THE FIRST NOMADS
Sad news again on the morning of November 12: two of our best horses
were dead, and a third, which had carried two boxes, made in Stockholm,
all the way from Leh, was at the point of death. All three had been
sound on the preceding evening, and they died with exactly the same
symptoms. They became giddy, lost control of their legs, fell down, and
were unable to get up again. I hoped to rescue the remnants of my
caravan, and was already thinking of the time when I could lead the poor
beasts to mangers in Shigatse full of sweet-smelling clover, and now
those that we had reckoned the strongest had broken down. Now only 13
horses were left, and the loads would soon be too heavy for the
survivors.
But it had not come to that yet, for this day, which commenced so sadly,
brought us joy before the sun went down. Following the track of the
caravan we rode among hills, and saw below us camp No. 60 in a deep
valley. I had just entered my tent when Muhamed Isa announced that
Tundup Sonam was coming from the upper valley in the company of two
Tibetans, one mounted, the other on foot. Timorous, and doubtful whether
Tundup Sonam had allured them to a robber band, the Tibetans laid their
long clumsy guns on the ground and came forward cautiously. Tundup had
needed all the fascinations of his eloquence to induce them to come with
him. He had told them that we were pilgrims accompanying an eminent lama
from Ladak to the holy places: Then they had answered that they would
come and show their reverence for His Holiness, and bring with them a
sheep's stomach full of butter, and another with goat's milk, as a
testimony of their deep respect. Muhamed Isa, who was accustomed to deal
with Tibetans, allayed their fears, taking them into his tent and
talking and joking with them. Then they were brought to me, and they
laid their presents on the ground, fell on their knees, put out their
tongues, and made a low obeisance. Instead of a holy man they found a
European, but seemed by no means displeased with the change. Muhamed Isa
acted as interpreter. They must first give us information on the
geography of the country and the character of the land through which our
route lay. The information received from the lady of the mountains was
confirmed in every respect, and they told us that we should meet with no
men for several days, but after that should pass black tents daily.
Our guests might be fifty and forty years old respectively. The elder
was quite a typical specimen, more like an ape than a man; the younger
looked as though he had already met with many adventures, and he would
have passed very well for a robber chief (Illustrations 85, 86).
The conversation now commenced may have little intrinsic interest, but
to us in our condition it was as exciting as a tale--our salvation was
involved.
"How long is it by the nearest way to Shigatse?''
"Four long, or five short, days' march."
"Will you guide us?"
"Yes, if we are paid to do so."
"How much do you want?"
"That the Bombo Chimbo (great chief) shall decide himself."
"Have you any horses you can sell us?"
"We have two, but we will not sell them."
"Have you any yaks for sale?"
"Yes, we will sell five, if we get 20 rupees for each."
"Will you give us some of your sheep?"
"You may have six, if you will pay 4 rupees a head."
"Good. Bring all the animals you are ready to sell, and if we are
satisfied with them you shall be well paid."
"The Bombo Chimbo must remain here till to-morrow if we are to do this."
It was then agreed that we should remain. But I knew the Tibetans, and
was aware that they promise much and perform little. We therefore kept
the fellows with us for the night, and they slept in Muhamed Isa's tent.
In the evening they were enraptured by the tones of our flutes, and felt
so much at home that their tongues were loosened, and rattled like
praying-mills. I heard their cackling until I went to sleep.
And this night I slept well. After eighty days of complete solitude we
again had men as guests in our tents; we had obtained fine, rich goat's
milk, and next day we should feast on well-fed mutton; we had received
information about the country and the marches before us on the way to
our far-off destination. And what was best of all, our veterans, our
caravan animals, would get help. And this help was a boon from heaven;
for this day, after we had lost three more horses at once, and when
Rehim Ali must unfortunately be reckoned among the baggage, the loads
had become too heavy for the animals. The future seemed more promising.
Certainly the ridge of the Samoma-sakcho mountains did not exhibit a
more purple colour in the evening light than the mountains which we had
seen glowing in a grand display of colours on many a lonesome night; the
blue smoke of the camp-fires danced a fairy dance on the steppe grass
just as before, and the night came down just as dark and cold over the
mountains to the east, but all around us to-day inspired us with
cheerfulness and hope.
The new day had hardly broken when our two Changpas set out homewards
with some of the Ladakis, to make preparations for the great business
transaction. Two hours later we were the fortunate owners of five fine
yaks, which, the Tibetans affirmed, could easily carry four boxes each,
whereas our horses and mules had carried only two. One of the yaks was
to take over the boat, and the horse which had carried it from Lake
Lighten was relieved of the work. I breathed freely again when I saw the
faithful animal without anything to carry. Then we bought four sheep at
4 rupees each, and exchanged our last three sheep for two fresh ones,
paying 2 rupees in addition. At the Gomo lake our last eight goats
obtained their well-earned rest, being exchanged for as many Tibetan and
a money payment of 1 rupee a head. In the evening I had three times as
much milk as usual, and richer and better than our exhausted goats had
supplied. Both parties were thoroughly satisfied with the bargain
(Illustration 88).
Good old Changpas! The wandering cavaliers of the wilderness came to us,
looking picturesquely savage with their black coarse hair hanging down
over their shoulders and back, and making their furs greasy, with long,
dark matchlocks on their shoulders, clumsy sabres and knives in their
belts, and mounted on small, tough, long-haired horses. Though wild and
dirty, they were yet kindly, friendly and good-tempered, and were
certainly not cold in their old dingy fur coats. The elder wore a small
round fur cap, the younger a _bashlik_ of fur, which covered his whole
head except the face. They had their provisions and all kinds of other
articles they wanted on their journey stuffed into their fur coats in
front, and from the belts which held their fur coats together, hung
knives, awl, flint and steel, pipe and tobacco pouch, which swung and
knocked together at every step. They wore felt boots, originally white,
but now black and worn-out, but had no trousers--it must be far too cool
to sit trouserless in the saddle with 36 degrees of frost.
As they came from Gertse, the country to the south-west, they had hardly
any knowledge of the region through which we were to travel, but they
thought that we should require at least fifty days for the journey to
Shigatse. They pass the winter in the Gomo district, living on the game
there. They could easily serve a little breakfast with which the most
exacting gourmand might be satisfied. Is not the following menu
tempting?
A bowl of goat's milk with rich yellow cream.
Yak kidneys, fried a golden yellow in fat.
Marrow from yak bones, toasted over the fire.
Small, delicate pieces of tender, juicy meat from the vertebræ of the antelope, laid before the fire and slowly browned.
Antelope head, held in the flames with the hide and hair on till it is blackened with soot.
Their taste is in general very different from ours. When they have
killed a wild ass, they cut it up and keep the pieces in the tent, piled
up around it as far as possible from the fire. The longer it has lain
there, the better it is supposed to taste. The Changpas prefer to eat
their meat raw, hard, dry, and old. They take out from the recesses of
their fur coats a yak's rib, which looks more like a piece of blackened
wood than anything edible. Then the knife is brought out, and the hard
meat is removed in strips or lumps from the bone. Chinese brick-tea is
their greatest luxury, and the thicker and dirtier it is, the better
they like it. They stir it up with a piece of butter.
Like the wild geese, they have learned by traditional experience where
the best camping-grounds are. One may be sure that their tent is always
pitched at places where there is little or no wind; that there is good
pasture at hand for their tame yaks, sheep, goats, and horses, if they
have any; that good hunting-grounds are to be found not far from the
tent, and that water is always to be had. At the Gomo lake they have
excellent table-salt cost free. When their domestic animals have eaten
up the grass around, and the game has been frightened away, they
transfer their camp to another district. The tents are set up at the
same spots where their forefathers have pitched them for innumerable
generations, and where frequently old votive cairns have been erected of
loose stones to propitiate the spirits that rule over mountain and dale.
To the Changpas, or "inhabitants of the north," who spend the winter in
the north, the chase is the chief resource, and cattle-breeding is of
secondary importance. The Tibetans in Gertse and Senkor, on the
Bogtsang-tsangpo, or in Naktsang, who own large herds, do not move
northwards in winter, for with them hunting is an occasional occupation.
The hunting tribes pursue the yak, the kiang, and the antelope. In hilly
country they stalk them against the wind. Constant life in the open air
has wonderfully sharpened their intelligence. They know the
peculiarities and habits of the yak as well as he does himself, and
know how far they may go without overstepping the limits of his
acuteness. They know that his senses of sight and hearing are not
particularly well developed, but that he soon scents the huntsman, so
that the attack must be made from the lee side. Though he goes on the
chase in his thick fur coat, the huntsman creeps as noiselessly and as
lithe as a panther till he approaches within range of his prey. Then he
lays his gun on the rest, strikes fire from the flint with his steel,
catches it in tinder, sets light to the end of the match, and sees that
the hammer brings the fire at the right moment into the touch-hole. All
is done so quietly, so deliberately and carefully, that the hunter has
every prospect of bringing down the game.
Another time he watches for hours together behind a wall which he or his
forefathers, perhaps his great-great-grandfather, has built beside a
spring, and waits with angelic patience for a troop of wild asses, which
come at sunset to quench their thirst. But the antelopes, wild sheep,
and gazelles are too wide-awake to be caught by the most skilful hunter.
Yet the antelopes do not always succeed in escaping his cunning toils.
He lays nooses for them on the old established antelope paths; among the
hunting nomads in the interior of Tibet, the quantities of antelope meat
garnishing the sides of the tents are astonishing.
[Illustration: 87. SMOKING CAMP-FIRES IN THE HEART OF CHANG-TANG.]
[Illustration: 88. OUR YAKS, BOUGHT FROM THE FIRST TIBETANS.]
While the men are away, the women look after the yaks and sheep, and
when the hunter returns at sunset he sees the former chewing the cud in
front of the tent, while the latter are shut up in a pen-fold of stone.
The yaks remain at night near the tents, and hence the dung, the only
fuel of the nomads, has not to be carried far. When it is dark, all
gather round the fire on which the tea-kettle boils. Then they talk of
the monotonous incidents of their life, of the day's bag, the condition
of their herds, and the work of next day. One mends his soles with sinew
and an awl, another dresses a yak hide with his hands, and a third cuts
straps from the skin of a wild ass. Their life seems void and
uneventful, but they have no wants--they know nothing better. They have
a severe struggle for life in this unproductive corner of the world,
which is called the Chang-tang, or the north plain, where it has been
their fate to be born. Amidst poverty and danger they live victorious in
God's free Nature; the awful storms are their brothers, the lordship of
the valleys they share with the wild beasts of the desert, and at night
the everlasting stars twinkle over their black tents. If they were given
comfortable huts down south in the shade of walnut trees, they would
always be longing for the grand solitude of the mountains, for the icy
cold, the drifting snow, and the moonlight of the peaceful winter nights
in Tibet.
Then Death comes one day and looks in through the tent door; in vain is
the constant prayer "Om mani padme hum" repeated; vain are all attempts
to conjure or propitiate the evil powers that are inimical to the
children of men. Bent, wrinkled, and grey the old hunter finishes his
course, and is borne on strong shoulders to some shallow cleft near the
mountain crest, and there abandoned to the wolves and birds of prey.
When his grandchildren are grown up, they do not know whither he has
been taken; in life he had no abiding dwelling-place, and after death he
has no grave. And no one asks where the bones of the dead are bleaching,
for the place is haunted by evil spirits.
November 14. Calm! In the night there were again 49 degrees of frost,
but it was fairly warm riding southwards towards the sun. The two horses
of the Tibetans had stampeded. But if this were a trick contrived to
give them an excuse for making off themselves, it did not succeed this
time; for I sent off one of them with two of my men to look for the
horses, while the other had to accompany me and tell me the names of the
places we passed. We did not know our men yet, and therefore did not
dare to let them out of our sight, or they might have despatched mounted
messengers to give information to the authorities in Gertse. Then we
should have been ordered to halt sooner than it suited us. Now we could
feel easy, at least till we came to the next tent. But the horses were
recovered, and the old man stumped after us leading them by the bridle.
Then we rode together between the hills and over small passes. Here,
too, gold occurred in two places. Men come every summer, dig up the
sand, throw it into the air, and collect the grains of gold on a cloth
spread out on the ground. If the output is abundant, the number of
gold-diggers is doubled the following summer.
In camp No. 61, also, the Tibetans showed no desire to desert us; they
were friendly and attentive, helped us in unloading and setting up the
tents, collected fuel, and undertook to be answerable for the horses.
They seemed not to have the slightest suspicion that the country was
forbidden to us, and not an echo of any especial orders had reached them
from the south. I could not learn how matters stood. The plan of my
journey had been alluded to in the Indian press, and there was nothing
to prevent tidings being carried to Lhasa through Darjiling or Pekin;
and I knew also from experience how soon an order against a European is
handed on among the nomads. I had counted on hurrying on, like a thief
in the night, as soon as possible after the English mission to Lhasa,
and appearing on the scene before the Tibetans had quite made up their
mind about the political state of affairs. But perhaps I was wrong,
perhaps stricter regulations than ever had been passed.
The western shadows move over the plain; only in the east are the hills
deep crimson, in the west they show a pitch-black outline. Another night
spreads out its dark-blue pinions, and rises up to the zenith, driving
before it an expiring reflexion of the setting sun. When the stars begin
to shine we are out of doors examining the animals, which rejoice at
being more lightly loaded on the march. At seven o'clock I am massaged
and go to bed. At nine o'clock Robert comes with the hypsometer, and we
talk for an hour. Then the light is allowed to burn till it flickers
out. I lie a long time awake, watching the shadows come and go, as the
wind shakes the canvas. I gaze at them till they turn into monsters and
wild yaks, dancing mockingly round my prison. Now it is striking
midnight in the towns of Siberia and India which lie on our meridian,
and at length comes the deliverer sleep and drives away the
shadow-pictures: they melt away and vanish on the horizon, which
recedes more and more into the distance, no longer bounded by the thin
web of the tent. Now a low murmur seems to call to mind forests,
meadows, and small rocky islands. I dream that a strong hand leads me to
a parting in the ways. It points to a road, and a voice tells me that
this will lead me to a land of peace, hospitality, and summer, while the
other leads to dangers and privations among dark lofty mountains. When
Tsering brought the brazier in the morning, I was glad that I had in my
dream chosen the latter road without hesitation.
We penetrated further and further into this mysterious Tibet. During the
next day's march we passed a succession of deserted fireplaces, and in
some places saw rows of stone cairns to entice the antelopes into
snares. Then we ascended a valley, in which a small strip of ice
gradually expanded into a cake, filling all the space between the firm
slabs of greenstone. The Seoyinna came in sight--a dark mountain to the
south, which would remain visible for a couple of days longer.
Our Tibetans are already as intimate with us all as though we had been
friends from childhood, and say that they have never met with such
decent people. The elder is called Puntsuk, the younger Tsering Dava. We
sit for hours together at Muhamed Isa's fire and talk pleasantly, and I
take notes as they describe to me in detail all the routes in Tibet they
are acquainted with. Tsering Dava has accomplished the pilgrimage to
Tso-rinpoche, or the holy lake Manasarowar, which I long to reach, and
which has been the subject of my dreams for many a day. The two men were
to accompany us only three days more; they had left their yaks and sheep
to the care of their wives and children, and wolves were extraordinarily
numerous; otherwise they would have travelled any distance with us. They
had arrived from Gertse nineteen days before, and intended to stay six
months; forty or fifty parties come every year from Gertse to this
country.
They told us that the Tokpas, or gold-diggers, when they go up to the
goldfields for two or three months, take as provisions meal and meat,
which are carried by their sheep and yaks. When the provisions are
consumed they return home, passing the salt lakes, where they load their
animals with salt, which they barter in inhabited districts for barley.
Thus they make a twofold profit on their journey, and can live the rest
of the year on their gains.
In the evening a dead horse, emaciated and wretched, lay on the ice in
our valley. I had procured him for 70 rupees from a dealer in Leh, who
in December 1901 had bought my last nine camels. Next morning a mule
died just as unexpectedly. He looked brisk and sound, and allowed
himself to be loaded as usual, but had not gone a hundred paces when he
fell dead. The two small Tibetan horses, which travel with us, take a
great interest in their fellows; but they do not seem quite sure that
the animals, so thin and wretched, are really horses. At this day's
camp, No. 63, we saw them run up to their masters for two large pieces
of frozen antelope flesh, which they eagerly ate out of their hands like
bread. They are just as fond of yak or sheep's flesh, and the Tibetans
say that this diet makes them tough and hardy. We cannot help liking
these small shaggy ponies, which live to no small extent on the offal of
game, are at home in the mountains, and bear rarefied air with the
greatest ease; their lungs are as well adapted to it as those of the
wild asses. The cold does not trouble them in the least: they remain out
all through the night without a covering of any sort, and even a
temperature of -22.7°, which we had on the night of November 17, does
not affect them. Though they are not shod, they run deftly and securely
up and down the slopes, and the men on their backs look bigger than
their horses. We notice with great amusement how heartily they greet
each other at every camp. Puntsuk, who shows Muhamed Isa the way, rides
a small bay pony, which is already grazing when we appear. As soon as
the pony catches sight of his grey comrade with Tsering Dava he neighs
with delight, cocks his ears, and runs up to him; and the grey one
exhibits just as much satisfaction. This is very different from the
conduct of our dogs, which fight wildly as soon as they see each other.
Now we passed the Seoyinna mountain; one flank was dotted over by
numerous wild yaks engaged in feeding, and Tundup Sonam shot two. My men
took the best joints with them, the rest of the meat our guides would
fetch on their way home. They were evidently much impressed by Tundup
Sonam's skill, but Dava Tsering declared that he had shot more than
three hundred yaks in his lifetime, which was probably no exaggeration,
seeing that these men live on the products of the chase.
Now we ascend rapidly to the Chak-chom-la pass. Tsering Dava rides in
front. His little pony trots up the ascent. When we have still a good
distance to cover, we see the profile of the man and his horse on the
summit, sharply defined against the sky. There stands a cairn of granite
blocks, and many trails of gold-diggers run at a height of 17,825 feet.
Sitting beside a fire, rendered necessary by the cold and the wind, we
gaze southwards over a vast extent of country, a chaos of yellow,
reddish, and black crests. No plains appear between them, and we suspect
that we have troublesome ground before us. Near at hand, towards the
south-south-east, a flat basin with a small lake occupies a large
expanse. We ride down a very steep path to the camp where the Tibetans
proposed a day's rest on behalf of the yaks we had purchased.
In the course of the day we settled accounts with our guides, who had
been so friendly and helpful, and who now wished to return to their bare
cold mountains where the winds and wolves howl in rivalry. They received
each 3 rupees a day as recompense, and a sheath-knife from Kashmir, and
a whole heap of empty tin cigarette-boxes, which seemed to please them
more than the money. And then they vanished, swiftly and lightly as the
wind, behind the nearest hills, and we were alone again.
With 36 degrees of frost our nine Mohammedans celebrated their "Aid"
after Ramazan with flute, dance, and song, and with a freshly
slaughtered sheep. In the night the thermometer fell to -23°. The ink
was always freezing in my pen, even when I sat bending over the brazier;
after a few minutes my washing-basin contained only a mass of ice.
After a few hours' march we descried from a pass 22 grazing horses, 300
sheep, and some evidently tame yaks, and these were near a tent. Farther
to the west 500 sheep and a number of yaks were feeding. Five more tents
were pitched in a sheltered place in a deep valley, and a troop of
snarling dogs ran out to meet us. Men, women, and children turned out to
see what was the matter. The caravan encamped near, on the western shore
of the lake Dungtsa-tso, and presently received a visit from four
Tibetans. These, too, came from Gertse, had arrived ten days previously,
and intended to stay three months. The six tents contained 40 inmates,
who possessed together 1000 sheep, 60 yaks, and 40 horses. The oldest of
our new friends was a lame man of fifty-three years of age, and was
named Lobsang Tsering. He presented to me a dish of sour milk and a
bundle of joss-sticks, such as are used in temples. He was willing to
sell us three large yaks for 23 rupees, and we took them without a
moment's hesitation.
When the caravan had set out next morning two other Tibetans presented
themselves, very eager to sell us two more yaks. When I told them that
our money was on in front, they asked permission to go with us to the
next camp, where the purchase might be completed. That evening, then, we
were the fortunate owners of ten excellent yaks, and Tundup Sonam was
appointed to be their chief and leader. Our remaining mules and horses
now carried only very light loads, and I was rejoicing that I could keep
them all alive. But at this very spot another mule was frozen to death;
true, there were 59.2 degrees of frost.
Our day's march ran round the lake and into a broad valley extending in
a south-easterly direction. Some 150 kulans were peacefully grazing
among the tame yaks of the nomads. A youth acted as guide to the
caravan, and old Lobsang Tsering rode like a herald before me, mounted
on a fine yellowish horse, which he would not sell at any price. As he
rode he muttered prayers at an incredible pace--it sounded like the
buzzing of a swarm of midges about a lime tree on a summer evening. I
myself rode my dapple-grey from Yarkand again, in order that my small
white Ladaki might have a couple of days' rest.
The camp was pitched beside a pool of fresh water, where the most
wonderful sounds were emitted from the firm ice all night long. It
cracked and clappered, gurgled and snorted like camels and yaks, and one
might fancy that a bevy of water-nymphs were dancing under the icy roof.
The dogs barked furiously at the ice till they at last perceived that
this noise must be put up with like everything else.
At the evening fire Lobsang Tsering asked Muhamed Isa whether we had met
with Changpas at the Gomo. But Muhamed Isa had promised Puntsuk and
Tsering Dava not to betray them. Then Lobsang winked an eye and said
that Islam Ahun had already told him that we had not only seen nomads,
but had bought yaks from them and had taken them as guides for several
days. Muhamed Isa tried to turn the affair into a joke, and answered
laughing that Islam Ahun had concocted the story himself. But the old
man was sharp; he smiled cunningly, and seemed to regard the first
version as the more probable. It was a great advantage to us that we had
first come into contact with Gertse nomads, who were themselves
strangers in the country we passed through. They had received no orders
from Lhasa concerning us, and were beyond all comparison better disposed
and more friendly than the eastern Tibetans, who on my former journey
had sent off messengers at once to the south. But we now found that the
Gertse nomads were afraid of one another; the first had begged us to
tell no one that they had helped us, and had turned back at the right
moment in order not to be seen by their fellow-tribesmen from Gertse.
Lobsang Tsering did not seem to be of a timid disposition; he led us to
other tents, gave us instructions about the way to Bogtsang-tsangpo, and
was able to give us much interesting information. He told us, for
instance, that nearly four thousand sheep and several hundred yaks are
yearly employed in transporting salt from the lakes we had lately
passed, and that the salt was carried to Shigatse and Lhasa. From these
towns came most of the gold-diggers, and in the north were many other
gold-placers which we had not seen.
We soon perceived that Lobsang was a man of importance, for all showed
him the greatest respect, and we could see from his camp that he was
rich. He spoke with dignity, and with an educated, refined accent. In
his appearance he reminded me of a decayed actor, without a trace of
beard, and with an animated expression in his dirty, copper-coloured
face. Unlike the rest, who wore sheepskin caps, he sported a red turban,
and his fur coat was trimmed with red woollen stuff. In the front of his
coat all sorts of things were stuffed, among them a vile
pocket-handkerchief--a thick, coloured, square rag, constantly in use,
but never washed. There also he kept his snuff-horn, which he could
handle even in a wind with a certain dexterity. The fine yellow snuff
was scooped up on the tip of the forefinger under the protection of the
thumb-nail, and conveyed to its destination somewhat noisily.
Every evening Muhamed Isa made his report. This time he presented
himself with the following statement: "Sahib, Rehim Ali is still bad,
and he begs permission to offer a sheep to Allah."
"Very well, if he will be any the better for it."
"Oh yes, certainly, Sahib."
"I think it is all humbug, but it will do him no harm and the
Mohammedans will get an extra meal. I will give the sheep then."
"No, Sahib, that will not do; then the sacrifice would have no effect."
"Indeed. Can I have the kidneys for dinner to-morrow?"
"No, Sahib, only Mohammedans may eat of a sheep offered in sacrifice."
"Just so; of course in your opinion I am a _kaper_" (heathen).
He laughingly protested, but changed the subject. "Now we have 13 mules
and 11 horses, or 27 animals altogether, of the original caravan."
"Thirteen and eleven make only twenty-four," I replied.
"Oh! then I must count them again," said my conscientious caravan
leader, and he gave himself much unnecessary trouble to make the figures
agree. At last it proved that we had still twenty-five animals beside
the yaks.