of why the movement first showed itself in Italy and why it became so
widespread. The answer to this query will naturally depend somewhat
upon the conception of the movement which has already been agreed
upon by teacher and class. If the Renaissance is to be considered, as
has been suggested, as primarily a revival of learning, care should
be taken to point out the fact that learning had not entirely died
out in the Europe of the Middle Ages, but that considerable progress
had been made back in the days of Charles the Great and again in the
thirteenth century in the rise of universities and the development of
the scholastic philosophy. The greater stimulus which followed the
revival of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries was due rather to
a more favorable set of conditions than had heretofore prevailed in
Europe. This was especially true of Italy. “It is no mere political
mutation,” says Symonds, “no new fashion of art, no restoration
of classical standards of taste. The arts and the inventions, the
knowledge and the books, which suddenly became vital at the time of the
Renaissance, had long lain neglected on the shores of the Dead Sea,
which we call the Middle Ages. It was not their discovery which caused
the Renaissance; but it was the intellectual energy, the spontaneous
outburst of intelligence which enabled mankind _at that moment_ to
make use of them.”[4] The enumeration of these favoring circumstances
will make necessary a return on the part of the teacher and class to
the time of the crusades; and the nearer they approach the fourteenth
century, the closer will appear the relation between such phenomena
as the passing of feudal conditions, the rise of the bourgeoisie and
the awakening of the individual man to a consciousness of his latent
powers and resources. The weaving of this chain of circumstances will
bring up among other things the rise of national literatures, the
founding of universities, the development of town life, the appearance
of the Ottoman Turks in Europe, the political and economic condition
of the Italian cities, the work of Dante and Petrarch, and the timely
invention of the printing press.
What Did the Renaissance Accomplish?
The class is now ready for the final question, “What did the
Renaissance really accomplish?” The following headings are suggested
for developing this phase of the subject; (1) the revival of learning;
(2) the new art; (3) commerce or discovery; (4) science and invention;
(5) religion. This order offers an easy and at the same time a natural
transition to the Reformation.
Several methods are open to the teacher for expanding these sub-topics.
One is to select a single individual, or a small group of individuals
and to present their lives and work in sufficient detail to illustrate
the various activities of the age and its leading characteristics; or
to present a series of contrasts, placing the achievements of these
men over against the attainments of the great thinkers and doers of
the Middle Ages. Either method does not require an elaborate library
equipment for its success.
If the former plan is adopted, Petrarch becomes the embodiment of
that passionate love for antiquity, that zeal for the collection of
ancient manuscripts, and that bitter opposition to those masters of
the Aristotelian logic, the ancient schoolmen, which marked especially
the revival of learning. A Raphael, a da Vinci, a Titian, and a
Michelangelo mark the highest pinnacle of achievement in painting;
Michelangelo, many-sided and versatile, like so many of his brother
artists, is the type of the great sculptor; and Bramante of the great
architect. The extension of geographical knowledge is so intimately
associated with the life and work of Prince Henry the Navigator,
that it has led one writer to declare that “the change which has
revolutionized European trade and has drawn the whole world within
the influence of Western civilization was indirectly the doing of
this Portuguese prince.”[5] Science needs no better exponent than a
Copernicus; the name of Gutenberg has always been associated with the
printing press and finally, religion is ably represented in the person
of a Valla and an Erasmus. The consideration of the life and work of
the two last-named writers brings us face to face with the reform
movement of the sixteenth century.
If the second method commends itself to the teacher, the schoolmen,
limited both as to material and method, with their appeal to authority,
can be presented in sharp contrast to the critics and scoffers of
the Renaissance with their final appeal to the reason. There is some
danger of over-emphasizing the follies of the former and of failing to
estimate their work at its true value. (On this point see Adams, p.
368, and footnote.) If it is true that St. Peter’s suffers by contrast
with the great achievements in the Romanesque and the Gothic, not so
a Raphael, a da Vinci, and a Titian when placed side by side with a
Cimabue, a Giotto and a Fra Angelico; or the rude reliefs on the doors
of Notre Dame and the Strasburg Cathedral, when placed beside the
bronze doors of a Ghiberti, “worthy to stand as the gates of Paradise.”
The discoveries of a Columbus, a Magellan and a Vasco da Gama, when
contrasted with the medieval conception of the world as depicted by
their greatest cartographers, emphasize the remarkable progress of
this later age in “discovering the world,” as well as man. Finally
the misconceptions and pseudo-scientific treatises of the medieval
schoolmen sink into insignificance beside the work of a Galileo and a
Copernicus and the far-reaching results of the printing press.
Use of Illustrative Material.
Whichever method may be followed, it will be found that illustrations
will add much to the interest of the class and make clearer the
characteristics of the painting and sculpture of the period. A few
pictures carefully selected will serve the purpose much better than
a larger number. The “Madonna and Christ-Child,” by Cimabue;[6] the
“Death of St. Francis,” by Giotto, and the “Coronation of the Virgin,”
by Fra Angelico, will serve as illustrations of some of the faults of
medieval painting. Care should be taken, however, to point out the fact
that some of these artists are classed among the early Renaissance
painters and their work marks a decided advance over that of their
predecessors. The “Last Judgment,” by Michelangelo; the Sistine
“Madonna,” by Raphael; the “Assumption of the Virgin,” by Titian, and
da Vinci’s “Last Supper” are numbered among the “World Pictures,” and
illustrate that mastery of technique and conception which has made
their names so famous. Pictures of Michelangelo’s Moses, his David, and
his figures on the tombs of the Medici, and Ghiberti’s bronze doors
for the baptistry of Florence can easily be secured to illustrate the
work of the Renaissance sculptors. A suggestion has already been made
as to medieval sculpture. The Perry Picture Company or the Cosmos
Picture Company can probably supply such pictures as may be needed at a
very moderate cost. That teacher is especially fortunate who has access
to a good art museum. The Metropolitan Museum of Art of New York City
offers special facilities to teachers and classes wishing to use their
collections.
Literature.
Reference has already been made from time to time to helpful
literature. Burckhardt’s “Civilisation of the Renaissance in Italy” is
often cited as the best book in English on the Renaissance in Italy,
but it offers comparatively little in the way of suggestive treatment
for the secondary teacher. His point of view is psychological and
therefore quite beyond the comprehension of the secondary student. This
fact, however, should not discourage the teacher from a perusal of
his pages, as he throws new light on many a vexed question connected
with the movement. Symonds’s “Short History of the Renaissance in
Italy,” an abridgement of his larger work, though more popular and
less scholarly, portrays the more attractive and the more intelligible
side of the period and makes it glow with life and enthusiasm. Placed
in the hands of the young reader, it may be the means of inspiring
him with some of the writer’s enthusiasm for the labors of the men of
that period, and possibly stimulate a stronger desire for some of that
culture of which they were such worthy exponents. The chapter by Adams
on the Renaissance in his “Civilization During the Middle Ages” is most
suggestive and helpful. He not only summarizes the various revivals
which culminated in the Renaissance proper, but traces the movement
from its inception in Italy to its appearance in Italy and Germany,
pointing out clearly its leading spirits and characterizing their
special contributions to the movement. Lodge, in the concluding chapter
of his “Close of the Middle Ages,” deals with the main features of the
Renaissance and presents some admirable contrasts between the old and
the new. Mention should also be made of the chapters in Seignobos’s
“History of Medieval and Modern Civilization” on the “End of the
Middle Ages,” “Modern Times,” “Inventions and Discoveries,” and the
“Renaissance.” Beazley’s “Prince Henry the Navigator,” contains much
more than a biography of this great pioneer in the field of discovery,
and will be found useful for its summary of earlier achievements.
Seebohm’s small volume on the “Era of the Protestant Reformation,”
though brief, contains an excellent summary of the conditions which
prevailed during the Renaissance and their relation to the movement
for religious reform. Van Dyke, “History of Painting,” and Marquand
and Frothingham, “History of Sculpture,” are useful handbooks for the
artistic side of the Renaissance. Whitcomb’s “Source Book of the
Renaissance” probably contains the greatest number of readings from
the Renaissance authors, both Italian and German. Special mention
might be made of his extracts from Petrarch and Benevenuto Cellini in
Part I.; and from Erasmus and the “Letters of Obscure Men” in Part
II. Part II. is preceded by a short account of the Renaissance in
Germany. Robinson’s “Readings,” Vol I., contains much that is helpful,
particularly in contrasting the culture of the Middle Ages with that
of the Renaissance. In this connection should be noted Chapter xix, on
the “Culture of the Middle Ages,” with its subdivisions on “Mediæval
Natural Science,” “Historical Knowledge in the Middle Ages,” “Abelard
and the Universities,” “Supremacy of Aristotle in the Mediæval
Universities,” “Scholasticism,” and “Roger Bacon and the Beginning
of Modern Experimental Science.” Chapter xxii contains extracts
illustrating the Renaissance in Italy, with subdivisions on the Italian
despots (quoting from Machiavelli), “Humanism,” and the “Artists of the
Renaissance.” Ogg devotes one of his concluding chapters (xxvi) to the
“Beginnings of the Italian Renaissance,” in which he quotes from Dante
and Petrarch.
Questions.
The following questions, gleaned from various sources, may serve the
teacher as a guide in presenting some phases of the movement.
In what respects were the Crusades responsible for the Renaissance?
What is meant by the “revival of learning,” and through what agencies
was it brought about?
Trace the causes leading to the Renaissance and name four persons
prominent in art or literature during this period.
Set forth the limitations and the value of scholasticism and the
meaning and results of the revival of learning.
What contributions to the Renaissance movement were made by Italy,
Germany and England respectively?
State the part taken in promoting the Renaissance by Copernicus,
Petrarch, Raphael and Erasmus.
State some of the effects of the Renaissance as they appear (a) in
government; (b) in literature and art; (c) in industries.
Show a relation between the Renaissance and (a) the fall of
Constantinople (1453); (b) the invention of printing; (c) the discovery
of America; (d) the Protestant revolt.
Discuss the accuracy of the following statements, mentioning the facts
upon which you base your conclusion:
a. The fall of Constantinople did not cause the Renaissance, but it
did give a great impetus to it.
b. Without the Renaissance the Reformation would not have occurred.
FOOTNOTES:
[2] Lodge. Close of the Middle Ages, pp. 518, 519.
[3] November number, History Teacher’s Magazine.
[4] The Italics are mine.--Editor. On this same point see also Adams,
Civilisation during the Middle Ages, pp. 371-374. The quotation is from
Symonds, A Short History of the Renaissance in Italy, p. 3.
[5] Cunningham, Western Civilisation, Vol. II., p. 130.
[6] In the Rucellai Chapel of Santa Maria Novella Florence.
Ancient History in the Secondary School
WILLIAM FAIRLEY, Ph.D., Editor.
THE GLORY AND THE RUIN OF GREECE.
With the work of the present month we come to a period of Greek history
marked by the extreme of contrast. We are to study the crowning glories
of Greece in the realm of mind, and her downfall on the side of
political strength and success. Both facts should be emphasized. This
section is specially well fitted for topical study. A series of such
topics may well be as follows:
1. Map of Attica and the Athenian Empire at its widest. Plan of
Athens. Pictures of Athens. Side topic: the sources of the wealth
of Athens. (Mines, taxes, tribute).
2. Athenian public life. Intense devotion of citizen to state
affairs. Opportunity for every citizen to hold office.
3. Social, industrial and private life. Aspasia, as throwing a side
light on position of woman.
4. Greek art--sculpture, architecture, painting.
5. Greek drama: its development and power.
6. Greek philosophy. The attempt to read the problems of life.
Special reference to Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.
7. Athenian democracy under Pericles. The Constitution.
8. The career of Pericles: born leader of a democracy.
9. The Peloponnesian War.
10. Military and naval affairs. Athenian naval supremacy. The Theban
phalanx.
11. Spartan and Theban control. Military rule of conquered sections.
12. Greek political failure.
Here is a good month’s work; and one which will test the teacher.
Remark has already been made in this series of articles on the
surpassing debt of modern civilization to Greek thought. The present
is the opportunity for the pupil to grasp the extent of this debt. The
value of such grasp will depend on the teacher. It is easy to imagine
the dullness of mere text-book work here. The student may be led
through such a period, and have no more impression left on him than he
would by learning the boundaries of our forty-six States. On the other
hand, he may be so impressed by the marvellous activities of the Greek
mind as to be able always hereafter to understand why literature makes
so multitudinous references to this petty people.
Minimize the Study of War.
The better text-books are admirable in their restraint in dealing with
such topics as the Peloponnesian War. One fine book gives only six
pages to it, and omits all trivial details. Another good book gives
only about eight pages. This is as it should be. That war, and the
later attempts at control by Thebes are to be taken, not as studies
of heroic endeavor, but as melancholy examples of human foolishness.
The bitter costs and heavy losses of war can find no more striking
illustration than in the period of the great struggle for control in
Greece. These were essentially civil wars from our point of view. It
is true there was no political unity in Greece, save of the fleeting
federations; but for all that the wars of the fifth century and the
first half of the fourth were wars among peoples who should have been
brothers. Historians tell us that there are no “lessons” to be drawn
from past occurrences. But, spite of that dictum, the political fate
of Greece points plainly to the evils of unnecessary war. Some wars
are unavoidable race conflicts; others center about the struggle for
freedom from tyranny; others come from the clash of older and newer
ideas. But fratricidal war, such as the internal conflicts of Greece,
is only horrible. The recent ebullition of temper between England and
Germany, peoples of the same stock, is an illustration of the sort of
thing that the Greek example may well warn against.
The Periclean Democracy.
It is a relief to turn away from war and its evils to the living
interests of peaceful life. The young student will come across many
references in his later reading to Athenian democracy. That democracy
reached its flowering under Pericles. In the outline of topics given at
the beginning of this article, number 7 calls for a period devoted to
the study of this democracy. How shall such a lesson be taught?
In a preceding article it was suggested that the pupils make an
outline of the older Athenian constitutions. This outline may well be
supplemented first of all by one of the various assemblies, courts
and offices of the Periclean time. But that is only the bones of the
study. The lesson might proceed by a series of comparisons with modern
conditions. First of all, What did an Athenian mean by “democracy,”
and what do we mean? The answer to this question will show the mighty
advance of the modern idea over the best of the older world. The growth
of the power of the popular assembly as over against that of the senate
and Areopagus should be pointed out. And its modern counterpart in the
growing distrust of legislatures and the demand for the referendum may
be used to illustrate the same tendency among us.
The degree of intelligence among the Athenians who constituted the
assembly must be noted. Probably so able a body of citizens would be
hard to match in a modern state of a thousand times the size of Athens.
But was this excellence, founded on slave labor, and the idea that the
worth of the true citizen is measured by his political activity too
dearly bought?
The long control of Pericles, “the leader of the people,” illustrates
finely the fact that the great man is sure to assert himself and to
be used by his fellow citizens under whatever system of government,
and whether he holds office or not. On the other hand, the theoretic
division of executive responsibility, rising from distrust of one-man
power, was a weakness. States must use and trust their great men,
putting heavy responsibilities on them.
Contrast may well be drawn between a court at Athens and one in any
part of the United States. Here will be opportunity for finding out how
little the average youth really knows about our jury system.
Greek Drama.
Another topical lesson suggested is number 5, on the Greek drama. The
growth of drama from the old chorus may be traced with its addition
of an actor--then two actors--then three. The names of the chief
dramatists, Æschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes, should be
linked with our Shakespeare and Molière, (What American playwrights
fit worthily in such a class?) The difference between tragedy and
comedy can be shown, tracing the etymology of the two words as given in
any standard dictionary. Set the pupils to discussing the difference
between a good play and a bad one. Why do these few old Greek plays
live, and their characters become commonplaces of literature,
with the characters of Goethe and Shakespeare? What characters of
modern plays are likely or worthy to live? And at some time in the
all-too-short period there might be short illustrative readings from a
translation--Browning, or Shelley. Only by some such enlivening method
will our charges ever get any grasp on the fact that Greek drama was
epoch-making in its importance. We might well compare the open-air
theater of Greece with our modern play-house; and also the different
spirit in which the Greek took his drama.
Greek Art.
Again attention is to be focused on the fact that the Greeks were
leaders and masters in art. And the surpassing wonder is that when the
rest of the world had been satisfied with winged bulls and sphinxes
and grotesquely conventional forms of men these people arrived in a
century or two at a perfection which is the delight and the despair of
the world. Their supremacy in carving the human figure in marble needs
to be connected with their devoted attention to the development of the
living form by athletic exercise. In our larger schools will be found
casts, perhaps, at any rate, pictures, of the best pieces of Greek art.
Their restraint, their simplicity may be dwelt on. In the country where
the one lone teacher, not an expert, either in history or art, has not
even a “pallid bust of Pallas,” he or she can at least make use of
the illustrations in the text-book. Above all, let us try not to let
this period be one of dull memorizing of names. It needs interpreting
to the young folks so that they may see the wonder of it all, and the
controlling influence it has exercised on the ages since.
The Lesson in Philosophy.
That same lone teacher just referred to may feel that it is absurd to
ask for a lesson on philosophy with children. But, is it not true that
in childhood some of us have been more curious about the problems of
existence than we have since had time or taste to be? So if we cannot
read to the boys and girls passages from the Phædo or the Apology, we
can stir our pupils to a sense of the pressing nature of the problems
which the Greeks first (save the Hebrews) strove rationally to solve.
They asked and tried to find rational answers to such questions as,
What is the relation of mind to matter? What is God? What is man? Does
man die as the beast dies? And to these questions the men of this
period found not unworthy answers. So in every field of human thought
we find them pioneers and teachers of the world.
English History in the Secondary School
C. B. NEWTON, Editor.
IV. VARIOUS PHASES OF THE FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES.
A Prologue on Mannerisms.
One of the best-known professors in Princeton Theological Seminary,
some years ago, was locally famous for his curious mannerisms. It was
said that at certain crises in his lectures he would put his watch in
his mouth, to the huge delight of his class. But one is a great teacher
in spite of one’s mannerisms, not because of them, and with most of
us peculiarities in the class-room greatly detract from and handicap
our usefulness as teachers. I am moved to a friendly word of warning
at this point because we are approaching the time of year when subtle
and imperceptible class-room peculiarities are apt to creep upon us
unawares. The first freshness of the year’s work has worn off, “the
daily round, the common task” is perhaps beginning to tell on us.
Little ruts of expression, little oddities of speech or manner begin
to creep upon us unawares. Only eternal vigilance--vigilance tempered,
however, with humor and a due sense of proportion--will save us from
the danger of establishing some unhappy mannerism which _may_ grow into
a beam in comparison with some of the motes we see in our pupils’ eyes!
I remember having this brought home to me very forcibly, some years
ago, when I had an unusual opportunity of seeing myself as others
saw me in the class-room. A lad with an unusual gift of caricature,
took off several teachers at an informal evening gathering. After
recognizing, with considerable amusement, clever take-offs of several
of my colleagues, I suddenly recognized, with equal amusement,
myself! In a flash I recognized an unnecessary trick of speech into
which I had fallen, hitherto all unconsciously. There were other
mannerisms, apparently harmless, but I saw in an instant how useless
and objectionable the trick of speech was; and I inwardly blessed the
boy for revealing it to me. I have never once used it since. More than
this, I was put on my guard, and I have since caught myself at some
seedling idiosyncrasy, which I was able to weed out before it took root.
It may be that some teachers are immune from this danger, but I believe
it is a real one with most of us, and--“let him that thinketh he
standeth take heed lest he fall!”
As to the Fourteenth Century.