of his previous hyphens.

To search for authority, then, in the matter of compounding words,

will avail next to nothing. In a volume containing “School Committees’

Reports,”—and certainly school committees ought to know many things,—we

find “blackboard” and “black-board”; and, on one page, “schoolbooks,”

“schoolkeeping,” “schoolmaster,” “school-houses,” “school-checks.”

“Semi-annual” is frequently printed with the hyphen, according to

Webster; but Worcester, omitting the hyphen, has “semiannual.”

Thus it appears, that, in regard to compounding (by which we mean

inserting the hyphen between the parts of a compound word), the

proof-reader is left to his own discretion, and can do very much as

he pleases. He should, however, adopt some method by which he can

approximate to uniformity in his own work; for as to agreeing with

anybody else, that is out of the question.

Perhaps as good a rule as can be laid down on this subject is to

close up the word when {p86} compounding changes the accentuation;

otherwise, insert the hyphen. Thus, “Quartermaster” has a different

accentuation from the two words “quarter master”; therefore make one

word of it, without the hyphen. “Head-assistant” is accented like

the two words “head assistant,”—therefore insert the hyphen. By this

rule “schoolhouse” and “blackboard” should be severally closed up;

“salt-mine” takes the hyphen,—“saltsea” (adjective) does not.

The word “tree,” with a prefix indicating the kind, should be

compounded; as “oak-tree,” “forest-tree,” “pine-tree,” etc. (Webster

has a hyphen in “whiffle-tree,” Worcester prints “whiffletree.”)

“Cast-iron” and “wrought-iron” are usually compounded, and should

always be so when used as adjectives; as “cast-iron pillars,”

“wrought-iron boilers.”

“Temple-street place” (or “Place,” according to style), “Suffolk-street

District,” “Pemberton-square School,” are quite correct; the hyphen is

too frequently omitted in such cases.

The words _ex officio_ do not require a hyphen, but some very reputable

offices insert it.

Hyphens are sometimes used to indicate grotesque pronunciation, as in

the following couplet from “Rejected Addresses”:

“In borrowed luster seemed to sham

The rose and red sweet Will-i-am.”

When two words connected by a conjunction are severally compound parts

of a following word, the hyphen is omitted; as: {p87}

We use cast and wrought iron pillars.

I have pruned my peach and apple trees.

Some authors follow the German style, inserting the hyphens; thus:

We use cast- and wrought-iron pillars.

I have pruned my peach- and apple-trees.

But this style is rare.

Precision requires that hyphens should be inserted in fractions

expressed in words; as “one-half,” “three-fifths,” etc.

How many oranges are seven and three fourths oranges?

There being no hyphen in the above example, the “seven” and “three”

are in the same category as “peach” and “apple” in the last previous

example. The answer is ten-fourths, or 2⁠½.

If “seven” is meant to express a whole number, a hyphen should be

inserted after “three.”

A prolific source of trouble in correcting is wrong syllabication when

it is thought necessary to carry part of a word to the succeeding line.

Neither the English method of dividing on vowels, where this can be

conveniently done, nor the American method of dividing on syllables,

obtains exclusively in this country. Convenience, and the desire of

spacing in such a manner as to make the lines look well, frequently

determine the dividing letter; so that, in the same work, you may find

“pro-perty” and “prop-erty,” “trea-sure” and “treas-ure.” In a recent

English work, we note the following divisions: {p88} Pre-bendaries,

mea-sure, pre-decessors, supre-macy, the Re-formation, pro-perty,

theo-logy, bre-thren, pre-paration.

But the division on the syllable is the mode most generally practiced

in the United States, and we must, however reluctantly, adhere to it as

closely as possible, until a convention of publishers shall sanction

the adoption of the English usage. Our authorities close the first

syllable of “fa-ther” on the _a_, of “moth-er” on the _th_, so that,

practically, the latter word should not be divided at all; the English

printer, without hesitation, places the hyphen after the _a_ and the

_o_ respectively.

As to the word “discrepancy” there is a discrepancy. Webster accents

the second syllable, and divides “discrep-ancy”; while Worcester

accents the first syllable, and divides “discre-pancy.” In this,

printers and readers must be governed by the “style” of the work upon

which they are engaged.

One of the most frequently recurring errors noticed in reading first

proof is the placing of an _s_ at the end of a line when it should

have been carried over. Corres-pondence, des-cribe, des-cription,

Aus-tralian, are wrong, and are corrected daily; and their reappearance

proves that in this, as in weightier matters, “error is wrought by want

of thought.”

In newspapers, or any work which is to be read once and then cast

aside, the carrying over of an _ed_ or _ly_, or any other syllable of

two letters, may perhaps be tolerated; but in bookwork such a division

is inexcusable, except in side-notes, or when the {p89} measure is

very narrow. To avoid extremely wide or thin spacing, and to escape

the trouble and expense of overrunning pages already imposed, it must

be considered admissible, in certain cases, to carry over a consonant

preceding the final syllable _ed_; as, expec-ted, divi-ded. We state

this with some misgivings; but, as we have known it to be done by

excellent readers and skillful printers, even by John Wilson himself,

of blessed memory, we lay it down as allowable in extreme cases.

Theories are elastic,—are expansible and compressible; but types of

metal have set dimensions of extension, and, in some circumstances,

absolutely refuse to budge,—wherefore theories must gracefully yield,

and allow, it may be, a two-letter division even in wide measure. Types

are tyrannical, and will sometimes perpetrate solecisms under the plea

of necessity.

An author can sometimes much improve the appearance of a page, by

slight changes in the phraseology.

A good compositor studies to avoid divisions. Some printers, rather

than divide a word, will justify a line by separating the words with

two three-em spaces. But no arbitrary rule can be laid down in this

regard. A well-spaced page with several divided words looks much better

than a page unevenly spaced in which no divisions occur. The number of

hyphens occurring in succession at the end of the lines on any page,

should never exceed three.

In manuscript the dash occurs more frequently than any other mark of

punctuation, many writers {p90} using it as a substitute for every

other point. This habit very much retards the compositor in his task;

for, as we have already intimated, he feels obliged to study the sense

of his copy, and to waste his valuable time in considering how he shall

best supply those aids to meaning which the author has rejected, and

without which any work would be wholly unpresentable.

That the author of the paragraph quoted below pointed it with perfect

accuracy before sending it to press, does not admit of a doubt. For the

nonce, however, we will, with his leave, punctuate the passage in the

manner in which the compositor frequently finds passages pointed on his

“takes”; thus:

“It has been said—and—no doubt—truthfully—that the smartest boys

do not go to college. Yet—it is evident—to every one competent to

judge—that the ablest men have been at college.”

With so many dashes before him, it would not be strange if the

compositor were to retain some of them; and the proof might, perhaps,

appear as follows:

“It has been said—and no doubt truthfully—that the smartest boys do

not go to college. Yet it is evident to every one competent to judge,

that the ablest men have been at college.”

This is much improved; and, if we substitute commas for the dashes in

the first sentence, the punctuation may be considered unobjectionable.

Beginners at the “case” are often puzzled in regard to the insertion of

commas before the dashes which {p91} inclose a parenthetic clause. To

decide this point, it is enough to notice whether or not a comma would

be used, were the parenthetic clause omitted. This, we think, will be

readily understood by reference to the following examples:

“It was necessary not only that Christianity should assume a standard

absolutely perfect, but that it should apply a perfect law to those

complex and infinitely diversified cases which arise when law is

violated.”

Now, if a parenthetic clause is inserted before the word “but,” the

comma should be retained, and another placed at the end of the inserted

clause; thus:

“It was necessary, not only that Christianity should assume a standard

absolutely perfect,—which, however far from anything that man has ever

done, would be comparatively easy,—but that it should apply a perfect

law,” etc.

If there is no comma where the clause is to be inserted, dashes alone

should be used:

“In the completed volume of the third report, the countries wherein

education has received the most attention are treated of at length.”

If a parenthetic clause be inserted after “countries,”—where there is

no comma,—only dashes are required; thus:

“In the completed volume of the third report, the countries—Prussia,

for instance—wherein education has received the most attention are

treated of at length.”

A thin space should be placed before, and also after, a dash.

If a parenthesis is inserted in a part of a sentence {p92} where no

point is required, no point should be placed before or after the marks

of parenthesis.

“By living sparingly, and according to the dictates of reason, in less

than a year I found myself (some persons, perhaps, will not believe

it) entirely freed from all my complaints.”—_Cornaro._

As a general rule, if the parenthesis occur after a punctuated clause,

the point should be placed after the latter mark of parenthesis.

“Popham’s monument, by the intercession of his wife’s friends (who had

interest at Court), was left in St. John’s Chapel on condition either

of erasing the inscription, or turning it inwards.”

“Artist: Kneller (1723). Architects: Taylor (1788); Chambers (1796);

Wyatt (1813).”

“Antiquities of St. Peter’s, by J. Crull (usually signed J. C.).”

If a parenthesis which closes with a note of exclamation or

interrogation is inserted where a point occurs, that point should

precede the first mark of parenthesis.

“Where foresight and good morals exist, (and do they not here?) the

taxes do not stand in the way of an industrious man’s comforts.”

“He directed the letter to Gnat Smith, (spelling Nat with a G!) and

deposited it in a fire-alarm box.”

An exclamation point is often found preceding the first mark of

parenthesis.

“Ay, here now! (exclaimed the Critic,) here come Coleridge’s

metaphysics!”—_Biographia Literaria._

“I am, sir, sensible”—“Hear! Hear!” (they cheer him.) {p93}

When a parenthesis occurs within a parenthesis, brackets should be

substituted for the first and last parenthetic marks.

“As for the other party [I mean (do not misunderstand me) the original

inventor], he was absent from the country, at that time.”

“Brackets are generally used . . . to inclose an explanation, note, or

observation, standing by itself.”—_Parker’s Aids._

A short comment inserted in a paragraph by a reviewer is placed in

brackets.

“The sacks were badly eaten by rags [so in the affidavit], and the

almonds had run out.”

In transcripts of trials at law, brackets are used to inclose

statements of things done in court, which things would not appear in a

report of the verbal proceedings alone; as,—

“_Ans._ About a quarter past ten, he came into my shop, and picked out

a cane. . . . .

“_Gore._ Of what wood was it made?

“_Ans._ It was a good piece of hickory—heavy for hickory. . . . .

“[The stick was handed to the witness, who declared it to be the same

he had sold Mr. Charles Austin.]

“_Gore._ What sticks had he usually bought of you?”—_Trial of

Selfridge._

Whether the words in brackets should also be in italics is a matter of

style. In the following passage from the same report, italics are used:

{p94}

“_Gore._ [_Showing the fracture of the hat on the fore-part._] Is not

that the fore-part of the hat, as this leather [_that on the hinder

part_] marks the part of the hat that is worn behind?”

For inserting commas or other points after, before, or within brackets,

the same rules apply as in case of marks of parenthesis.

Whether when a noun singular terminates in _s_, its possessive case

requires an additional _s_ is yet an open question. We have no

hesitation in giving an affirmative answer, especially in the case of

proper names. If Mr. Adams were to manufacture ale, one might, perhaps,

from prohibitory considerations, advise him to advertise it as “Adams’

ale”; but should Mr. Adams have no fear of the law, he would avoid

all misunderstanding by calling it “Adams’s ale.” It may be objected

that the position of the apostrophe makes the matter sufficiently

clear without the additional _s_. Yes,—to the eye; but to the ear the

propriety of the additional _s_ becomes very apparent. “Jacob’s pillow”

and “Jacobs’s pillow” may be of very different materials. But, to avoid

too much sibilation, we read “for conscience’ sake,” “for goodness’

sake,” etc.

The apostrophe, with _s_ subjoined, is used to denote the plural of

letters and figures.

“The discipline which is imposed by proving that some _x_’s are

some _y_’s, and that other _x_’s are all _y_’s, will enable you to

pulverize any hot-headed deacon who may hereafter attempt to prove

that you had better be looking out for another pastorate.”—_Ad

Clerum._

“This 7 differs from the other 7’s.” {p95}

The apostrophe may be used in denoting the plural whenever its use will

assist in avoiding obscurity.

“The children called loudly for their pa’s and ma’s.”

For convenient reference we append a series of rules and examples,

which, we think, will be found useful by teachers and scholars, and our

friends of the press.

{p96}

RULES OF PUNCTUATION.

I. PERIOD, OR FULL POINT.

1. The period is used at the end of every complete sentence which is

not interrogative or exclamatory.

2. Sentences interrogative and exclamatory in form, sometimes take the

period.

Will you call at my office, say on Tuesday next, or whenever

you happen to be in town, and much oblige—

Yours truly, JOHN SMITH.

How much better it is, considering the saving of distance to

the pupils, that two small schoolhouses should be built, rather

than one large one.

3. The period is put after initials when used alone; also after

abbreviations.

J. Q. Adams. Supt. of R. R. A. M.

4. Place a period before decimals, and between pounds and shillings.

The French meter is 3.2808992 feet.

£24. 6_s._ 8_d._ 5.75 miles.

5. A period should always be put after roman numerals, except when used

in the paging of prefaces, etc.

George III. came to the throne in 1760.

OBSERVATION 1. In many modern works the period is omitted; as,—

William I made a mistake.

There being no comma after “William,” it is supposed to be obvious that

the mistake was made by William the First. The insertion or omission of

the period is becoming wholly a matter of printing-office style. {p97}

II. COLON.

6. A colon is put at the end of a clause complete in sense, when

something follows which tends to make the sense fuller or clearer.

(_See_ Rules 9 and 13.)

There is yet another sphere for the electric motor to fill: that of

street railway propulsion.—_N. A. Review; April, 1888._

In free states no man should take up arms, but with a view to defend

his country and its laws: he puts off the citizen when he enters

the camp; but it is because he is a citizen, and would continue to

be so, that he makes himself for a while a soldier.—_Blackstone’s

Commentaries, Book I., Ch. 13._

7. The last of several clauses that introduce a concluding remark or

sentiment should be followed by a colon, if the preceding clauses have

been punctuated with semicolons.

A pickpocket in every car; a cheat at every station; every third

switch on the road misplaced; the danger of being hurled from the

track, and then burned alive: these considerations prevent my

traveling on the railroad of which you speak.

OBS. 2. In examples like the above, a very common and perhaps better

method is to put a comma and dash in place of the colon. The colon is

neater, but more old-fashioned. (See second example under Rule 10.)

8. The colon is commonly used whenever an example, a quotation, or a

speech is introduced.

The Scriptures give us an amiable representation of the Deity in these

words: “God is love.”

OBS. 3. Modern writers, instead of the colon, mostly use the semicolon,

dash, or period. Our first example, under Rule 9,—with a colon

substituted for the semicolon,—might with propriety have been placed

under Rule 6. We prefer the semicolon, however; {p98} and if the

word _for_ were inserted in the example mentioned, the colon would be

inadmissible:

“Let there be no strife between theology and science; for there need

be none.”

In reprinting old works, the colon should be carefully retained, as

essential to a clear understanding of them.

The colon is generally placed after _as follows_, _the following_,

_in these words_, _thus_, or any other word or phrase which formally

introduces something; and when the matter introduced forms a distinct

paragraph, the colon may or may not be followed by a dash, as the style

of the author or office may require.

III. SEMICOLON.

9. When two or more clauses of a sentence are not so closely connected

as to admit the use of a comma, a semicolon is used.

Let there be no strife between theology and science; there need be

none.

Wisdom hath builded her house; she hath hewn out her seven pillars;

she hath killed her beasts; she hath mingled her wine; she hath also

furnished her table.

10. When a number of particulars depend on an introductory or a

final clause, such particulars may be separated from each other by a

semicolon.

There are three difficulties in authorship: to write anything worth

the publishing; to get honest men to publish it; and to get sensible

men to read it.

To present a general view of the whole Vedic literature; to define its

extent; to divide it into well-distinguished classes of writings; to

portray the circumstances of their origin, and the stage of cultural

development which they represent; and to explain the method of their

preservation and transmission to us,—were some of the objects which

Müller had in view. {p99}

11. Loosely connected clauses of a sentence should be separated by

semicolons, if those clauses or any of them are subdivided by commas.

As the rays of the sun, notwithstanding their velocity, injure not

the eye by reason of their minuteness; so the attacks of envy,

notwithstanding their number, ought not to wound our virtue by reason

of their insignificance.

OBS. 4. In the first sentence of the following example, a comma between

the clauses is sufficient, because there are no points in the clauses;

but the second sentence may serve to illustrate Rules 11 and 12:

As there are some faults that have been termed faults on the right

side, so there are some errors that might be denominated errors on the

safe side. Thus, we seldom regret having been too mild, too cautious,

or too humble; but we often repent having been too violent, too

precipitate, or too proud.

12. When two clauses not closely dependent on each other, are connected

by _but_, _for_, _and_, or some similar connective, they are separated

by a semicolon.

I will not be revenged, and this I owe to my enemy; but I will

remember, and this I owe to myself.

A wise minister would rather preserve peace than gain a victory;

because he knows that even the most successful war leaves nations

generally more poor, always more profligate, than it found them.

Ingratitude in a superior is very often nothing more than the refusal

of some unreasonable request; and if the patron does too little, it is

not unfrequently because the dependent expects too much.

13. Phrases are often set off by a semicolon, viz.:

_a._ Explanatory phrases.

There remain to us moderns, only two roads to success; discovery and

conquest.

_b._ Participial and adjective phrases. {p100}

I have first considered whether it be worth while to say anything at

all, before I have taken any trouble to say it well; knowing that

words are but air, and that both are capable of much condensation.

These roads are what all roads should be; suitable for light

carriages, and for heavy-laden wagons.

_c._ Any phrase, especially if elliptical, or if divisible into smaller

portions by commas.

(OBS. 5. In speaking or in writing, we “almost always leave out some of

the words which are necessary to a full expression of our meaning. This

leaving out is called the ellipsis.”)

John Milton; born Dec. 9, 1608; completed Paradise Lost, 1665; died

Nov. 10, 1674.

IV. COMMA.

14. Repeated words or expressions; three or more serial terms; two

unconnected serial terms,—are separated from each other by the comma.

_a._ Repeated words or expressions.

Shut, shut the door.

I, I, I, I itself, I,

The inside and outside, the what and the why,

The when and the where, and the low and the high,

All I, I, I, I itself, I.

Give me back, give me back the wild freshness of morning.

_b._ Three or more serial terms.

Shakspeare, Butler, and Bacon have rendered it extremely difficult for

all who come after them to be sublime, witty, or profound.

The firm of Smith, Longman, Jones, Llewellyn, & Co.

But some printers, while observing the above rule in general,

except the names of firms and railroad companies; which, in their

publications, appear as follows: {p101}

The firm of Longman, Jones, Llewellyn & Co.

The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé R. R. Co.

_c._ Two unconnected serial terms.

He had a keen, ready wit.

OBS. 6. The second example under _a_ (“The inside and outside, the what

and the why,”) furnishes an illustration of the mode of punctuating

terms joined in pairs.

OBS. 7. Style sometimes requires the omission of the comma before

_and_, _or_, _nor_, when one of these connectives precedes the last

term of a series: as “Shakspeare, Butler and Bacon have rendered it

extremely difficult for all who come after them to be sublime, witty

or profound.” But when the words are all in the same predicament,

the comma should be inserted; e. g.,—if you wish to state that three

certain persons are wise, you would point thus:

“Thomas, Richard, and John are wise.”

But if Richard and John are the Solons, and you wish to inform Thomas

of that fact, you would point thus:

“Thomas, Richard and John are wise.”

So, in the first example under _b_, if it is desired to qualify the

three adjectives by the phrase “in the highest degree,” the comma

after _witty_ must stand: “in the highest degree sublime, witty, or

profound.” But if that phrase is intended to apply to _sublime_ only,

the pointing should be thus: “in the highest degree sublime, witty or

profound.”

15. Phrases, clauses, and words, inverted, or otherwise not in their

natural position, generally require to be set off by a comma.

Into this illustrious society, my friend was joyfully received.

When we quarrel with ourselves, we are sure to be losers.

To satisfy you on that point, I will make a short argument.

He, like the world, his ready visits pays,

Where fortune smiles.

Roe, Richard. Doe, John.

{p102}

OBS. 8. The exceptions to this rule are numerous. If the first and last

words of a passage are related (_for him_ the summer wind _murmured_);

if the inverted phrase be brief, and can be read in close connection

with what follows (_in youth_ we have little sympathy with the

misfortunes of age); or if the principal clause is itself inverted (In

the center of the common rises a noble monument),—the comma is usually

omitted.

OBS. 9. In long lists of proper names, as Directories, etc., it is

usual to omit the comma, although the names are transposed, and to

print thus:

Smith James W.

Thomson Theophilus.

16. When the principal sentence is broken to receive an incidental or

parenthetic expression, a comma is placed at the break, and another at

the end of the inserted clause.

Rulers and magistrates should attempt to operate on the minds of their

respective subjects, if possible, by reward rather than punishment.

Some writers, in a vain attempt to be cutting and dry, give us only

that which is cut and dried.

It is known to every physician, that, whatever lazy people may say to

the contrary, early rising tends to longevity.

Go, then, where, wrapt in fear and gloom,

Fond hearts and true are sighing.

OBS. 10. The former comma is frequently omitted. Especially is this

the case when the previous part of the sentence has required commas.

Liberal pointing would omit the comma after “where,” in the above

example. And in the following sentence, from General Marcy’s “Ramblings

in the West,” note the omission of the comma after “and,” and from the

parenthetic clause “it was believed”:

This, with the destruction of our trains, consumed the greater part

of our winter supplies, and as they could not be replenished from

the Missouri River before the following June, General Johnston, the

commander, determined to send a detachment directly over the mountains

to New Mexico, from whence it was believed supplies could be obtained

earlier than from farther east. {p103}

Notice, also, the omission of the comma after “and” and “but,” in the

following paragraphs:

He left college; and forsaken by his friends, he took refuge with the

parliament party.—_Marsh, Eccl. Hist._

The written law is sufficient to decide this case; but inasmuch as the

irregularity in question is a fertile source of disputes, the case has

been deemed worthy of insertion.—_Cavendish._

(The most common parenthetic expressions are _at least_, _at most_,

_accordingly_, _as it were_, _beyond question_, _consequently_,

_doubtless_, _furthermore_, _generally speaking_, _in the mean time_,

_on the other hand_, etc.)

17. Words or phrases expressing contrast, or emphatically

distinguished, and terms having a common relation to some other term

that follows them, require the comma.

_a._ Contrast or notable difference.

His style is correct, yet familiar.

I asked for money, not advice.

’Twas fat, not fate, by which Napoleon fell.

Although Prince Hohenlohe was far more specific in pointing out what

ought to be avoided than in showing what ought to be done, yet there

could be no mistaking the course which the government was intending to

pursue.

They are charitable, not to benefit the poor, but to court the rich.

OBS. 11. Two contrasted words having a common dependence, and connected

by _but_, _though_, _yet_, or _as well as_, should not be separated;

as, There are springs of clear but brackish water.

_b._ Terms having a common relation to a succeeding term.

Ordered, That the Committee on Banking be, and they hereby are,

instructed to report a bill. {p104}

That officer was not in opposition to, but in close alliance with,

thieves.

OBS. 12. Some proof-readers, however, omit the second comma, when but

a single word follows the latter proposition; as, “Many states were in

alliance _with_, and under the protection _of_ Rome.” The better method

is to insert the point. “[Bonner was] an accomplished Italian, and

probably also a Spanish, scholar.”—_Froude._

18. Correlative terms, or expressions having a reciprocal relation, are

separated by a comma.

The farther we look back into those distant periods, all the objects

seem to become more obscure.

The more a man has, the more he wants.

As he that knows how to put proper words in proper places evinces the

truest knowledge of books, so he that knows how to put fit persons in

fit stations evinces the truest knowledge of men.

It is not so difficult a task to plant new truths, as to root out old

errors.

Where MacDonald sits, there is the head of the table.

Cincinnatus and Washington were greater in their retirement, than

Cæsar and Napoleon at the summit of their ambition; since it requires

less magnanimity to win the conquest, than to refuse the spoil.

OBS. 13. Sometimes when _that_, and generally when _as_ or _than_, _so

that_ or _such that_ is used, the connection is too close to admit the

comma.

Cromwell’s enemies say that he always fought with more sincerity than

he prayed.

Your house is larger than mine.

Paper is not so good as gold.

The old gentleman is so infirm that he can scarcely move.

He told such a story that we were all deceived by it. {p105}

19. Words used in direct address, and independent and absolute words,

with what belongs to them, are separated from the rest of the sentence

by commas.

_Q._ You say, Mr. Witness, that you were present?

_A._ Yes, sir.

Flow gently, sweet Afton, among thy green braes.

My son, give me thy heart.

At length, having fought the good fight, he left the world in peace.

To confess the truth, I was in fault.

Richard Roe, his father being dead, succeeded to the estate.

Silence having been obtained, the speaker went on with his remarks.

20. The clauses of a compound sentence may be separated by a comma when

the connection is too close for the semicolon.

The winds roared in the woods, and the torrents tumbled from the hills.

Hasten to your homes, and there teach your children to detest the

deeds of tyranny.

It has, by some grammarians, been given as a rule, to use a comma to

set off every part of a compound sentence, which part has in it a verb

not in the infinitive mode.

OBS. 14. A dependent clause should be separated by a comma, unless

closely connected.

It argues a defect of method, when an author is obliged to write notes

upon his own works.

Unless we hurry to the beach, the tide will overtake us.

Whatever reception the present age may give this work, we rest

satisfied with our endeavors to deserve a kind one.

When the Tartars make a Lama, their first care is to place him in a

dark corner of the temple.

OBS. 15. If a clause beginning with _as_, _because_, _if_, _wherever_,

_how_, _lest_, _than_, _that_, _when_, _where_, _whether_, _while_,

_why_, or any {p106} adverb of time, place, or manner, follows a

clause with which it is closely connected in sense, it is not set off

by a comma: “He went away when the boat left.” “We love him because he

first loved us.” “He will pay if he is able.” “Tell me whether you will

return.”

OBS. 16. An infinitive phrase closely connected with what it modifies,

should not be set off by a comma; as, “We use language to express our

thoughts.” “Nouns do not vary their endings to denote certain cases.”

But if the infinitive phrase is preceded by _in order_, or if it is

remote from what it modifies, it should be set off by a comma. “He

collected a great many young elms from various parts of England, to

adorn his grounds.” “If dissimulation is ever to be pardoned, it is

that which men have recourse to, in order to obtain situations which

will enlarge their sphere of general usefulness.”

21. A word or phrase used in apposition, to explicate or illustrate a

previous word or phrase, should be set off by commas; but if the words

in apposition constitute a single phrase or a proper name, they should

not be separated.

_a._ Comma required.

Johnson, that mighty Caliban of literature, is held up to view in the

pages of Boswell.

The alligator, or cayman, is found in the Orinoco.

Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles, was eminent for his zeal and

knowledge.

If the position of the terms in apposition is reversed, commas are

required.

The apostle of the Gentiles, Paul, was eminent for his zeal and

knowledge.

That old last century poet, Crowley, sings thus.

_b._ Comma not required.

Johnson the lexicographer completed his dictionary in seven years.

{p107}

We the undersigned agree to pay the sums set against our names

respectively.

Jeremy the prophet commanded them that were carried away to take of

the fire, as it hath been signified.

I Paul have written it with mine own hand.

The poet Chaucer lived in the reign of Richard II.

Sir John Walpole understood two grand secrets of state: the power of

principal, and the weakness of principle.

22. A simple sentence usually requires no point except the period at

the end of it.

Count Bismarck has preserved a pleasant intimacy with his old

preceptor.

OBS. 17. When the subject is a clause ending with a verb, or with a

noun that might be mistaken for the nominative, a comma should be

inserted before the predicate.

That winter campaigns are undertaken, shows a desire to kill the

Indians.

Captain Smith’s obedience to orders, issued in his promotion.

Every year that is added to the age of the world, serves to lengthen

the thread of its history.

He that gives a portion of his time and talent to the investigation of

mathematical truth, will come to all other questions with a decided

advantage over his opponents.

In the following sentence, a comma after “them” might not be improper

(for we once heard a reader place a pause after “attacked”),—but we

shall not attack one of General Sherman’s sentences, lest we “get the

worst of it.”

During this campaign hundreds if not thousands of miles of similar

intrenchments were built by both armies, and as a rule whichever party

attacked one of them got the worst of it.—_Memoirs Gen. W. T. Sherman._

OBS. 18. Whether a comma should be inserted after the verb _to be_,

when that verb is followed by an infinitive clause which might by

transposition be made the nominative, is a question on which the best

authorities differ.

_First Method._—The highest art of the mind of man is to possess

itself with tranquillity in the hour of danger. {p108}

_Second Method._—The highest art of the mind of man is, to possess

itself with tranquillity in the hour of danger.

We are of opinion that usage is in favor of the omission of the comma,

as in the following examples:

The proposed object of the Union Dictionary is to comprehend at once

all that is truly useful in Johnson, Sheridan, and Walker.—_Thomas

Browne._

The grandest of all conditions is to be at once healthy and wise and

good.—_D’Arcy Thompson._

OBS. 19. When the subject is an infinitive phrase, the better method is

not to separate it; as, “To be totally indifferent to praise or censure

is a real defect in character.” Still there is excellent authority

for inserting a comma, thus: “To be totally indifferent to praise or

censure, is a real defect in character.” In sentences of this kind we

advise the proof-reader to omit the comma unless the author is uniform

in the insertion of it.

OBS. 20. Some grammarians set off by a comma the predicate, when it

refers to separated nominatives preceding it; as, “The benches, chairs,

and tables, were thrown down.” And, again, we find this example given:

“Veracity, justice, and charity, are essential virtues.” So, in the

ordinances of the City of Boston, “if any person or persons shall roast

any cocoa,” without having complied with certain conditions, “he, she,

or they, shall forfeit and pay for every such offense,” etc.,—a comma

appearing after _they_, although a conjunction precedes it. But the

weight of authority is against separating the last noun or pronoun

of such compound subject from the verb when the conjunction is used.

The last quotation, above given, should read, “he, she, or they shall

forfeit,” etc.

23. A comma should be placed before or after a word or phrase, to

associate it with the group to which it belongs, if, without the comma,

the sentence would be equivocal; and generally, a comma may be inserted

wherever its use will prevent ambiguity.

This man, only cared to lay up money.

This man only, cared to lay up money.

Whoever lives opprobriously, must perish.

The first maxim among philosophers is, that merit only, makes

distinction. {p109}

The delight which I found in reading Pliny, first inspired me with the

idea of a work of this nature.—_Goldsmith._

My communication was offered and refused.

My communication was offered, and refused on account of its length.

OBS. 21. We recently met with this last sentence, pointed as follows:

“My communication was offered and refused, on account of its length”;

but it is not easy to see why the length of a communication should be

assigned as the reason for having offered it.

“Every favor a man receives in some measure sinks him below his

dignity.”—_Goldsmith._

OBS. 22. A comma should have been placed after _receives_.

24. No comma is put between two words or phrases in apposition,

following the verbs _think_, _name_, _make_, _consider_, and others of

a similar meaning.

They made him their ruler.

They called him captain.

They saluted him king.

I esteem you my friend.

Believing him an honest man, we elected him treasurer.

We constituted our Secretary a depositary of German books.

I consider him a gentleman.

OBS. 23. Of the terms in apposition, one is the subject, and the other

the predicate, of _to be_, understood (“They made him _to be_ their

ruler”). The rule might, therefore, be worded thus: When, of two terms

in apposition, one is predicated of the other, no comma is required.

25. In a compound sentence, the comma is often inserted where a verb is

omitted.

In literature, our taste will be discovered by that which we give; our

judgment, by that which we withhold.

Wit consists in finding out resemblances; judgment, in discerning

differences. {p110}

In the pursuit of intellectual pleasure lies every virtue; of sensual,

every vice.

Sheridan once observed of a certain speech, that all its facts were

invention, and all its wit, memory.

OBS. 24. But sometimes the comma is not inserted: especially when the

style is lively; when the clauses have a common relation to something

that follows; or when they are connected by a conjunction.

Could Johnson have had less prejudice, Addison more profundity, or

Dryden more time, they would have been well qualified for the arduous

office of a critic.

The Germans do not appear so vivacious, nor the Turks so energetic, as

to afford triumphant demonstrations in behalf of the sacred weed.

The boat was tight, the day fine, the bait tempting, and the fishes

hungry.

26. A short quotation, a remarkable expression, or a short observation

somewhat in manner of a quotation, is set off by the comma.

Plutarch calls lying, the vice of slaves.

It hurts a man’s pride to say, I do not know.

Cicero observed to a degenerate patrician, “I am the first of my

family, but you are the last of yours.”

An upright minister asks, what recommends a man; a corrupt minister,

who.

There is an old poet who has said, “No deity is absent, if prudence is

with thee.”

They tell me here, that people frequent the theater to be instructed

as well as amused.

The old proverb, “Too much freedery breeds despise,” is now rendered,

“Familiarity breeds contempt.”

OBS. 25. When the introductory clause is short, the comma may be

omitted; as “Charles Fox said that restorations are the most bloody of

all revolutions.”—“Madame de Staël admits that she discovered, as she

grew old, the men could not find out that wit in her at fifty, which

she possessed at twenty-five.” {p111}

27. Numbers are divided by the comma into periods of three figures each.

The distance of the sun from the earth is usually stated at 95,000,000

miles.

OBS. 26. In a number expressing the year of an era, the comma is not

used; as, July 4, 1876. In tabular work it is very neat and convenient

to omit the comma, as in the following example:

The number of letters in 1600 lbs. of Pica is as follows:

a 17000

b 3200

c 6000

d 8800

e 24000, etc.

OBS. 27. In some offices the style requires all numbers less than 1,000

to be expressed in words; 1,000 and upwards in figures. Some printers

insert the comma before hundreds, only when five figures or more occur.

28. Restrictive phrases or clauses are not set off by the comma.

He reviewed such regiments _as were armed with Enfield rifles_.

They flatter the vanities of those _with whom they have to do_.

Attend to the remarks _which the preacher is about to make_.

Bishop Watson most feelingly regrets the valuable time _he was obliged

to squander away_.

A false concord in words may be pardoned in him _who has produced a

true concord_ between such momentous things _as the purest faith and

the profoundest reason_.

“He is known by his company” is a proverb _that does not invariably

apply_.

Cattle _which live in herds_, are subject to various diseases. {p112}

OBS. 28. Adjective elements which are simply descriptive, and not

restrictive, should be set off by commas; thus:

Cattle, which live in herds, are subject to various diseases.

The first verse of the fourteenth chapter of Job, in the King James

Bible, reads:

Man that is born of a woman is of few days, and full of trouble.

The Douay Bible reads:

Man born of a woman, living for a short time, is filled with many

miseries.

The Protestant Episcopal Burial Service points correctly:

Man, that is born of a woman, hath but a short time to live, and is

full of misery.

V. THE NOTE OF INTERROGATION.

29. The note of Interrogation is placed at the end of a direct question.

Can gold gain friendship?

Is that the best answer you can give to the fourteenth

cross-interrogatory?

Is any among you afflicted?

Oh, lives there, Heaven, beneath thy dread expanse,

One hopeless, dark idolater of Chance?

OBS. 29. When several distinct questions occur in succession, the

practice of some writers is to separate them by commas or semicolons,

placing the question-mark at the close only; as:

“Where was Lane then; what was his situation?”—_Trial of Selfridge._

“Am I Dromio, am I your man, am I myself?”

This we regard as incorrect. Each several question should have the

interrogation point.

_Dro. S._ Do you know me, sir? am I Dromio? am I your man? am I

myself? {p113}

_Rosalind._ What did he when thou saw’st him? What said he? How looked

he? Wherein went he? What makes he here? Did he ask for me? Where

remains he? How parted he with thee? and when shalt thou see him again?

OBS. 30. If several questions in one sentence are joined by

connectives, each question takes the note of interrogation. “Have I not

all their letters to meet me in arms by the ninth of the next month?

and are they not, some of them, set forward already?”

OBS. 31. When a sentence contains several interrogative clauses,

having a common relation to, or dependence on, one term, a single

interrogation point is sufficient.

“Was I, _for this_, nigh wrecked upon the sea;

And twice by awkward wind from England’s bank

Drove back again unto my native clime?”

“By sensational preaching do you mean an incoherent raving about

things in general and nothing in particular; a perversion of every

text; an insult of common sense; a recital of anecdotes which are

untrue, and a use of illustrations which are unmeaning?”

Who will count the value to a man to be raised one remove higher above

the brute creation; to be able to look with the eye of intelligence,

instead of vacant ignorance, upon the world in which he lives; to

penetrate as far as mortals may into the mystery of his own existence,

and to be made capable of enjoying the rational delights of that

existence; to be protected by his knowledge from every species of

quackery, fanaticism, and imposture; and to know how to estimate and

use the gifts which a beneficent Creator has spread around him?—_Prof.

L. Stevens, Girard Coll._

“What can preserve _my life_, or what destroy?”

NOTE.—An assertion stating a question does not take the interrogation

point; as, “The question is, what lenses have the greatest magnifying

power.”

VI. THE NOTE OE EXCLAMATION.

30. The note of Exclamation is applied to expressions of sudden or

violent emotion; such as surprise, grief, joy, love, hatred, etc.

O piteous spectacle! O noble Cæsar! O woful day!

An old lady one day importuning Mahomet to know what {p114} she

ought to do, in order to gain Paradise,—“My good lady,” answered the

Prophet, “old women never get there.”—“What! never get to Paradise!”

returned the matron in a fury. “Never!” says he, “for they grow young

by the way!”

Why was this heart of mine formed with so much sensibility! or why was

not my fortune adapted to its impulse! Poor houseless creatures! The

world will give you reproaches, but will not give you relief.

Ah! well of old the Psalmist prayed

“Thy hand, not man’s, on me be laid!”

Earth frowns below, Heaven weeps above,

And man is hate, but God is love!

31. The exclamation point is used in invocations.

Father of all! in every age adored.

Gentle spirit of sweetest humor who erst did sit upon the easy pen of

my beloved Cervantes!

Oh, my brothers! oh, my sisters!

Would to God that ye were near!

32. Several exclamation points are sometimes used together, to express

ridicule, or to intensify surprise, etc.

Malherbe observed, that a good poet was of no more service to the

church or the state, than a good player at _ninepins_!!

VII. THE DASH.

33. The Dash is used where a sentence breaks off abruptly.

_Charles._ You must invent some ingenious subterfuge—some—some kind of—

_Project._ I understand; not a _suggestio falsi_, but a mild

_suppressio veri_. {p115}

_Charles._ Oh, is that what you call it? There is a shorter word—

_Project._ There is; but it is not professional.

I shall divide the subject into fifteen heads, and then I shall argue

thus—but, not to give you and myself the spleen, be contented at

present with an Indian tale.

34. The dash is used before and after a parenthetic clause, when not

closely enough connected to admit the comma.

But it remains—and the thought is not without its comforting

significance, however hardly it may bear on individual cases—that no

bestowal of bounty, no cultivation of the amenities of life, . . . can

wipe out the remembrance of even doubtful loyalty in the day of trial.

OBS. 32. If a parenthetic clause is inserted where a comma is required

in the principal sentence, a comma should be placed before each of the

dashes inclosing such clause. (_See_ last paragraph on p. 90).

I should like to undertake the Stonyshire side of that estate,—it’s in

a dismal condition,—and set improvements on foot.

35. Several clauses having a common dependence, are separated by a

comma and a dash from the clause on which they depend.

To think that we have mastered the whole problem of existence; that

we have discovered the secret of creation; that we have solved the

problem of evil, and abolished mystery from nature and religion and

life,—leads naturally to a precipitation of action, a summary dealing

with evils, etc. (_See_ Example and Obs. under Rule 7.)

36. The dash is used with the comma, the semicolon, and the colon,

which it lengthens, or renders more emphatic. {p116}

We read of “merry England”;—when England was not merry, things were

not going well with it. We hear of “the glory of hospitality,”

England’s pre-eminent boast,—by the rules of which all tables, from

the table of the twenty-shilling freeholder to the table in the

baron’s hall and abbey refectory, were open at the dinner-hour to all

comers.—_Froude._

_Matricaria_, _n._ A genus of plants, including the feverfew, or

wild camomile;—so called from the supposed value of some species as

remedies for certain disorders.—_Webster’s Dictionary._

They did it without being at all influenced by the Anabaptists of

the continent:—the examples of some of these had rather kept them

together.—_D’Aubigne._

37. When words are too closely connected to admit a strictly

grammatical point, the dash is used to denote a pause.

My hopes and fears

Start up alarmed, and o’er life’s narrow verge

Look down—on what? A fathomless abyss.

The king of France, with twice ten thousand men,

Marched up the hill, and then—marched down again.

38. When a word or phrase is repeated emphatically, or _echoed_, it is

preceded by the dash.

The immediate question is upon the rejection of the President’s

message. It has been moved to reject it,—to reject it, not after it

was considered, but before it was considered!

The world continues to attach a peculiar significance to certain

names,—a significance which at once recurs to one on hearing the

isolated name unapplied to any individual.

39. An equivalent expression, or an idea repeated in different words,

is properly set off by the comma and dash. {p117}

These are detached thoughts,—memoranda for future use.

Wolsey’s return to power was discussed openly as a probability,—a

result which Anne Boleyn never ceased to fear.

There are three kinds of power,—wealth, strength, and talent.

The value of our actions will be confirmed and established by those

two sure and sateless destroyers of all other things,—Time and Death.

The present time has one advantage over every other,—it is our own.

Those who submit to encroachments to-day are only preparing for

themselves greater evils for to-morrow,—humiliation or resistance.

OBS. 33. In a portion of the examples under this rule, the dash appears

to supply the place of _viz._, or _namely_.

40. A dash placed between two numbers indicates that the natural series

between those numbers is understood.

OBS. 34. If a writer refer to “pp. 90, 95,” he means those two pages

only; but if he cite “pp. 90–95,” the reference is to pages 90, 91, 92,

93, 94, and 95.—In dates of the same century, the figures denoting the

century are omitted in the second number: “He has the Farmer’s Almanac

for 1810–70,—sixty-one years.” (It will be observed, that, under this

rule, the short or _en_ dash is used.)

The style of the Government Printing Office, Washington, requires an

apostrophe to denote the elision of the centuries; as 1889–’90.

41. An Ellipsis of letters is denoted by a dash.

Ex-President J—ns—n.

King F—der—ck W——m.

42. When a sentence is abrupted (1) to form a heading, or (2) for

a signature, or (3) to admit a {p118} new paragraph, or for other

purposes, a dash is used at the break; as:

From the preceding tables we are now able to formulate in concise

language the—

GRAND RESULT.

1. The number of employees . . . is at least 1,250,000.—_Mass. Labor

Report._

It is useless for you to dissemble in the presence of—

Yours, etc. JOHN SMITH.

The greatest cowards in our regiment were the greatest rascals in it.

There was Sergeant Kumber and Ensign—

We’ll talk of them, said my father, another time.—_Sterne._

VIII. VARIOUS MARKS USED IN WRITING AND PRINTING.

The Hyphen is used to denote the division of a

word into syllables; as, _in-ter-dict_: it is placed at the

end of a line (usually at the close of a syllable),

when a word is not finished: and it connects the

parts of a compound word; as, “At Cambridge,

Cecil was present at the terrible and _never-to-be-for-

gotten_ battle between Cheke and Gardiner on the

pronunciation of the Greek epsilon, which convulsed

the academic world.” (_See_ p. 84, _et seq._)

The Apostrophe is used to abbreviate a word; as, _’tis_ for _it is_,

_tho’_ for _though_, _don’t_ for _do not_. It denotes the possessive

case; as, “John’s hat,” “three years’ service,” “one hour’s work,”

“two days’ notice,” “Smith & Co.’s shops,” “Brook’s book,” “Brooks’s

book.” It appears in names; as, O’Brien; M’[Mac]Mahon. {p119}

In French, no space is put after an apostrophe denoting elision; as,

“d’or”: in Italian, a space is inserted, as, “n’ arrivi.”

A turned comma sometimes denotes the _ac_ in _Mac_; as, _MʻDonough_.

Two commas (usually turned) are often used instead of _do._ (_ditto_).

Carving knives

Pocket ʻʻ

Case ʻʻ

Book of History.

,, ,, Chemistry.

,, ,, Algebra.

Quotation marks [“” or ‟”] are used to include a copied passage. If

the copied passage itself contains a quotation, the latter is denoted

by single marks [‘’ or ‛’]; as, “My father said in banter, ‘James, the

notes are not correct.’ The farmer dryly answered, ‘I dinna ken what

they may be _noo_; but they were a’ richt afore ye had your fingers in

amang ’em.’”

In some publications a little labor is saved by using single marks for

the principal quotations, and double if there happen to be inserted

ones; as in a recent novel by Mrs. Humphrey Ward:

‘To plunge into the Christian period without having first cleared the

mind as to what is meant in history and literature by “the critical

method” which in history may be defined,’ etc.

The same neat style is used in Max Müller’s Translation of Kant:

What Kant felt in his heart of hearts we know from some remarks found

after his death among his papers. ‘It is {p120} dishonorable,’ he

writes, ‘to retract or deny one’s real convictions, but silence in

a case like my own, is the duty of a subject; and though all we say

must be true, it is not our duty to declare publicly all that is

true.’—_Preface._

Brackets are used to inclose words omitted by a writer or copyist; as,

“Were you [on the] deck of the steamer at the [time] of the collision?”

(In the Holy Scriptures, supplied words are put in italics: “Because

_they sought it_ not by faith, but, as it were, by the works of the

law.”) Explanations inserted in text are usually inclosed in brackets;

as in the following instance, from “The Life of Dr. Goldsmith”: “You

see, my dear Dan, how long I have been talking about myself. [_Some

mention of private family affairs is here omitted._] My dear sir, these

things give me real uneasiness,” etc.

Marks of Parenthesis are used to inclose a sentence, or part of a

sentence, which is inserted in another sentence: “One Sunday morning,

when her daughter (afterwards Lady Elton) went into the kitchen, she

was surprised to find a new jack (recently ordered, and which was

constructed on the principle of going constantly without winding up)

wholly paralyzed and useless.”

The Index [☞] is used to draw attention to some particular passage.

Sometimes an Asterism [⁂] is used for the same purpose. Where there are

many footnotes on a page, the Index is a proper reference mark. {p121}

The Caret [‸] is used in writing, to denote the point where an

interlineation is to be inserted. It is sometimes used in printing

when the exact character of a manuscript is to be represented,—as in

“exhibits” in law work.

The Brace [Illustration: }] is used to connect a number of words with

one common term; and sometimes in poetry, to connect three lines which

rhyme together:

Moore’s Works,

Saurin’s Sermons, [Illustration: }] $1.75 each.

Lewis’s Plays,

Injustice, swift, erect, and unconfined,

Sweeps the wide earth, and tramples o’er mankind, [Illustration: }]

While prayers, to heal her wrongs, move slow behind.

Marks of Ellipsis or Omission are the dash; as, “Col. Sm—h”: or

asterisks; as, “Col. Sm**h”: or, neatest of all, points; as, “Col.

Sm . . h.”

Leaders are dots which lead the eye from something on the left of the

page, to some connected matter on the right:

Globe Insurance Co. . . . . . London, Eng.

Mutual Life In. Co. . . . . . Hartford, Conn.

Accents are the Grave [`], the Acute [´], and the Circumflex [^]: è is

read by the copy-holder _grave e_; é, _acute e_; ê, _circumflex e_.

Marks of Quantity are the Long, as over _o_ in “shōw”; the Short, or

Breve, as over _o_ in “nŏt”; and the Diæresis, which denotes that the

latter of {p122} two vowels is not in the same syllable as the former;

as, “zoölogy,” “Antinoüs.”

The Cedilla is a curve line under the letter _c_, to denote that it

has the sound of _s_; as in “garçon,” “façade.” It appears in words

from the French language. Worcester uses it also to denote the soft

sounds of _g_, _s_, and _x_; as in “mişle,” “ex̧aģģerate.” Webster

uses it only to denote the soft sound of _c_, as in “min-çing-ly.” We

remark here, by the way, that in dividing such words as “bra-cing,”

“min-cing,” “convin-cing,” etc., the _c_ should be carried over,

thereby preserving its proper sound. For a similar reason divide

“enga-ging,” “ra-ging,” etc., on the _a_. Whether “ma-gis-trate” should

follow this rule is a matter of style. There are offices which so

divide it, while others divide on the _g_. We prefer to syllable the

word as we have written it,—on the _a_.

The Spanish ñ has the sound of _n_ in _onion_; as, “Señor,” “cañon.”

Umlaut (pron. ōōmlowt), as defined by Webster, is the change or

modification of a vowel sound, peculiar to the Germanic languages; as

in German, _Mann_, man, _Männer_ or _Maenner_, men. The name _Roelker_

may also be written _Rölker_.

¶ denotes the beginning of a paragraph, as may be noticed in the Sacred

Scriptures. In proof-reading and in manuscript, it is used to denote

where a paragraph or break should be made. {p123}

§ denotes a section; §§, sections; as, Gen. Stat., Chap. IX., § 19, and

Chap. X., §§ 20 and 21.

Reference to notes at the bottom of the page (commonly termed

footnotes) is usually made by the asterisk, *, the obelisk, or dagger,

†; the double obelisk, or double dagger, ‡; the section, §; the

parallels, ‖; the paragraph, ¶; and the index, ☞;—but a neater mode is

to use superiors; as, ^{1, 2, 3,} or ^{a, b, c,} commencing with ^{1}

or ^{a} on each page where notes occur.

In concluding our chapter on punctuation, we venture to say to our

friends at the case, that, in our opinion, no system of pointing can be

of uniform and universal application. Men differ as much in style of

writing as in personal appearance, and we might as well expect the same

robe to fit all forms, as that one set of rules shall nicely apply to

the endless diversities of diction.

Other things being equal however, he who has paid most attention to

rule will punctuate with the nearest approximation to correctness.

With a clear understanding of an author’s meaning, the compositor

seldom need go far astray; and if, having done his best, he finds any

passage hopelessly involved, or the meaning too subtile to be grasped,

he has one safe resource,—and that is, to FOLLOW THE COPY closely

and mechanically. Could he have for reference a few pages preceding

a doubtful passage, the whole matter might become perfectly clear;

but, as that is out of the question, those pages being scattered as

{p124} “takes” in other hands, let the compositor adopt the safe

course,—FOLLOW COPY,—resting assured that no person whose opinion he

need value, could possibly think of finding fault with him for leaving

responsibility where it properly belongs.

{p125}