HAND FINISHING.
When the books have been bound they are generally ornamented in gold or
in some other way. Although the more elaborate finishing in gold is not
done in the ordinary bindery, but is confined to the art binderies,
sufficient instruction will be given here for the simpler finishing on
back and side.
Gold finishing is only learned at the cost of much patience and long,
painstaking practice. Although the technical schools teach finishing in
a comparatively short time--usually in a few months--only the
ground-work can thus be acquired, for it takes years of practice to
teach all the technicalities and to make an expert finisher, equal to
any calls made upon him.
It may also be mentioned here that in most technical schools the work is
executed with the very best and most suitable tools and, furthermore,
the whole interior arrangement of the workshop is as favourable to the
work as can be conceived, and thus all conditions for good work prevail.
When young workers come from such an institution to work under strange
conditions, where they have to struggle along with unfamiliar and
perhaps unsuitable and antiquated tools, bad light, and other drawbacks,
it is not to be wondered at if they--at the outset, at least--do not
answer all expectations. Similar inconveniences have less effect upon
old and experienced workers, as they have the steadiness and assurance
which come to them as the result of long years of work, and they,
therefore, never become nervous and fidgety. A cool head and a steady
hand are the first essentials in a finisher, and after these the feeling
for neatness and exactness.
Gold tooling has evolved from the blind tooling of the 15th century,
which up to that time had been the only method of decoration for the
exterior of books, excepting where gold or jewels were used. The first
application of this method was in drawn lines made by running the heated
fillet alongside the rule, and even to-day the fillet, although improved
in make, still retains its place as a suitable tool for the decoration
of leather backs and sides. Speaking generally, blind tooling is not
sufficiently appreciated by finishers, especially in shops doing much
hand tooling; to many it is almost unknown, and they would be at a loss
if there were any demand for it, and yet it is eminently suitable for
simple finishing with slender resources, to obtain a result at once
chaste and striking without excessive ornament, and this without a
costly assortment of tools and other special appliances.
Before proceeding to the details in the work of finishing, a few
preliminary observations may be made.
Blind tooling is the ornamenting of leather with tools without the
application of gold. It might also be correctly described as matt
tooling. Its peculiarity and beauty consist in its rendering the tooling
on the leather in a darker tone. Blind tooling may be executed upon
leathers of any colour, but its full decorative effect is seen only upon
light colours, especially upon undyed calf and pig-skin and also upon
coloured unpolished calf.
To produce the deepest and most uniform tone it is necessary to damp the
leather previous to tooling. As it is well that the whole surface to be
tooled should retain some moisture it is advisable to damp it evenly
with a sponge on beginning the work.
The simplest tools are, as already mentioned, the fillets, which may be
single, double, or triple, with lines of equal or different thickness.
The design is carefully traced with dividers, folder, and rule, and the
heated tools run along the rule. Before applying the tool, which should
be only moderately heated, the line previously marked out should be
damped with a suitable brush. The instant the moisture has been absorbed
by the leather, the tool should be applied. There should be no hissing,
as the tool should be only lukewarm for the first application. The roll
must touch the leather at the beginning without any uncertainty and the
line made at once and without stopping, as otherwise a darker shade
would appear in places.
Figs. 73 and 74--Simple line designs.
Each time before using the roll it is passed over a well-greased piece
of leather.
The impression should appear uniformly brown; if it is lighter at any
part, it has not been sufficiently damped; if darker at another place
from the beginning, then that part was too damp. Success depends before
everything else upon uniform damping of the leather and correct heating
of the tool.
With ordinary cleanliness and care, complete success is assured in this
method of finishing.
After the surface of the leather has again become dry in all places, the
whole design is again gone over, but this time with the roll a little
hotter, at the same time rubbing the roll well with the greased cloth.
If there had been unevenness in the depth of colour before, it will
hardly be possible to remedy it now, for the light places remain so and
the dark ones become even darker.
Where blind filleting is done it is usual to do die tooling at the same
time. It is advisable--especially for novices--to apply the die without
heat to the damp leather, then to damp specially and apply the die
lukewarm as in filleting. Tooling with dies is essentially different
from filleting in the method of execution. The fillet polishes whilst
running on, the die remains on the one place, and yet every part must
receive an equally good impression. In order to secure a good impression
from a die it is necessary to apply it promptly, and press without
hesitating as to where to begin. To ensure all parts of the tool being
well impressed, its surface is slightly curved lengthwise, and according
to this curve the die must be rocked to and fro whilst impressing. If
too much time is wasted before the die is applied the impression will
turn out lighter. By allowing the heated die to remain long on the
surface of the leather, the latter loses its moisture at that place and
the die could not produce any further deepening of the colour. Such
places must be again damped and tooled until a uniform tone is attained.
Care must be taken that this repetition does not produce "doubling,"
that is, a blurred appearance of the design, and also that it does not
lead to indistinctness of outline.
Blind tooling upon light leathers is to-day called upon to satisfy the
needs of the less wealthy just as it was 300 years ago, for in such a
style of decoration the utmost durability and moderate cost are
combined, and its very simplicity enhances its beauty.
Fig. 75--Half-calf extra tooled in blind.
Fig. 76--Leather binding with simple design in blind.
Now for the hand finishing. It is first of all necessary that we should
be able to letter straight, at first upon a board. For the tooling of
long straight lines, dotted lines, or other style of lines upon the
sides, rolls are required, upon the circumference of which the design is
engraved, whilst for tooling upon the back the so-called fillets are
generally used, which likewise are used only for lines or patterns.
Besides, certain kinds of ornaments are here printed with dies--the rows
of letters with the type-holder in which these are set. All these tools
are heated over a flame--best over gas--to the temperature suited to the
material operated upon. To make the gold adhere, the material to be
tooled is sized or "glaired" with one part vinegar to three parts white
of egg well whisked or beaten and filtered, as is done in blocking.
Other materials for sizing will be dealt with later.
Fig. 77--Simple gold tooling on sides.
Lines are made along the sides and at corners of the boards, especially
on paper-covered boards; this is called "running a line up" or
"filleting."
The line to be gilded is clearly marked with a sharp folder, picked out
with glair, and the gold, which is taken up on the roll, is printed in.
Fig. 78--Tooled cover.
The gold leaf is cut on the cushion into narrow strips about 1 cm. wide,
and the warm (each time wiped clean) and slightly greased roll is
lightly passed over it so that the strip of gold adheres to the
circumference of the roll, and then rolled off with a firm and even
pressure on to the place intended.
This is now gone over with a wool rag (or gold rag), and only the
printed line is left; the surplus gold remains in the rag.
Fig. 79--Specimen of tooling done in the Duesseldorf Technical School.
Near the finishing stove should stand--as also for blind tooling--a
shallow saucer containing water and also a common brush similar to those
sold with bottles of gum. A drop of water is thrown from this brush on
to the hot tool in order to test its heat. Cloth is printed with fairly
hot tools; they should hiss a little when tested. Goat-skin requires a
heat almost sufficient to produce hissing, whilst hissing would
indicate too hot a tool for use on morocco, and all sheep-skins will
bear only moderate heat. If the roll was too hot, the gold would have no
brilliance, and if too cold, would appear broken. Calf requires the same
heat as cloth, but quick working, especially on first applying the tool.
The roll has a long handle which rests against the shoulder whilst held
in the right hand. When getting into position for an impression the
thumb-nail of the left hand is used as a guide and support.
Fig. 80--Leather binding by Oswald Kob, Bozen.
A line around a cover is marked out correctly with dividers and folder,
picked out with size, and printed in gold in the same way. The rolls
have a notch, which is for starting and ending at the corners; these
must always be joined exactly. Rolls for two or more lines must print
the corners perfectly diagonal, and for this purpose such rolls are cut
so as to print a true diagonal corner; one corner being made for the
beginning and the other for the end. Of course it is impossible to print
long lines with only one revolution of the roll. The roll is run along
the line from starting point until near the end, lifted off, and again
placed on the spot just quitted, a little behind the starting point of
the roll, so that this part does not show. This is repeated as often as
the length of the line necessitates. In order to secure good corners,
the roll is lifted just before reaching the corner and a corner tool is
used for the corner itself. At no point should one be able to see where
the roll was set on or taken off, and the result should be a straight,
even line, showing no trace of inequality.
Fig. 81--Cover with laurel motive done in the Duesseldorf Technical
School.
For single lines, the gold is generally taken up on the previously
heated roll; but in using wider rolls it is better to lay the gold on
with the tip and press it well down with surgical cotton wool.
Places where the gold did not stick or which look gritty must be sized
afresh and once more tooled. The beginner generally finds that the gold
does not stick at the point where he begins, a sure sign that he
hesitated too long on commencing.
It has already been said that white of egg is used for making the gold
adhere, and there are, indeed, very few materials requiring any other
treatment, yet we know of a number of cases where white of egg alone is
insufficient to fulfil this purpose--not, indeed, because it is
unsuitable, but because the quality of the leather is such that the
white of egg would be absorbed too quickly (calf, tanned sheep) or that
it would take badly and unequally.
Just as certain kinds of leather are difficult to treat, so also are
old, long-stocked skins. If the finisher knows that such a piece of
leather lies before him, he ought to rub it down on the raw side with
best olive oil; it will thus receive a substitute for the lost natural
fatty matter and become more supple. This oiling, of course, is only
practicable with dark leathers, as light leathers nearly always become
darker. A skin so treated should be rolled up and laid aside for a few
days.
At any rate, such a defective leather is improved by a previous washing
with size, no matter whether it be made from vellum, gelatine, or glue.
It must not, however, be made from the commonest kinds of glue, as these
make the leather dull.
Vellum cuttings, or gelatine, are soaked overnight in water sufficient
to cover, and next day dissolved in a sort of glue-pot. This sizing must
be used very thin and should not be quite cold. In using ordinary glue,
two drops of medium strength to about three table-spoonfuls of warm
water will suffice.
Many finishers prefer thin paste water as a size, with which they coat
the whole surface; personally, however, I would only recommend it for
unpolished calf--but here there is a real necessity for it. In this case
it is liberally laid on in large sweeps with a sponge--not new, and free
from grit--and then well rubbed into the pores of the leather with the
ball of the hand. The surplus is quickly washed off with clean water.
Large surfaces left plain are also washed with gum tragacanth, because
this sizing leaves no lines behind. About 10 grammes of tragacanth to
1/4 litre water are soaked in a vessel, and after swelling it is well
stirred. This solution is also laid on with a sponge, but is not rubbed
in, neither is it subsequently washed off.
These two methods of sizing will be found sufficient to meet all cases.
There are certain materials that do not allow the use of a liquid
sizing, particularly silk and velvet. The latter is no longer finished
by hand, and even blocking velvet is now considered bad style.
For gold tooling on such materials gilding powder is used; it is to be
had either white or yellow, but for hand tooling the white only is
required.
Although no exact rules can be given for determining the temperature of
the tools used upon the various materials, yet we must try to give a
general rule for each kind.
We will use the following terms to distinguish the different degrees of
heat: Lukewarm, _i.e._, not the slightest hissing when tested; medium,
_i.e._, just on the border of hissing; hot, slightly hissing. In the
following group the method of sizing is repeated, and a scheme for the
approximately exact temperature of the tools is given.
Cloth, goat-skin, and marbled leather (without previous sizing, white of
egg): medium heat.
Sheep-skin and lamb-skin (glue size, white of egg): medium heat. Calf
(white of egg): hot.
Morocco goat (without sizing, white of egg): medium heat.
Morocco, Levant morocco, crushed morocco (glue size--painted in, white
of egg): lukewarm.
Pig-skin, Russia, seal (without sizing, white of egg): lukewarm.
Mention has already been made of a wash of paste water for matt calf. As
a rule, the whole surface is washed with this preparation, as it is
thereby rendered less liable to finger marks. In the very best shops
there is still another method. The leather is washed down with
tragacanth and the previously impressed design picked out with white of
egg and quickly tooled with tools medium to hot.
Vellum requires a special treatment. On the day before it is to be
finished in gold it is washed with alum solution and, for gold tooling,
sized with undiluted white of egg and tooled lukewarm.
When tooling is done with powder it is dusted on by means of a
powder-box, over which is stretched some thin material, and tooled
lukewarm.
The great convenience in the use of powder induces many binders to adopt
it for leather and cloth also. This practice is objectionable, and the
conscientious finisher will always avoid it. It may be excused when a
name has to be printed on a Prayer-book or similar article in a hurry,
or when an article is already varnished, as powder in such a case is
very convenient and satisfactory, but under any other conditions it is a
sign of incompetence.
Tooling upon powder on leather looks very gritty and unsightly after
having undergone many changes of temperature, as the latter greatly
affects this material. Its brightness vanishes entirely--a thing that
never happens when white of egg has been used.
It must still be observed that tooling with lukewarm tools must be done
slowly, and with hot tools quickly. Nearly all inexperienced finishers
use too hot tools.
Fig. 82--Leather binding with fern motive done in the Duesseldorf
Technical School.
So far, we have dealt with the preparation for finishing and tooling
with a roll. Besides this tool there are fillets, gouges, and dies, all
nearly the same, being dies, and only differing in shape. Nearly all
beginners are unreasonably afraid to use the gouge. Any one able to use
the roll properly will have little difficulty with the gouges. A genuine
technical difficulty does arise when only a small portion of a curve may
be worked (which frequently happens) on account of its having to be
joined to another. Moreover, the joining of one curve to another must
not be seen.
Every single gouge of the complete set (it should contain at least 20
pieces) forms the quarter of a circle. The gouges are chosen according
to the design, so that the tools placed thereon cover the outlined
design exactly, and the tool numbers are noted on the designs so that
they may be quickly and surely picked up when required for use.
The tyro is apt to select sizes too large and to print the curve sloping
instead of perpendicular; this must be guarded against.
Double gouges are not easily used in the same way, as the joinings
cannot be concealed; they may be used for making first outlines, which
must be finished with single curves.
Fig. 83--Simple gold tooling on squares.
Faulty places must be done over and over again until the whole is
perfect and brilliant and all the gold adhering.
Fillets are nothing more than long narrow dies of either simple or
ornamental lines. It is the practice of the old school to widen the
impression of narrow fillets by continuous rocking of the hand to right
and left, as they are fond of doing when lettering with a type-holder.
This practice is fundamentally wrong. Work finished in this way will
never show the quiet and uniform brilliance in the gold to be seen in
work where the movement was only in the direction of the dies and
fillets.
Besides tooling the front sides, the inside edges or squares are
generally ornamented in extra work. A simple but very effective
decoration for the edge consists of a line close to the edge of the
board and also one close to the end paper and a connecting line at the
corner; such an edge is previously polished with a burnisher. To do this
the leather is slightly damped, the tool moderately heated--not
hissing--and then polished with long even strokes.
Fig. 84--Design in gold for squares. Tools by F. Clement, Leipzig.
Figs. 85 and 86--Two designs in gold for squares.
With the help of rolls and dies, even richer decoration may be produced,
and really artistic ornament designed and executed on the inside as well
as on the outside cover. Such work, however, does not come within the
limits of this treatise. We must be satisfied with giving a few
illustrations of the less elaborate designs. Rolls are very often used
in finishing the edges, so as to fill up at once the whole width of the
space, and about this we must say a few words. Rolls with a pattern
have, as is known, no notch, and therefore may be used for a run on of
any length without a break. For smaller margins and cheap work the rolls
are frequently run over each other. This saves time but it does not
produce a nice effect, as the design is blurred at the point of
crossing. It is better to lay the gold leaf on one side and to remove it
exactly at the corner and then tool; the side next to it is now treated
in exactly the same way, giving special attention to the removal of the
leaf at the corner. The design is thus made to join together at the
corners without crossing, because the roll will only leave its
impression as far as the gold goes. For extra work, however, a die
suiting the roll in width and design should be chosen, and leaving as
much of the corners as the die will cover free from gold, the remainder
of the surface is covered with the leaf and tooled. With a little skill,
the roll can be taken up exactly where the gold leaf ceases. The edge is
then cleaned with the gold rag and fresh gold laid on for the corner
die and then tooled. By this method the design at the corner is
correctly finished.
Figs. 87, 88, and 89--Three simple backs. T, d, B = Title; N, T = Sub
Title.
Gold tooling on the back is more difficult on account of its convexity.
For this work the volume is placed in a little wooden press which finds
a place upon the bench, or in a special contrivance which can be screwed
to the bench.
Fig. 90--Type-holder with centre position.
To ensure good results in tooling the back, it is necessary that the
work to be done should be accurately marked out beforehand. The bands
are measured out by means of the dividers if they do not already show as
raised bands. With a pointed folder draw this traced design accurately
upon a strip of cardboard. Blind lines are made upon cloth before the
latter has become quite dry; in other cases tool the first impression
hot and vigorously, pick out the impression with white of egg, and then
tool with lukewarm fillets. In making lines, the fillets may be drawn to
and fro, whereby a great brilliancy will be produced. Gold lines or
ornamental fillets are picked out with white of egg and then tooled in
gold. For simple lines the gold is taken up from the cushion; for
ornamental fillets the gold is carried to the back.
Lettering the back is an art in itself as regards the arrangement of the
lines, but besides this it requires considerable practical experience.
The letters are composed and screwed up in the type-holder for printing.
The type-holder, with the letters, must never be placed over the heating
stove, for in Germany letters made of lead are still most generally
used, and these would melt very quickly if placed over the stove.
Moreover, the letters should be screwed up just tight enough to prevent
their falling out. The heat expands them and they are then locked quite
firmly enough in the type-holder.
In arranging the letters the following general rules should be
observed:--
1.--Always use types from the same fount in a title.
2.--For books printed in Gothic (black letter) type use Gothic letters;
for books printed in Latin types use the same for lettering.
3.--All lines in a title should be set either in lower case only or in
caps. only.
4.--Gothic and Latin in a title are inconceivable.
5.--Except for abbreviations, points are no longer used in the titles of
books, not even at the end; neither is a comma placed after the author's
name.
6.--Nowadays, a short line is always made under the author's name.
Figs. 91, 92, 93, and 94--Four backs tooled in the Duesseldorf Technical
School.
As regards the length of line and choice of types, the following should
be observed:
1.--The most important word (catch-words) should be made prominent by
larger type or spacing.
Fig. 95--Group of backs tooled in Carlsruhe Technical School.
Figs. 96 and 97--Two richly decorated insides done in the Duesseldorf
Technical School.
2.--The oftener a short conjunction or article (for, the, and, or, &c.)
is placed between the lines, the more effective will the title be; such
words must be set in smaller type.
3.--Two lines of equal length should not come together; long and short
alternating as much as possible.
4.--The author's name is set in type a little smaller than the principal
catch-word.
Figs. 98, 99, 100, and 101--Four richly tooled backs.
5.--The lettering is most effective when the type is selected and
arranged so that it rises in size towards the middle line and then
decreases.
6.--Unnecessary length tends to indistinctness; the best title tells
what the book is in very few words, and should be easily read at a
little distance.
Fig. 102--Rich half-calf extra binding.
It is impossible to mark out the whole of the title with the dividers
unless a specimen copy is at hand from which the spaces can be measured.
The best guide is the eye. The distance between the lines should be
equal; a plain line is reckoned as a line of type and must not be placed
at half the distance between the lines.
If a line with letters having long upstrokes (literature, hostile,
latter, &c.) follows one without long downstrokes (never, miner, memoir,
&c.) the lines must come a little closer than when a line having long
downstrokes (poppy, Ganges, &c.) comes over one having long upstrokes.
In this respect the binder is in a more difficult position than the
printer, as the latter need give no attention to this, his title never
being so cramped into little space.
The effectiveness of a leather back can be considerably heightened by
evenly smoothing and polishing the title panel with a burnisher. Such a
back with the title panel enclosed within a square with only a fine
double line at the head and tail and also a fine line close to the head
is perhaps the best that an ordinary bookbindery can produce. It is
essential, however, that every detail should be faultlessly executed,
especially the title.
Tooling a square is frequently done. The beginner should always use the
roll for this, although tool makers produce line pieces for the work. It
is easier to print straight with the roll than with the line pieces,
which require skill to use. Special attention should be given to
joinings at corners, so that neither gaps nor overlapping are seen.
For the rest we have given a number of different designs of backs (pp.
149, 150, 151) as well as a few richly tooled half-calf bindings, and
also two specimens of highly ornamented insides (p. 150).
Figs. 103 and 104--Tooling on heads.
The head and tail and edges are often decorated in higher class work. Of
course the style of finishing is very limited on account of the
smallness of the surface. Fillets and rolls are generally used for this
work, being worked on the cap as seen in the illustrations, and always
directed towards a central point. The gold for the head and tail and
edges is cut to size on the cushion, the edges slightly greased, and the
gold taken up by the book itself.
The accompanying illustrations give suggestions for the gilding of
edges.
Figs. 105, 106, and 107--Tooling on the edges of the boards.
Fig. 108--Motive executed in the Duesseldorf Technical School.
Lining is done on almost all books. For this the "jigger" is used. It is
heated so that it hisses slightly, and with one quick and sure movement
is drawn along the straight edge. The line is drawn away from the
worker, that is, contrary to the way one would draw a line with a lead
pencil. Lines are drawn along paper, past back and corners, often also
right round the edge, over leather or cloth and cover; the closer to the
edge the more effective the line.
Many of the more costly books take a case to protect them from injury.
For trade purposes this is simply cut from plain boards and remains
uncovered.
Fig. 109--Case to protect book.
Fig. 110--Cut-out case.
The parts _A_ overlap and are either pasted together or wired with the
machine.
Fig. 111--Book cover.
Fig. 112--Cover in case form.
Similar cases of thinner boards--but covered--are made for hymn and
prayer books. They are always pasted, covered with a dark pressed paper;
and the edge at the centre is cut with a gouge as seen in the adjoining
illustration (Fig. 110).
Hymn and prayer books may at times have a cover; this would be cut from
stout paper, generally calf-leather paper, the colour of the case
covering (See Fig. 111).
Covers made in case form entail more work (Fig. 112). The centre piece
has a joint at each side; this part is, therefore, covered with cloth,
which extends over the parts _B_ and _C_, all the rest being covered
with dark pressed paper.