CHAPTER XXVII._The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria（#20758）

CONCLUSION.

General Estimate and Influence.

In forming a general estimate of a religion, one's verdict will largely

depend upon the point of view from which the religion in question is

regarded. It is manifestly unjust and illogical to apply modern

standards to an ancient religion, not that such a religion would

necessarily suffer by the comparison involved, but because of the

totally different conditions under which religion developed in antiquity

from those prevailing in modern times. The close association, nay, the

inseparable bond, between religion and the state is only one of several

determining factors that might be adduced, while the small scope

permitted to individualism in matters of religious belief and practice

in a country like Babylonia or Assyria was fraught with such peculiar

results that all comparisons, even with other religions of antiquity,

could only obscure and not illumine our judgment.

There are manifestly three phases of the religion of Babylonia and

Assyria that need to be considered in reaching some general conclusions

as to the character and rank to be accorded to it,--the doctrines, the

rites, and the ethics. So far as the pantheon is concerned, the

limitations in the development of doctrines connected with it were

reached when the union of the several Euphratean states was permanently

effected under Hammurabi. Marduk, a solar deity, takes his place as the

head of the pantheon by virtue of the preeminent place occupied by his

patron city,--Babylon. The other great gods, each representing some

religious center that at one time or the other rose to importance,

grouped themselves around Marduk, as the princes and nobles gather

around a supreme monarch. A certain measure of independence was reserved

for the great mother goddess Ishtar, who, worshipped under various names

as the symbol of fertility, plenty, and strength, is not so decidedly

affected by the change as deities like En-lil, Shamash, Sin, and Ea, who

could at any time become rivals of Marduk. As the position of Marduk,

however, became more and more assured without danger of being shaken,

the feeling of rivalry in his relations to the other gods began to

disappear. Marduk's supremacy no longer being questioned, there was no

necessity to curtail the homage paid to Shamash at Sippar or to En-lil

at Nippur; hence the religious importance of the old centers is not

diminished by the surpassing glory of Babylon. There was room for all.

Marduk's toleration is the best evidence of his unquestioned headship.

The centralization of political power and of religious supremacy is

concomitant with the focussing of intellectual life in Babylon. The

priests of Marduk set the fashion in theological thought. So far as

possible, the ancient traditions and myths were reshaped so as to

contribute to the glory of Marduk. The chief part in the work of

creation is assigned to him. The storm-god En-lil is set aside to make

room for the solar deity Marduk. But, despite such efforts, the old

tales, once committed to writing on the practically imperishable clay,

survived, if not in the minds of the people, at least in the archives of

the ancient temples.

The antiquity of literature in Babylonia was the factor that prevented

the cult from acquiring a uniform character in the various parts of the

empire. The priests of Nippur, of Sippar, of Eridu, of Erech, Cuthah,

Ur, and other places began long before the period of Hammurabi to

compile, on the basis of past experience and as a guide for future

needs, omen lists, incantation formulas, and sacrificial rituals. These

collections created orthodox standards, and these standards, once

acknowledged, the natural conservatism attaching to religious customs

was sufficient to maintain their continuance. The uniformity of doctrine

was thus offset by variations in the cult; and the policy adopted by

both Babylonian and Assyrian rulers, in permitting each center to remain

undisturbed, and in freely recognizing the religious independence of

each, prevented the Babylonian and Assyrian religion from falling into

the state of stagnation which would otherwise have been its fate.

In the views taken of the relationship between the gods and men, no

notable advances were made when once the ethical spirit was infused into

the religious beliefs. The problem of good and evil was solved in a

simple fashion. By the side of the great gods there existed a large,

almost infinite number of spirits and demons, who were generally held

responsible for the evils affecting mankind.[1594] These demons and

spirits were in many cases gods 'fallen from grace,'--minor local

deities who, unable to maintain themselves in the face of the growing

popularity of the great gods, sank to an inferior position as

messengers, forced to do the will of their masters and who could be

controlled by the latter. But the intercession of the priests was

essential to obtaining divine help against the mischievous workings of

the spirits. Even the kings, though originally standing very close to

the gods, could not dispense with the services of the priests, and by

virtue of their conspicuous position had to exercise greater precautions

than the masses not to offend the gods, by errors of commission or

omission in the cult. The priests held the secret that could secure

freedom from ills and promote the comparative well-being of rulers and

subjects. They alone knew what incantations to use for each case that

was brought before them, in what way the sacrifices were to be brought,

when the deity should be approached, and why divine anger had manifested

itself. The intellectual leadership thus acquired by the priests, in

addition to their control of religious affairs, was an additional factor

in maintaining orthodox standards of belief when once they had become

fixed. In the doctrines of life after death, this influence of the

priesthood is distinctly seen. The popular notions were systematized,

but the priests, true to their rule as conservators, did not pass beyond

primitive conceptions. Some weak attempts at a philosophical view of the

problem of death are attempted in the Gilgamesh epic as finally put

together under the influence of the Babylonian schools of thought,[1595]

but the leaders shared with the people the sense of hopelessness when

picturing the life in the great hollow Aralu. It is in the hymns and

prayers, rather than in the cosmology and eschatology, that the

spiritual aspirations of the priests (and to a limited degree of the

masses) manifest themselves. In these productions, whether existing

independently or incorporated into incantation rituals, we see the

religion of Babylonia at its best. A strong emphasis is placed upon the

doctrine that misfortunes and ills come as a punishment for sins of

commission or omission. It is true that no distinction is drawn between

ceremonial errors and real misdeeds, but the sense of guilt is aroused

by the priests in the minds of those who come to the temples, seeking

relief from the attacks of the evil spirits, or the bewitchment of

sorcerers.

It is in this doctrine of guilt, as revealed through the magical texts,

that we must seek both for the starting-point of the development of an

ethical system (so far as such a system existed among the Babylonians),

and also for the limitations of this system. The aim of the priests to

observe the right ceremonies, to pronounce the right words in order to

accomplish their aim, reacted on rulers and subjects, and led them to

make the pleasure of the gods the goal of life. With fear of the gods,

upon which stress is always laid,[1596] there is thus associated an

equally strong love[1597] of the divine powers. Obedience to the gods is

primarily inculcated as a means of securing their protection and

blessing; but the fear of the gods, we are told, is the cause of

joy;[1598] and the Babylonians passed far beyond the stage of making the

satisfaction of one's own desires the standard of right and wrong. A

penitential psalm declares[1599] that what is pleasing to oneself may be

sinful in the eyes of a god.

The kings pride themselves upon being the promoters of justice. Even the

Assyrian rulers, who impress one while conducting their wars as bereft

of all softer emotions, declare that their highest aim is to spread

plenty and happiness.[1600] Sennacherib calls himself a king who 'loves

righteousness,'[1601] and he, as well as his predecessors and

successors, busies himself with actually restoring the rights of those

of his subjects who have been wrongfully deprived of their possessions.

The standard of private morality was high both in Babylonia and Assyria.

The legal and commercial tablets reveal that proper consideration was

given to the treatment of woman--a most satisfactory index of ethical

conditions.[1602] She could hold property and dispose of it. Before the

courts, her status did not differ materially from that of the male

population. The husband could not divorce his wife without sufficient

cause, and children owed obedience to the mother as well as to the

father.[1603] Polygamy, as a matter of course, prevailed, but it is an

error to suppose that polygamy is inconsistent with high ideals of

family life, even though it does not lead to the highest ideals.

Hatred, lying, cheating, using false measures, removing boundaries,

adultery, insincerity are denounced in the incantation texts,[1604] and

in accord with this standard, we see in the records of lawsuits and

agreements between parties[1605] clear indications of the stringent laws

that prevailed in order to protect citizens against infringement of

their rights. It comes as a surprise, but also as a welcome testimony to

the efficacy of justice in Assyria, to find Ashurbanabal emphasizing the

fact that he established ordinances so that the strong should do no harm

to the weak.[1606]

The institution of slavery flourished in Babylonia and Assyria

throughout all periods of their history,[1607] but there were various

grades of slaves. Some classes differed but little from that of

servants, indentured for a longer or shorter period for certain

services. The temple slaves appear to have largely belonged to this

class. Mild treatment of slaves is enjoined and was the rule. The slaves

are often the confidential agents of their masters who attend to the

business affairs of the latter. We find slaves holding property in their

own right. Contracts entered into by them are legal and binding.

Injuries inflicted upon them by their masters are punished, and they are

protected against losses and mishaps encountered while in service. While

we have no evidence to show that the laws of Assyria were on a lower

ethical plane than those of Babylonia, still, as the pupils and

imitators of the Babylonians in almost everything pertaining to culture

and religion, the general tone of life in Assyria was hardly as high as

in the south. The warlike spirit of the rulers is but a symptom of the

fiercer character of the people.

The tendency towards monotheism in the religion of Babylonia and Assyria

has been referred to. We must remember that it was only a tendency. No

decided steps in this direction were ever taken. Both in the south and

in the north, this tendency is but the expression of the preeminent rank

accorded to Marduk and Ashur, respectively. The independent existence of

two heads in the combined pantheon was sufficient to prevent the

infusion of an ethical spirit into this monotheistic tendency; and

unless a monotheistic conception of the universe is interpreted in an

ethical sense, monotheism (or monolatry) has no great superiority,

either religiously or philosophically, over polytheism.

From the standpoint of religious doctrine, accordingly, the religion of

Babylonia and Assyria does not occupy a unique position. In this

respect, the Egyptian religion reaches a higher level. For all that, the

influence exerted by the religion that developed in the Euphrates Valley

was profound and lasting. We have had occasion in various chapters of

this work to point out the close analogies existing between the

thoughts, tradition, and practices of the Hebrews and the

Babylonians.[1608] A proper study of the Hebrew religion is closely

bound up with an investigation of the religious antiquities of

Babylonia; and as our knowledge of these antiquities increases, it will

be found that not only are Hebrews and Babylonians equipped with many

common possessions when starting out upon their intellectual careers,

but that, at different times and in diverse ways, the stimulus to

religious advance came to the Hebrews from the ancient centers of

thought and worship in the Euphrates Valley. This influence was

particularly strong during the period of Jewish history known as

Babylonian exile. The finishing touches to the structure of

Judaism--given on Babylonian soil[1609]--reveal the Babylonian

trademark. Ezekiel, in many respects the most characteristic Jewish

figure of the exile, is steeped in Babylonian theology and mysticism;

and the profound influence of Ezekiel is recognized by modern

scholarship in the religious spirit that characterizes the Jews upon the

reorganization of their commonwealth.

It would be a mistake, however, to suppose that what Babylonia gave to

others was always the best she had to offer. Degrading tendencies, too,

found an entrance into post-exilic Judaism through Babylonian influence.

Close contact of Jews with Babylonians served to make the former more

accessible to the popular beliefs in incantations and in the power of

demons than they would otherwise have been. Not that the Jews (as little

as any other people) were ever entirely free from superstitious

practices; but, living in an atmosphere charged, so to speak, with magic

and astrology, it was inevitable that even the best among them should be

infected by customs that they daily witnessed. In the Babylonian Talmud,

the references to evil spirits are numerous. Specific incantations are

introduced, and an elaborate system of angelology and demonology forms a

feature of Talmudical Judaism in which, by the side of Persian

influences,[1610] we may detect equally strong traces of Babylonian

ideas. In the upper strata of the ruins of Nippur, hundreds of clay

bowls were found, inscribed with Jewish inscriptions, in the Aramaic

dialect that was spoken by the Babylonian Jews.[1611] Similar bowls were

found elsewhere in the mounds of the Euphrates Valley.[1612] These bowls

indicate the presence of Jews in various parts of the country.[1613]

Placed in the graves as a protection for the dead against evil spirits,

the inscriptions contain formulas of denunciation against the demons

that constitute a striking parallel to the incantation texts of ancient

Babylonia. Some of the demons are identical with those occurring in

these texts, and by the side of the inscriptions, there are

illustrations[1614] and magical designs to which parallels exist on the

Babylonian tablets.

This custom of endeavoring to secure protection for the dead through the

power of the curses and propitiatory phrases inscribed on bowls

continued in vogue as late as the ninth century at the least, and

perhaps considerably later. There are indications also that Babylonian

ideas found an entrance into the Jewish Kabbala,--the strange mystic

system of the middle ages, the sources of which are to be sought in the

apocalyptic chapters of Ezekiel and Daniel.

Christianity as well as Judaism felt the fascination of the mystic lore

of Babylonia. Gunkel[1615] has demonstrated the Babylonian origin of the

myth embodied in the twelfth chapter of Revelations. This myth is but

another form of the Marduk-Tiamat contest, which, it will be recalled,

is the chief episode in the Babylonian creation 'epic.'[1616] More

significant is the influence exerted by the religious ideas of Babylonia

upon the various Gnostic sects that arose within the Christian Church.

That the source of Gnosticism was to be sought in Mesopotamia was always

recognized by scholars, but until the discovery of Babylonian

literature, it was customary to seek for Jewish influences in the

formation of the various Gnostic sects. Kessler[1617] was the first to

demonstrate clearly the dependence of the leading ideas of Gnosticism

upon the Babylonian cosmology and the conceptions developed with

reference to the gods. More recently, Anz[1618] has undertaken a renewed

investigation of the subject, and, approaching the theme from various

points of view, reaches conclusions confirmatory of Kessler's thesis.

All of the Gnostic sects have certain fundamental doctrines in common,

such as the dwelling of God in the abyss,[1619] the migration of the

soul after death through seven zones, the emanation of aeons from a

supreme aeon.[1620] All these doctrines exhibit such close affinities

with Babylonian ideas as to warrant the assertion that the religion of

Babylonia survives in Gnosticism; and since, as we know, Babylonian

culture and customs maintained an undisturbed existence almost to the

threshold of our era, there is no need to go back to the older periods

of the Babylonian religion to find the connecting link, uniting

Gnosticism with the Babylonian religion. The spread and influence of the

Gnostic sects was notoriously wide. It is sufficient to recall the chief

centers of Gnostic schools of thought in Antioch, Edessa, and Alexandria

and the various branches of the powerful sect of the Ophites. The

influence of these schools extended into Greece and Rome. While the

Gnostic sects disappear in the sixth century, the influence of

Gnosticism can be followed down to the twelfth century,--a significant

testimony to the enduring qualities of Babylonian doctrines.

In the ancient world, prior to the rise of Christianity, Egypt, Persia,

and Greece felt the influence of the Babylonian religion. Budge[1621] is

of the opinion that many of the magic practices carried on in the

Egyptian temples are to be traced back to the incantation rituals

perfected by the Babylonian priests. In view of the early contact

between Egypt and Babylonia, as revealed by the El-Amarna tablets, there

were certainly abundant opportunities for the infusion of Babylonian

views and customs into Egyptian cults. In Persia, the Mithra cult

reveals the unmistakable influence of Babylonian conceptions;[1622] and

if it be recalled what a degree of importance the mysteries connected

with this cult acquired among the Romans, another link will be added

connecting the ramifications of ancient culture with the civilization of

the Euphrates Valley. The strong admixture of Semitic elements both in

early Greek mythology and in Grecian cults is now so generally admitted

by scholars as to require no further comment.[1623] These Semitic

elements are to a large extent more specifically Babylonian. The spread

of the Gilgamesh epic and of the Ishtar cult into Asia Minor and Greece

may be instanced as illustrations of Babylonian influence; and granting

that the Phoenicians acted largely as the mediators in carrying these

ideas to the Greek settlements, still there must have been influences at

work long before this direct contact with Semitic culture that prepared

the way for the ready acceptance which Semitic conceptions and Semitic

practices found. The time has not yet come for pronouncing an opinion as

to the influence exerted by Babylonia upon lands in the distant East.

The theory of DeLacouperie[1624] and Ball, which proposes to trace the

Chinese script to the hieroglyphic system of Babylonia, is still to be

tested. Early commercial contact between the Euphrates Valley and India

is maintained as a probable theory by several scholars,[1625] and the

possibility, therefore, of the spread of the religious ideas of

Babylonia to the distant East is not to be rejected. Patient research

and the additional discoveries (which are constantly being made) will

alone place us in a position some day to give a definite answer to the

question. Whatever that answer may be, the verdict as to the high

quality and profound influence of the religion that arose in the valley

of the Euphrates and that flourished for several millenniums will not be

altered.

To show the general indebtedness of Grecian, Roman, mediaeval, and even

modern civilization to Babylonian culture lies beyond the range of this

work, but the profound impression made upon the ancient world by the

remarkable manifestations of religious thought in Babylonia and by the

religious activity that prevailed in that region is but an index of the

influence that must have been exerted in other directions by the varied

intellectual activity that converted a district, exposed to the by no

means tender mercies of the elements, into one of the most notable

illustrations of the power and achievements of man.

FOOTNOTES:

[1594] See above, pp. 183, 266.

[1595] See pp. 513 _seq._

[1596] Babylonian and Assyrian kings alike speak constantly of their

fear of the gods. See the passages in Delitzsch's _Assyrisches

Handwoerterbuch_, pp. 526, 527, to which many more could be added.

[1597] See, _e.g._, Nebuchadnezzar, IR. 53, col. i, l. 31.

[1598] IVR. 60, B obv. 25.

[1599] IVR. 60, C obv. 14.

[1600] So Sargon cylinder, ll. 34-42.

[1601] IR. 37, col. i. l. 4.

[1602] See the writer's remarks in _Oriental Studies of the Oriental

Club of Philadelphia_, pp. 119-121.

[1603] See the so-called family laws (as early as the days of Hammurabi)

in Meissner's _Beitraege zum Altbabylonischen Privatrecht_, p. 15, where

the punishment in the case of the son who casts aside his mother is

specifically referred to.

[1604] See, _e.g._ p. 291.

[1605] See the admirable discussions on Babylonian jurisprudence in

Kohler and Pelser's _Aus dem Babylonischen Rechtsleben_ (parts i.-iii.,

Leipzig, 1890-97).

[1606] S. A. Strong in _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_, 1891, p.

460.

[1607] See on this subject Meissner, _De Servitute Babylonico-Assyriaca_

pp. 3, 4, 40-49.

[1608] See especially chapters xxi., xxv., and xxvi.

[1609] See p. 611.

[1610] See Kohut, _Die Judische Angelologie und Daemanologie in ihrer

Abhaengigkeit vom Parsismus_ (Leipzig, 1866).

[1611] Peters' _Nippur_, pp. 182, 395.

[1612] See, _e.g._, Layard, _Nineveh and Babylon_ (New York edition,

1853), p. 509.

[1613] On the extent of the settlements of Jews in Nippur, see

Hilprecht, _Cuneiform Texts_, ix. 27, 28.

[1614] So, _e.g._, on some of the bowls in the University of

Pennsylvania collection, crude pictures of Bel-Marduk and Ishtar are

portrayed.

[1615] _Schoepfung und Chaos_, pp. 381-397.

[1616] See pp. 432 _seq._

[1617] "Ueber Gnosis und die Altbabylonlsche Religion," _Verhandlungen

des fuenften Orientalisten Congress_, 1881, ii. 288-305.

[1618] _Zur Frage nach dem Ursprung des Gnostizismus_ (Leipzig, 1897).

[1619] _I.e._, Ea dwelling in the Apsu. See p. 430.

[1620] Anu, the source of all gods. See p. 417.

[1621] _The Life and Exploits of Alexander the Great_, pp. xii. _seq_.

[1622] See Anz, as above, pp. 78-85.

[1623] R. Brown, _Semitic Influence in Hellenic Mythology_ (London,

1898).

[1624] _Western Origin of the Early Chinese Civilization_ (London,

1894).

[1625] A paper on this subject was announced by Jas. Kennedy at the

Eleventh International Congress of Orientalists.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

NOTE.

The bibliography is arranged in nine sections, the order adopted

corresponding to the broad subdivisions of the book. The beginning is

therefore made:

(1) With references to the most important or most useful publications,

dealing with the excavations conducted in Babylonia and Assyria, the

method of decipherment of the cuneiform inscriptions, the general

history of Babylonia and Assyria, and the general aspects of the

Babylonian-Assyrian culture. This section corresponds to the first two

chapters of the book.

(2) The second section is devoted to books, monographs, articles, and

chapters in books, dealing with the general subject of the

Babylonian-Assyrian religion.

In neither of these two sections have I aimed at being exhaustive,

though the second will be found, I think, to include almost everything

of any value.

The detailed bibliography begins with the following section.

Corresponding again to the treatment of the subject in the book, I take

up in succession:

(3) The Pantheon.

(4) Religious Texts.

(5) Cosmology.

(6) Gilgamesh Epic (including the Deluge episode).

(7) Beliefs and Customs (Views of Life after Death, Funeral Rites,

Legends, Ethics, etc.).

(8) Temples and Cult.

(9) Bearings of the Babylonian-Assyrian Religion on the Old Testament,

and General Influence Exerted by the Religion.

Of these seven sections, all but the last aim at being exhaustive. It

was not always easy to decide into what division a particular reference

belonged, but I have been generally guided by the needs of students for

whom this portion of the bibliography is particularly intended.

The fifth and sixth sections should be taken together; and similarly the

seventh and eighth, while the fourth section should of course be

consulted in connection with the third, fifth, sixth, seventh, and

eighth.

Under each section the authors named are arranged in alphabetical order.

Occasionally, I have added some comments to the reference given, as a

guide or a warning to students. In a subject like Assyriology, where new

discoveries are constantly being made and progress in the interpretation

of texts is steadily going on, it is inevitable that views and

translations should be subject to modification--sometimes slight, but

frequently significant. I have endeavored to avoid repetition of

references. In a few cases this was unavoidable. In the second section

portions of books are referred to, which by virtue of their character as

very general works had to be assigned a place also in the first section.

Two or three of the references in the fourth section had to be repeated

elsewhere; and I should also add that there are a few references which I

have been unable to verify.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

The following abbreviations are employed:

AB = Assyriologische Bibliothek, ed. by Friedrich Delitzsch and Paul

Haupt.

AD = Andover Review.

AI = Academie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres.

AJP = American Journal of Philology.

AJT = American Journal of Theology.

AJSL = American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures.

AL = Delitzsch's Assyrische Lesestuecke (3d ed.)

APC = Annales de Philosophie Chretienne.

BA = Beitraege zur Assyriologie.

BAZ = Beilage zur Allgemeinen Zeitung (Munich).

BOR = Babylonian and Oriental Record.

BW = Biblical World.

CR = Comptes Rendus de l'Academie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres.

DR = Deutsche Rundschau.

DRe = Deutsche Revue.

ET = Expository Times.

FLJ = Folk Lore Journal.

H = Hebraica.

IAQR = Imperial and Asiatic Quarterly Review.

ICO = International Congress of Orientalists.

JA = Journal Asiatique.

JAOS = Journal of the American Oriental Society.

JHUC = Johns Hopkins University Circulars.

JRAS = Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.

JTVI = Journal of the Transactions of the Victoria Institute.

KAA = Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen (Amsterdam).

KAW = Koenigliche Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin.

M = Museon.

MVG = Miltheilungen der Vorderasiatischen Gesellschaft.

OTS = Old Testament Student.

PAOS = Proceedings of the American Oriental Society.

PR = Presbyterian Review.

PSBA = Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology.

R = Rawlinson's 'Selection from the miscellaneous Inscriptions of

Western Asia.' (London 1861-1891.) 5 vols.

RA = Revue d'Assyriologie et d'Archeologie Orientale.

RAr = Revue Archeologique.

RB = Revue Biblique.

RC = Revue Critique.

RHR = Revue de l'Histoire des Religions.

RIA = Royal Irish Academy.

RP = Records of the Past.

RR = Revue des Religions.

RS = Revue Semitique.

RT = Recueil de Travaux relatifs a la Philologie et a l'Archeologie

Egyptiennes et Assyriennes.

SST = Sunday School Times.

TSBA = Transactions of the Society of Biblical Archaeology.

TZ = Theologische Zeitblaetter.

WZKM = Wiener Zeitschrift fuer die Kunde des Morgenlandes.

ZA = Zeitschrift fuer Assyriologie.

ZATW = Zeitschrift fuer die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft.

ZDMG = Zeitschrift der Deutsch-Morgenlaendischen Gesellschaft.

ZK = Zeitschrift fuer Keilschriftforschung.

Periodicals, the volumes of which correspond to years, are quoted by the

years; others, by the volumes, or by series, or by series and volumes.

Roman numerals indicate volumes, except in the case of PAOS, where they

indicate pages; Arabic numerals indicate pages or plates.

Excavations.--Method of Decipherment.--History of Babylonia and

Assyria.--Origin and General Aspects of Babylonian And Assyrian

Culture.--General Bibliography.

(_a_) _Excavations and Decipherment._

Kaulen, Fr.--Assyrien und Babylonien nach den neuesten Entdeckungen.

(4th ed. Freiburg 1891.)

[Popular account of excavations, method of decipherment,

Babylonian literature and architecture. A work in English of

this character is much to be desired. See also Hommel,

F.--Geschichte Babyloniens und Assyriens. Berlin 1885. pp.

30-134; Evetts, B. A.--New Light on the Holy Land. London 1891.

pp. 79-129.]

(_b_) _History._

Duncker, Max.--Geschichte des Alterthums. Vols. I. and II, (5th ed.

Berlin 1878.)

[Also English translation of earlier edition.]

Hommel, F.--Geschichte Babyloniens und Assyriens. (Berlin 1885.)

---- Geschichte des alten Morgenlandes. (Stuttgart 1895.)

[Chapters I., IV.-VIII.]

Lenormant, Francois [and Ernest Babelon].--Histoire ancienne de

l'Orient. Vol. IV. (9th ed. Paris 1885.)

Maspero, G.--The Dawn of Civilization: Egypt and Chaldaea. (London

1894.)

---- The Struggle of the Nations: Egypt, Syria, and Assyria. (London

1896.)

[Replacing earlier historical works of this author.]

Meyer, Ed.--Geschichte des Alterthums. Vol. 1. (Stuttgart 1884.)

Muerdter und Delitzsch.--Kurzgefasste Geschichte Babyloniens und

Assyriens. (2d ed. Stuttgart 1891.)

Ragozin, Z.--(1) The Story of Chaldea. (2) The Story of Assyria. (New

York 1886-1887.)

Rawlinson, George.--The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern

World. Vols. I.-III. (4th ed. London 1879.)

[Antiquated, but still of some use.]

Rogers, R. W.--Outlines of the History of Early Babylonia. (Leipzig

1895.)

Schmidt, Valdemar.--Assyriens og Aegyptens gamle Historie. (Copenhagen

1872-1877.)

[pp. 347-461]

Tiele, C. P.--Babylonisch-Assyrische Geschichte. (Gotha 1886.)

[The best history that has as yet been published.]

Wachsmuth, Curt.--Einleitung in das Studium der alten Geschichte.

(Leipzig 1895.)

[pp. 365-403 "Babylonier und Assyrier,"--indication of ancient

and modern sources for the study.]

Winckler, Hugo.--Geschichte Babyloniens und Assyriens. (Leipzig 1892.)

(_c_) _Origin and General Aspects of Babylonian-Assyrian Culture._

Baumstark, A.--Babylon and Babylonia.

[In Pauly-Wissowa's Real Encyclopaedie, II. cols. 2667-2718.]

Bezold, C.--Assyria.

[_Ib._ II. cols. 1751-1771.]

Hommel, F.--Der Babylonische Ursprung der Aegyptischen Kultur. (Munich

1892.)

Ihering, Rudolph Von.--Vorgeschichte der Indo-Europaeer. (Leipzig 1894.)

2tes Buch, 'Arier und Semiten,' pp. 93-305.

[A most suggestive sketch of the development and influence of

Babylonian culture; also in English translation, 'The Evolution

of the Aryan.' New York 1897.]

Nikel, Johannes.--Herodot und die Keilschriftforschung. (Paderborn

1896.)

Peiser, F. E.--Skizze der Babylonischen Gesellschaft. (Berlin 1896.)

[Brief but capital sketch of Babylonian culture and social

life.]

(_d_) _Bibliography._

Bezold, C.--Kurzgefasster Ueberblick ueber die Babylonisch-Assyrische

Literatur. (Leipzig 1886.)

[A new edition is needed of this most valuable work.]

Delitzsch, Friedrich.--'Litteratura' in the appendix to his 'Assyrian

Grammar.' (London 1889.) pp. 55-78.

Kaulen, Fr.--Assyrien und Babylonien (as above), pp. 248-266.

Lincke, A.--Bericht ueber die Fortschritte der Assyriologie in den Jahren

1886-1893. (Leipzig 1894.)

Full bibliographical reports are given in:

(1) The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures

(University of Chicago; quarterly).

(2) Jahrbuecher fuer Geschichte, ed. by I. Jastrow and E. Berner (Berlin;

annual).

(3) Orientalische Bibliographie, ed. by Lucian Scherman (Berlin;

semi-annual).

(4) Zeitschrift fuer Assyriologie, ed. by C. Bezold (Munich; quarterly).

(5) Revue d'Assyriologie et d'Archeologie Orientale, ed. by J. Oppert

and E. Ledrain (Paris; published at irregular intervals).

II.

General Works and Articles on the Religion of Babylonia and Assyria.

Berger, P.--'Assyrie' in Lichtenberger's 'Encyclopedie des Sciences

Religieuses.'

Boscawen, W. St. Chad.--Lectures on the Religion of Babylonia [abstract]

BOR III. 118-120, 150-163.

---- The Religion of Babylonia in 'Religious Systems of the World.'

(Swan Sonnenschein & Co. 1896. pp. 15-25.)

Delitzsch, Friedrich.--The Religion of the Kassites. H 1885. 189-191.

[From Delitzsch's 'Sprache der Kossaer.' Leipzig 1884. pp.

51-54.]

Eerdmans, B. D.--Babylonian-Assyrian Religion.

[In 'Progress,' a publication issued by the University

Association, Chicago, Ill. 3d series, No. 6 (1897), pp.

403-415.]

Finzi, Felice.--Ricerche per lo Studio dell' Antichita Assira. (Rome

1872.) Libro Secondo. Mitologia, pp. 433-554.

[General sketch of the religion, more particularly of the

pantheon and legends of Babylonia and Assyria.]

Guyard, S.--Bulletin de la Religion Assyro-Babylonienne. RHR I. 327-345;

V. 253-278.

Halevy, Joseph.--La Religion des Anciens Babyloniens et son plus recent

historien M. Sayce. RHR XVII. 169-218.

[Elaborate review of Sayce's work on the 'Religion of the

Babylonians,' with summary of Halevy's own views.]

Heuzey, Leon.--Description of Monuments in De Sarzec's 'Decouvertes en

Chaldee.' (Paris 1889-1891.) pp. 77-240.

[Contains much valuable information on religious art, votive

objects, representations of religious ceremonies. The

publication is not yet complete.]

Hewitt, J. F.--Early History of Northern India, Part III. JRAS, 1889,

527-583.

[An attempt to trace the origin of Indian civilization to

emigrants from southern Babylonia. The investigation has little

value.]

Hincks, Edward.--On the Assyrian Mythology. RIA Transactions XXII.

Polite Literature, 1854, 405-422.

Hommel, F.--Die Semitischen Voelker und Sprachen. (Leipzig 1883.) pp.

356-396. Die Religion der alten Babylonier, pp. 266-356. Sprache und

Literatur der Sumero-Akkadier.

[Specimens of hymns and incantations.]

Jeremias, Friedrich.--'Die Babylonier und Assyrier' in Chantepie de la

Saussaye's 'Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte.' (2d ed. Freiburg 1897.)

I. 163-221.

[An excellent sketch of the Babylonian-Assyrian religion.]

Lenormant, Francois.--Les Sciences Occultes en Asie. I. La Magie chez

les Chaldeens et les Origines Accadiennes. II. La Divination et la

Science des Presages chez les Chaldeens. (Paris 1874-1875.)

[Also in English translation (in part) under the title

'Chaldaean Magic.' London 1877.]

Loisy, A.--Etudes sur la Religion Chaldeo-Assyrienne. (RR, 1890-1892.)

[Seven articles.]

Meyer, Ed.--Geschichte des Alterthums. I. 174-183. (Stuttgart 1884.)

Muerdter und Delitzsch.--Kurzgefasste Geschichte Babyloniens und

Assyriens. (2d ed. Stuttgart 1891.) pp. 23-53.

Oppert, J.--'Babylone et Chaldee' in Lichtenberger's 'Encyclopedie des

Sciences Religieuses.'

Pinches, T. G.--The Religious Ideas of the Babylonians. JTVI XXVIII.

1-22.

Pressense, E. de.--La Religion Chaldeo-Assyrienne. RHR XIV. 73-94.

Rawlinson, George.--The Religions of the Ancient World. (New York 1883.)

[Chapter II.--The Religion of the Assyrians and Babylonians.]

---- The Religion of Assyria in 'Religious Systems of the World.' (Swan

Sonnenschein & Co. London 1896.) pp. 26-41.

Rawlinson, H. C.--The Religion of the Babylonians and Assyrians.

[In George Rawlinson's 'The History of Herodotus.' London 1859.

Vol. I. Essay X.]

Sayce, A. H.--The Origin and Growth of Religion as Illustrated by the

Religion of the Ancient Babylonians. (London 1887.)

[Brilliant and suggestive, but unreliable in details. The

translations attached to the volume are to be accepted with

caution. See Halevy's elaborate review, RHR XVII. 169-218.]

Strong, S. A.--Die Religion der Babylonier.

[Announced to appear.]

Schwally, F.--'Die Religion der Babylonier und Assyrier,' in Friedrich

von Hellwald's 'Kulturgeschichte in ihrer natuerlichen Entwicklung bis

zur Gegenwart.' (4th ed. Leipzig 1896.) I. 423-433.

Tiele, C. P.--Babylonisch-Assyrische Geschichte. (1886.) pp. 515-557.

Religion: Die Mythologie und Glaubenslehre.

---- Vergelijkende Geschiedenis der Aegyptische en Mesopotamische

Godsdiensten. (Amsterdam 1869.) pp. 282-413. De Godsdienst van Babel en

Assur.

[French translation (abridged) by G. Collins, 'Histoire Comparee

des Anciennes Religions de l'Egypte et des Peuples Semitiques.'

Paris 1882, pp. 145-255. La Religion de Babylonie et de

l'Assyrie. Also English translation by J. Ballingue. 1882.]

---- Geschichte der Religion im Alterthum bis auf Alexander den Grossen.

(Gotha 1895.) I. 127-216. Die Religion in Babylonien und Assyrien.

[Also in Dutch. Amsterdam 1893.]

III.

Pantheon, Gods, Spirits, Heroes.

Ball, C. J.--Tammuz, the Swine-god. PSBA XVI. 195-200.

Barton, G. A.--The Semitic Ishtar Cult. H IX. 131-165; X. 1-73.

---- Was Ilu Ever a Distinct Deity in Babylonia? H X. 206, 207.

Bezold, C.--A Cuneiform List of Gods. PSBA XI. 173, 174; see also IX.

377.

---- Note on the god Addu or Daddu. _Ib._ p. 377.

---- Ueber Keilinschriftliche Babylonisch-Assyrische Goettertypen. ZA IX.

114-125, 405-409.

Chwolson, D. A.--Ueber Tammuz und die Menschenverehrung bei den alten

Babyloniern. (St. Petersburg 1860.)

De Cara, Caesare.--Identificazione d'Iside e d'Osiride con Ishtar ed

Ashur. 8th ICO, Section Semitique 2^me Fasc, 275-278.

Delitzche, Friedrich.--Article on 'Thammuz' in 'Calwer, Bibellexikon.'

(Calw und Stuttgart 1885.)

---- Articles on Dagon, Merodach, Nebo, Nergal, Nisroch, Rimmon. _Ib._

Eerdmans, B.--Goddess A (or Malkatu) in 'Melekdienst en Vereering von

Hemellichamen in Israel's Assyrische Periode.' (Leiden 1891.) pp. 73-82.

Guyard, S.--Le Dieu Assyrien Ninib. RC, 1879, 1^er Mars.

Hoffmann, G.--Neue und Alte Goetter (Nin-gal, Nusku, Ea, Nabu, Gibil,

Ninib, Nergal, Sin). ZA XI. 258-292.

[Chiefly discussions of symbols of these deities found upon seal

cylinders.]

Hommell, Fritz.--Die Identitaet der aeltesten Babylonischen und

Aegyptischen Goettergenealogie und der Babylonische Ursprung der

Aegyptischen Kultur. 9th ICO II. 218-244.

---- Note on Ninib. PSBA XIX. 312-314.

Jastrow, Morris, Jr.--On the Assyrian Kuduru and the Ring of the Sun-god

in the Abu-Habba Tablet. PAOS, Oct. 1888. XCV.-XCVIII.

Jensen, P.--Ueber einige Sumero-Akkadische und Babylonisch-Assyrische

Goetternamen. ZA, 1886. I. 1-24.

[Anshar, Ashur, Igigi, Duzu, or Tammuz. _Cf._ Schrader's

remarks, _ib._ pp. 209-217.]

---- Die Goetter Amurru und Ashratu. ZA XI. 302-305.

---- Nik(k)al-Sharratu; Sharratu in Harran. ZA XI. 293-301.

Jeremias, A.--Articles on Ashur, Marduk, Nebo, Nergal, Shamash, Sin,

Tammuz in Roscher's 'Ausfuehrliches Lexikon der Griechischen und

Roemischen Mythologie.'

[Articles on Adar, Anu, Anunnaki, Ea, Etana announced to appear

in the supplement to Roscher's 'Ausfuehrliches Lexikon,' etc.]

Lenormant, Francois.--Il mito di Adone-Tammuz nei documenti cuneiformi.

4th ICO, 1878. I. 143-173.

---- Sur le nom de Tammuz. 1st ICO II. 149-165.

---- Les Dieux de Babylone et de l'Assyrie. (Paris 1877.)

Luzzato, P.--L'Existence d'un Dieu Assyrien nomme Semiramis. JA, 4th

Series, XVII. 465-480.

Lyon, D. G.--Was there at the Head of the Babylonian Pantheon a Deity

bearing the Name El? PAOS, May 1883, clxiv.-clxviii.

---- The Pantheon of Assurbanipal. PAOS, Oct. 1888, xciv., xcv.

Menant, J.--Le Mythe de Dagon. RHR XI. 295-301.

[Also in 'Les Pierres Gravees de la Haute Asie. Recherches de la

Glyptique Orientale.' Paris 1883.]

---- Le Pantheon Assyro-Chaldeen. Les Beltis. RHR VIII. 489-519.

[The representation of goddesses engraved on seal cylinders. See

also 'Les Pierres Gravees de la Haute Asie,' etc., as above.]

Meyer, Eduard.--Articles Baal and Astarte (with references to Bel and

Ishtar) in Roscher's 'Ausfuehrliches Lexikon der Griechischen und

Roemischen Mythologie.'

Nicolsky, M. V.--La Deesse des Cylindres et des Statuettes

Babyloniennes. RAr, 3^me serie, XX. 36-43.

Offord, J.--The Nude Goddess in Assyro-Babylonian Art. PSPA XVIII. 156,

157.

Oppert, Jules.--La Vraie Assimilation de la Divinite de Tello. CR, 1884,

231-233.

---- Le Dieu de Sirtella [_i.e._, Lagash]. ZK II. 261, 262.

[M. Oppert accepts the reading Nin-girsu first proposed by

Arthur Amlaud. Ib. pp. 151, 152.]

---- Adad. ZA IX. 310-314.

[Discussion of pronunciation. See also Hilprecht, 'Assyriaca,'

pp. 76-78, and Jastrow, AJSL XII. 143.]

Pinches, Theo. G.--Note upon the divine name A. PSBA XIII. 25-27, 42-56.

---- Was Ninib the Most High God of Salem? Ib. XVI. 225-229.

---- The Pronunciation of the Name of the Plague-god, Urra not Dibbarra.

BOR I. 207, 208.

[See Scheil, RT. XX. 57.]

---- A Bilingual List of Assyrian Gods. Academy, 1887, No. 816.

[See Evetts, _ib._ No. 819.]

Rawlinson, H. C.--Notes on Captain Durand's Report upon the Islands of

Bahrein. JRAS, 1880, 201-227.

[Contains important remarks on the origin of Ea worship at the

Persian Gulf, pp. 202-208.]

Reisner, George.--The Different Classes of Babylonian Spirits. PAOS,

April 1892, cxcv., cxcvi.

Revillout, E. and V.--Istar Taribi. BOR II. 57-59.

Robiou, F. A.--A Study on Egyptian and Babylonian Triads. IAQR, 1894.

Sayce, A. H.--Who was Dagon? SST, 1893, No. 21.

---- The God Ramman. ZA II. 331, 332.

Scheil, Fr. V.--Le Dieu-roi Bur-Sin Planete. ZA XII. 265, 266.

---- Ishtar sous la symbole de la vache. RT XX. 62.

---- Le Culte de Gudea. RT XVIII. 64-74.

Schrader, E.--Die Goettin Ishtar als Malkatu und Sharratu. ZA III.

353-364; IV. 74, 75

---- Die Malkat hash-Shamayim und ihr Aramaeisch-Assyrisches Aequivalent.

KAW Sitzungsberichte, 1886, 477-491.

[See also Stade in ZATW VI. 123-132; 289-339; and Kuenen KAA

Afdeeling 'Letterkunde,' 1888, 157-189.]

Talbot, H. Fox.--The Legend of Ishtar Descending to Hades. TSBA II.

179-212. See also RPI, 141-149.

Thureau-Daugin, Fr.--La Lecture de l'Ideogramme AN-IM (Ramman). JA, 9th

Series, II. 385-393.

[See also Oppert, _ib._ pp. 393-396.]

Tiele, C. P.--- La Deesse Ishtar surtout dans le mythe Babylonien. 6th

ICO, Part II. Section I. 493-506.

[See also discussion in the Comptes Rendus of the Congress, pp.

87-91.]

---- Die Beteekenis van Ea en zijn verkoudung tot Marduk en Nabu. KAA

Verslagen en Mededeelingen 'Letterkunde,' 1887, 67-81.

Ward, W. H.--The Babylonian Gods in Babylonian Art. PAOS, May 1890,

xv.-xviii.

---- Was there a Babylonian Gate-god? Academy, 1888, No. 847.

Winckler, H.--Die Istar von Nineve in Egypten. MVG I. 286-289.

Witte, J. de.--Sur le nom de Thamouz attribue a Adonis. M, 1887, 81

_seq._

Zehnpfund, R.--Altbabylonische Goetter und Heldensagen. BAZ, 1891, Nos.

39, 40, 52, 56, 63.

IV.

Religious Texts.

_Hymns, Incantations, Omens, Oracles, Prayers, Legends, Myths, Votive

Texts._

Ball, C. J.--A Bilingual Hymn (IVR 46, 5-19) PSBA XV. 51-54.

---- A Babylonian Ritual Text. JRAS, 1892, 841-853.

Banks, E. J.--Sumerisch-Babylonische Hymnen der von George Reisner

herausgegebenen Sammlung, umschrieben, uebersetzt und erklaert. (Breslau

1897.)

Barton, G. A.--Esarhaddon's Account of the Restoration of Ishtar's

Temple at Erech. PAOS, May 1891, cxxx.-cxxxii.

Bertin, G.--Akkadian Hymn to the Setting Sun. RP, new series, II.

190-193.

Bezold, C.--Remarks on Some Unpublished Cuneiform Syllabaries with

Respect to Prayers and Incantations written in Interlinear Form. PSBA X.

418-423.

---- Translation and Analysis of a Hymn to the Sun-god (Sp III.). RA I.

157-161.

Boissier, Alfred.--Deux Documents Assyriens relatifs aux Presages. RS I.

63-70, 168-172.

---- Documents Assyriens relatifs aux Presages.

[Vols. I. and II., Paris 1894-1897. Vol. III. announced.]

---- Notes d'Assyriologie. RS VI. 143-151.

[Two texts--a Prayer and an Incantation.]

Boscawen, W. St. Chad.--The Babylonian Legend of the Serpent Tempter.

BOR IV. 251-255.

---- Babylonian Teraphim. BOR I. 39, 40.

---- The Legend of the Tower of Babel. RP III. 129-132; also in the TSBA

V. 303-312.

[The interpretation is erroneous.]

Bruennow, R.--Assyrian Hymns. ZA IV. 1-40, 225-258; V. 55-80.

[Hymns to Shamash, Marduk, and Ishtar.]

Budge, Ernest A.--Assyrian Incantations to Fire and Water. RP XI.

133-138; also in TSBA VI. 420-435.

Craig, Jas. A.--Prayer of the Assyrian King Ashurbanipal. H X. 75-87.

---- Assyrian and Babylonian Religious Texts, Vols. I. and II. (Leipzig

1895-1897.) AB XIII.

[Announces also volumes of texts (1) Prayers to Shamash and

Ramman, and (2) Series 'Illumination of Bel.']

---- K 69 (a hymn). ZA XI. 276.

---- An Assyrian Incantation to the God Sin, cir. 650 B.C. H XI.

101-109.

Delattre, A. J.--The Oracles Given in Favor of Esarhaddon. RP, new

series, III. 25-31; see also BOR III. 25-31.

Delitzsch, Friedrich.--Babylonisch-Assyrisches Psalmbuch.

[Announced to appear in the 'Abhandlungen der koeniglichen

Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig.']

---- Assyrische Lesestuecke. (Leipzig 1885. 3d ed.)

[Contains a selection of religious texts as follows: pp. 93-99,

Creation tablets; 99-104, Deluge episode; 117, 118, Oracle to

Esarhaddon; 130-132, Incantations; 134-136, Hymn to Ishtar.]

Evetts, B. T. A.--An Assyrian Religious Text. PSBA X. 478, 479 and two

plates.

[Apparently a royal prayer.]

Halevy, J.--Assyrian Fragments. RP XI. 157-162.

[Part of a hymn, of a penitential psalm, etc.]

---- Documents religieux de l'Assyrie et de la Babylonie. (Paris 1882.)

---- Textes religieux Babyloniens en double Redaction. RS IV. 150-160,

245-251, 344-348.

---- 'Les Inscriptions peints de Citium' in 'Melanges de Critique et

d'Histoire,' pp. 165-196.

[Translation in large part and discussion of Ishtar's descent

into the nether world.]

Harper, Edward T.--Die Babylonischen Legenden von Etana, Zu, Adapa und

Dibbarra. BA II. 390-521.

[See also Academy 1891, No. 976.]

Haupt, Paul.--Akkadische und Sumerische Keilschrifttexte. (Leipzig

1881-1882.)

[Contains pp. 75-79, 82-106 Incantations; 79, 115-131 Hymns and

Psalms.]

Jastrow, Morris, Jr.--A fragment of the Babylonian "Dibbarra" Epic.

Publications of the University of Pennsylvania. Series in Philology,

Literature, and Archaeology, Vol. 1., No. 2. (Boston 1891.)

---- A new Fragment of the Babylonian Etana Legend. BA III. 363-384.

Jensen, P.--De Incantamentorum Sumerico-Assyrorum seriei quae dicitur

"surbu" Tabula VI. ZK I. 279-322; II. 15-61; also 306-311, 416-425.

[Appeared as a revised and separate publication under same title

with the addition of the words "commentatio Philologica."

Munich, Straub, 1885.]

---- Hymnen auf das Wiedererscheinen der drei grossen Lichtgoetter. ZA

II. 76-94, 191-204.

[Hymns to Sin, Shamash, and Ishtar. A volume by Jensen,

embodying translation of religious texts is in course of

preparation for Schrader's 'Keitschriftliche Bibliothek.']

Jeremias, A.--Die Hoellenfahrt der Ishtar. Eine altbabylonische

Beschwoerungslegende. (Munich 1886.)

King, L. W.--Babylonian Magic and Sorcery, being 'the Prayers of the

Lifting of the Hand.' (London 1896.)

---- New Fragments of the Dibbarra Legend. ZA XI. 50-62.

Knudtzon, J. A.--Assyrische Gebete an den Sonnengott fuer Staat und

koenigliches Haus aus der Zeit Asarhaddons und Assurbanipals. Band I.

Autographierte Texte; Band II. Einleitung, Umschrift und Erklaerung

Verzeichnisse. (Leipzig 1893.)

Lenormant, Francois.--Chaldaean Hymns to the Sun. RP X. 119-128.

---- Hymne au Soleil. Texte primitif Accadien. JA, 7^th Series, XII.

378; XIII. 1-98; postscriptum _ib_. XIV. 264, 265.

---- Une Incantation Magique Chaldeenne. RAr, 2^d Series, XXXIV.

254-262.

---- Lettres Assyriologiques. 2^me Serie Etudes Accadiennes, Vols. II.

and III. (Paris 1874-1879.)

[Contains numerous hymns and incantations accompanied by a

French translation.]

---- Translations of religious texts in 'Les Origines de l'Histoire

d'apres la Bible et les Traditions des Peuples orientaux.' (Paris

1880-1882.) 2 vols.

Lyon, D. G.--Assyrian and Babylonian Royal Prayers. PAOS, October 1888.

XCIII., XCIV.

---- On a Sacrificial Tablet from Sippar. PAOS, May 1886, xxx.

Messerschmidt, L.--Tabula VA. Th. 246, Babylonica Musei Berolinensis

primum editur commentarioque instruitur. (Kirchhain 1896.)

[A hymn.]

Oppert, J.--'Chants et Invocations' in Eichoff and David 'Chef

d'[oe]uvres litteraires de l'Inde, de la Perse, de l'Egypte et de la

Chine.' (Paris.) II. 211-219.

[Translations of selected prayers, hymns, and incantations.]

---- Fragments Mythologiques. (Paris 1882.)

[Reprints of several articles.]

---- Translation of III. Rawlinson, pl. 65, in JA, 6^th Series, XVIII.

449-453.

---- Hymnes en Sumerien et en Accadien ou Assyrien, 1st ICO. II.

217-224.

[A hymn to Ishtar in dialogue form.]

---- Le Champ Sacre de la Deesse Nina. CR, 1893, 326-344. See also ZA

VII. 360-374.

[Contains important remarks about the goddess Nina, in

connection with the text published by Hilprecht, 'Old Babylonian

Inscriptions', I. 1, pls. 30, 31.]

---- Traduction de Quelques Textes Assyriens.... Louange du Dieu Nibir

et de ses sept Attributions. 4th ICO I. 233-235.

---- L'Immortalite de l'ame chez les Chaldeens. (Paris 1875.)

[Legend of Ishtar's descent to the lower world.]

---- Chant en Sumerien et en Assyrien sur une epidemie. JA, 7^th Series,

I. 289-293.

[Translation of tablet K 1284 (incantation against Namtar) and

of IIR 19.]

---- Notice sur d'anciennes formules d'Incantation et autres dans une

langue anterieure au Babylonien. JA, 7^th Series, I. 113-122.

[Translation of II Rawl. 17, 18.]

---- Babylonian legends found at Khorsabad. RP XI. 41-44.

[See also translations of various religious texts in 'Expedition

Scientifique en Mesopotamie,' pp. 328-350.]

Peiser, F. E.--Ein Satz in den Beschwoerungsformeln. ZA II. 102, 103.

Pinches, T. G.--An Erechite's Lament. RP, new series, I. 84, 85.

[A penitential psalm with historical references; see also BOR I,

21-23.]

---- The Oracle of Ishtar of Arbela. RP XI. 59-72; also RP, new series,

V. 129-140.

---- Sin-Gashid's Gift to the Temple E-Ana. BOR I. 8-11. See also RP,

new series, I. 78-83.

---- and E. A. W. Budge.--Some New Texts in the Babylonian Character,

relating Principally to the Restoration of Temples. PSBA, 1884. pp.

179-182.

Rawlinson, H. C.--A Selection from the Miscellaneous Inscriptions of

Western Asia. Vol. IV. 2d ed. revised (and with additions) by T. G.

Pinches. (London 1891.)

[This fourth volume of the publications of tablets in the

British Museum is almost exclusively devoted to religious texts.

In the other volumes some texts of this character will be found

as follows: Vol. II. pls. 17-19, incantations; 51-61, names and

titles of gods and temples; miscellaneous. Vol. III. pls. 61-65,

astronomical and astrological reports, omen tablets and

portents; 66-69, lists and titles of gods and temples;

miscellaneous. Vol. V. pl. 31, omen tablets (with explanations);

43, titles of Nebo, etc.; 46, No. 2, lists of gods and their

epithets; 47, prayer (with commentary); 48, 49, religious

calendar; 50, 51, hymn to Shamash. Note also that many of the

historical tests in Vols. I.-V. contain invocations to gods.]

Reisner, George.--Sumerisch-Babylonische Hymnen nach Thontafeln

Griechischer Zeit. (Berlin 1896.) Koenigliche Museen zu Berlin.

Mittheilungen aus den Orientalischen Sammlungen No. X.

Sayce, A. H.--Accadian Hymn to Istar. RP I. 155-160.

---- Accadian Poem on the Seven Evil Spirits. _Ib._ IX. 144-148.

---- An Accadian Liturgy. _Ib._ III. 125-130.

---- An Accadian Penitential Hymn. _Ib._ VII. 151-156.

---- Ancient Babylonian Charms. _Ib._ III. 145-154.

[Shurpu Series, 6th Tablet.]

---- An Assyrian Talismanic Tablet. BOR III. 17, 18.

---- Babylonian Augury by means of Geometrical Figures. TSBA IV.

302-314.

---- Fragment of an Assyrian Prayer after a Bad Dream. RP IX. 149-152.

Sayce, A. H.--Babylonian Exorcisms. _Ib._ I. 131-135.

---- Tables of Omens Furnished by Dogs and Births. _Ib._ V. 167-176.

---- The Dedication of three Babylonians to the service of the Sun-god

at Sippara. RP, new series, IV. 109-113.

[Interpretation false.]

---- The Overthrow of Sodom and Gomorrah (Accadian Account). RP XI.

115-118.

[Title, translation, and Interpretation alike fanciful.]

---- Two Accadian Hymns. _Ib._ XI. 129-132.

---- Two Hymns to the Sun-god [in preface, pp. ix.-x., to RP, new

series, IV., 1890].

[Copious translations of magical texts, hymns, legends, etc., by

Sayce in Hibbert Lectures on 'The Religion of the Ancient

Babylonians.' London 1887. See especially pp. 441-540.]

Scheil, F. V.--Psaume de Penitence Chaldeen inedit, RB, 1896, 75-78.

---- Legende Chaldeenne trouvee a El-Amarna [Adapa]. RR Mars-Avril 1891.

---- Choix des Textes Religieux Assyriens. RHR XXXVI. 197-207.

---- Fragments de Poesie lyrique Babylonienne. RB VI. 28-30.

---- Fragment mythologique avec mention de Uddushu-namir patesi. RT XX.

62, 63.

---- Hymne Babylonien avec metre appartent. ZA XI. 291-298.

Schrader, E.--Die Hoellenfahrt der Ishtar. Ein Altbabylonisches Epos.

(Giessen 1874.)

Smith, S. A.--Miscellaneous Texts. (Leipzig 1887.) pp. 1-5, 8-10.

[Portions of the Creation Series.]

Strong, S. Arthur.--A Prayer of Assurbanipal. RP, new series, VI.

102-106; also 9th ICO II. 199-208.

---- Note on a Fragment of the Adapa Legend. PSBA XX. 274-279.

---- On Some Oracles to Esarhaddon and Assurbanipal. BA II. 627-645.

---- Votive Inscriptions. RP, new series, IV. 90-95.

---- A Hymn to Nebuchadnezzar. PSBA XX. 154-162.

Talbot, H. Fox.--A Prayer and a Vision. TSBA I. 346-348 and RP VII.

65-68.

[Ashurbanabal's prayer to Ishtar and dream sent by the goddess.]

---- Assyrian Sacred Poetry. RP III. 131-138.

[Prayers and incantations.]

---- Assyrian Talismans and Exorcisms. _Ib._ III. 139-144.

---- War of the Seven Evil Spirits Against Heaven. _Ib._ V. 161-166.

[Incantation text]

Tallquist, K. L.--Die Assyrische Beschwoerungsserie Maqlu. (Leipzig

1894.)

Weissbach, F. H.--Ueber die ersten Tafeln im IV. Bande Rawlinsons.

[Announced.]

---- Eine Sumerisch-Assyrische Beschwoerungsformel IV. Rawl. 16, No. 1 in

'Melanges Charles de Harlez.' (Leiden 1896.) pp. 360-371.

Winckler, H. and Abel Ludwig.--Thontafelfund von El-Amarna. (Berlin

1891.)

[Vol III. pp. 166, _a_ and _b_. Legend of Adapa; see Erman In

KAW Sitzungsberichte XXIII. 585; Lehmann, ZA III. 380; other

mythological fragments, pp. 164-165.]

Zimmern, Heinrich.--Babylonische Busspsalmen, umschrieben, uebersetzt und

erklaert. (Leipzig 1885.) BA VI.

[Also published in part as a thesis.]

---- Beitraege zur Kenntniss der Babylonischen Religion. Erste Lieferung.

Die Beschwoerungslafeln Shurpu. (Leipzig 1896.) AB XII.

---- Zusatzbemerkungen zur Legende von Adapa. BA II. 437, 438.

---- Hexenbeschwoerungen bei den Babyloniern. BAZ, 1891, No. 337.

---- An Old Babylonian Legend from Egypt [Adapa]. SST, 1892, No. 25.

Cosmology.

Barton, G. A.--Tiamat. JAOS XV. 1-28; also PAOS, May 1890, xiii.-xv.

Brunengo, Giuseppe.--L'Impero di Babilonia e di Ninive. (2 vols. Prato

1885.) Capo I. La Cosmogonia de Caldei comparata alla Mosaica, pp.

67-85. Capo II. La Ribellione degli Angeli e la Caduta del Uomo,

(_i.e._, Marduk and Tiamat story), pp. 86-108. Capo IV. La Storia del

Diluvio, pp. 124-140.

Budge, E. A. W.--The Fourth Tablet of the Creation Series, relating to

the fight between Marduk and Tiamat. PSBA VI. 5-11.

---- Fourth Tablet of the Creation Series. PSBA X. 86 and six pls.

Delitzsch, Friedrich.--Texte zur Weltschoepfung und zur Auflehnung und

Bekaempfung der Schlange Tiamat. AL, 3d ed., 1885. pp. 93-99.

---- Das Babylonische Weltschoepfungsepos. (Leipzig 1896.)

Engel, Moritz.--Die Loesung der Paradiesfrage. (Leipzig 1885.)

Halevy, J.--La Cosmologie Babylonienne d'apres M. Jensen. RHR XXII.

180-208.

[Summary and critique of Jensen's 'Kosmologie der Babylonier.']

---- Recherches Bibliques--L'Histoire des Origines d'apres la Genese.

Texte, Traduction et Commentaire. Tome I. Genese I.-XXV. (Paris 1895.)

[Contains translations of the Babylonian Cosmological Texts, and

discusses their bearings on the O. T. narrative. A most

suggestive work.]

---- Recherches Bibliques--Chapter 28, La Creation et les Vicissitudes

du Premier Homme. RS I. 101-117, 193-202.

[Transliteration, translation, and discussion of the Babylonian

Creation Tablets.]

Hommel, F.--Eine Neugefundene Weltschoepfungslegende. DR, 1892, 105-114;

see also Neue Kirchliche Zeitung, I. 393 _seq._, II. 89 _seq._

---- The Oldest Cosmogony. SST, 1891, No. 7.

Jensen, P.--Die Kosmologie der Babylonier. Studien und Materialien.

(Strassburg 1890.)

Jensen, P.--Ursprung und Geschichte des Tierkreises. DR, 1890, 112-116.

Lajard, F.--Fragments d'un Memoire sur le Systeme theogonique et

cosmogonique des Assyriens ou des Chaldeens d'Assyrie. JA, 2^d Series,

XIV. 114-143.

Laurie, Thomas.--Cuneiform Inscriptions and the Deluge. Bibliotheca

Sacra, XLII. 165-168.

Lenormant, F.--Essai de Commentaire sur les Fragments cosmogoniques de

Berose. (Paris 1871.)

[An elaborate treatise on the traditions of Berosus in

connection with the cuneiform account of creation.]

Loisy, A.--Les Mythes Chaldeens de la Creation et du Deluge. (Amiens

1892.) RR, 1896.

[From RR, 1890-1891. See Sec.I.]

Lukas, FR.--Die Grundbegriffe in den Kosmogonieen der Alten Voelker.

1893. pp. 1-46.

[Translations by Jensen, pp. 1-14. Die Kosmogonie der Babylonler

und der Genesis.]

Mueller, D. H.--Die Propheten in ihrer Urspruenglichen Form. (Wien 1895.)

pp. 6-13.

[Translation of considerable portions of the Babylonian creation

narratives. Follows Zimmern.]

Muss-Arnolt, W.--The Cuneiform Account of the Creation. Revised

translation. BW III. 17-27.

---- A Comparative Study of the Translations of the Babylonian Creation

Tablets, with special reference to Jensen's 'Kosmologie' and Barton's

'Tiamat.' H IX. 6-23.

Oppert, J.--Fragments Cosmogoniques in Ledrain's 'Histoire d'Israel.'

(Paris 1882.) pp. 411-422.

[Translation of Creation Series of tablets of deluge.]

---- Le Poeme Chaldeen du Deluge. (Paris 1885.)

---- Die Fragmente der Epopoeen welche die Schoepfung und Sintfluth nach

babylonischer Auffassung betreffen. Verhandlungen Deutscher Philologen

und Schulmaenner, XXXIV. 128, 129.

---- Traductions de quelques textes Assyriens.--Fragments des Recits de

la Creation.--Guerre de Merodach et Tiamat. 4th ICO, 229-238.

Pinches, T. G.--A Babylonian Duplicate of Tablets I. and II. of the

Creation Series. BOR IV. 25-33.

---- The New Version of the Creation Story. 9th ICO, 1892. II. 190-198;

also JRAS, 1891, 393-408; and Academy, 1890, Nos. 968, 974, and the

Times, 1889, Dec. 16.

---- The Non-Semitic Version of the Creation Story. RP, new series, VI.

107-114.

Sayce, H.--The Assyrian Story of the Creation. RP, new series, I.

122-146.

---- Babylonian Legend of the Creation RP XI. 109-114.

---- The Babylonian Story of the Creation according to the Tradition of

Cutha. RP, new series, I. 147-153.

Schrader, E.--Cuneiform Inscriptions and the Old Testament. (London

1885.) I. 1-22.

[Translation of portions of the Creation Series with comments;

third German edition announced.]

Smith, George.--The Chaldaean Account of Genesis. (2d ed. London 1881.)

German trans, ed. by Friedrich Delitzsch (Leipzig 1876), under the title

'Chaldaeische Genesis.'

---- On Some Fragments of the Chaldaean Account of the Creation. TSBA

IV. 363, 364.

Stucken, Ed.--Astralmythen der Hebraer, Babylonier und Aegypter. I. und

II. Theil. (Leipzig 1896-1897.)

[Rather fanciful.]

Talbot, H. Fox.--The Fight between Bel and the Dragon. RP IX. 135-140.

[Portion of the Creation Series.]

---- The Fight between Bel and the Dragon and the Flaming Sword which

turned every way. TSBA V. 1-21.

---- The Chaldaean Account of the Creation. RP IX. 115-118; also TSBA V.

426-440.

---- The Revolt in Heaven, from a Chaldaean Tablet. TSBA IV. 349-362.

[Portions of the Creation Series.]

Warren, W. F.--Paradise Found. 10 ed. (Boston 1893.) Part IV. chapter 6.

The Cradle of the Race in Akkadian, Assyrian, and Babylonian Thought.

[Discussion in connection with a general theory of the site of

paradise.]

Ward, W. Hayes.--Contest between Bel-Merodach and the Dragon. PAOS, May

1879. X.

---- Dragon and Serpent in Chaldaean Mythology. PAOS, Oct. 1879, xvii.

---- Bel and the Dragon. AJSL XIV. 94-105.

---- The Dragon Tiamat in Babylonian and Assyrian Art. PAOS, Oct. 1889,

clxviii-clxix.

Zimmern, H.--Translations of the Babylonian Creation and Deluge Stories

in Gunkel's 'Schoepfung und Chaos,' pp. 401-428.

---- 'Koenig Tukulli bei nisi und die Kuthaische Schoepfungslegende.' ZA

XII. 317-330.

[Translation of the Cuthaean Version of the Creation Story.]

VI.

The Gilgamesh Epic

(_including the Deluge Story._)

Adler, C.--The Legends of Semiramis and the Nimrod Epic. JHUC, No. 55.

Boscawen, W. St. Chad.--Hymn to Gilgames. BOR VII. 121-125.

---- The Twelfth Izdubar Legend. RP IX. 131-134.

Casanowicz, I. M.--Professor Haupt's Nimrod Epic. JHUC, No. 98.

Cheyne, T. K.--Nimrod, a Kassite King. Academy, 1895, No. 47.

De Lacouperie, Terrien.--The Deluge Tradition and its Remains in Ancient

Chaldaea. BOR pp. 15-24, 49-55, 79-88, 102-111.

Delitzsch, Friedrich.--Article 'Nimrod' in 'Calwer Bibellexikon.'

---- Die Sintflutherzaehlung oder die elfte Tafel des Nimrod Epos. AL.

(3d ed. Leipzig 1885.) 99-109.

Dryoff, K.--Wer ist Chadir? ZA XII. 319-327.

Grivel, Josef.--Nimrod et les Ecritures Cuneiformes. TSBA III, 136-144.

[Proposed identification of Nimrod and Marduk. See also Sayce,

below.]

Hamilton, L. le Cenci.--Ishtar and Izdubar, the Epic of Babylon.

Restored in modern verse. Vol. I. Illustrated. (London 1884.)

Harper, E. T.--The Legend of Etana, Gilgamos and his Kindred in

Folklore. Academy, 1891, No. 995; see also Nos. 985, 987, 988.

Haupt, Paul.--The Cuneiform Account of the Deluge. OTS, 1883, 77-85.

---- Das babylonische Nimrodepos. Keilschrifttext der sogenannten

Izdubarlegenden mit dem Keilinschriftlichen Sintfluthberichte, nach den

Originalen im Britischen Museum copiert und herausgegeben. (Leipzig

1884-1891.) 2 vols. AB III.

---- Die zwoelfte Tafel des Babylonischen Nimrodepos. BA I. 48-79.

---- On Two Passages in the Chaldaean Flood Tablet. PAOS, March 1894,

CV.-CXI.

---- On Some Passages in the Cuneiform Account of the Deluge, with

special reference to the first column of the tablet. JHUC, No. 69.

---- Ergebnisse einer neuen Collation der Izubar Legenden. BA I. 94-152.

See Halevy ZA IV. 61.

---- On the Dimensions of the Babylonian Ark. PAOS, Oct. 1888,

lxxxix.-xc.; see also AJP IX. 419-424.

---- Der Keilinschriftliche Sintfluthbericht. Eine Episode des

babylonischen Nimrodepos. (Leipzig 1881.)

---- Der Keilinschriftliche Sintfluthbericht. Umschrift, Uebersetzung,

und Erlaeuterungen in Schrader's 'Die Keilinschriften und das Alte

Testament,' 3d ed., 1898.

[Latest and most satisfactory translation.]

Hoffmann, G.--Die Dubar-Sage und der Keilinschriftliche

Sintfluthbericht. Die Grenzboten, Jahrgang 47.

Hommel, F.--Gis-dubarra, Gibilgamish, Nimrod. PSBA XV. 291-300; XVI.

13-15.

Heuzey, L.--La Lance Colossale d'Izbubar et les Nouvelles Formeles de M.

de Sarzec. AI. Bulletin 1893, 305.

Jastrow, Morris, Jr.--The New Version of the Babylonian Account of the

Deluge. The Independent, Feb. 10, 17, 1898.

Jensen, P.--Gishgimash (=Gilgamish) ein Kossaer? ZA VI. 340-342.

Jeremias, A.--Article 'Izdubar' in Roscher's 'Ausfuehrliches Lexikon der

Griechischen und Roemischen Mythologie.' Vol. II. cols. 773-823.

---- Izdubar-Nimrod. Eine Altbabylonische Heldensage nach den

Keilschriftfragmenten dargestellt. (Leipzig 1891.) See also article by

Quentin in RHR XXXI. 162-177.

Lenormant, F.--Le Deluge et l'Epopee Babylonienne. (Paris 1873.)

Lidzbarski.--Zu den Arabischen Alexandergeschichten. ZA VIII. 263-312.