in different senses by experts. Very often history is wrongly taken
to mean the record of events that have occurred in the course of the
development of civilized life--the history of peoples and states
(humorously described as "the history of the world"), of civilization,
of morals, etc. This is merely an anthropocentric feeling that in
the strictly scientific sense "history" can only be used for the
record of man's doings. In this sense history is opposed to nature,
the one dealing with the province of morally free phenomena (with
preconceived aim), and the other comprising the province of natural
law (without preconceived aim). As if there were no "natural history,"
or as if cosmogony, geology, ontogeny, and phytogeny were not
historical sciences! Although this dualistic and anthropistic view
still prevails in our universities, and state and Church protect the
venerable tradition, there can be no doubt that sooner or later it
will be replaced by a purely monistic philosophy of history. Modern
anthropogeny shows us the intimate connection between the evolution of
the human individual and that of the race; and by means of prehistoric
and phylogenetic research it joins what is called the history of the
world to the stem-history of the vertebrates.
Medicine belongs to the front rank of practical or applied sciences. In
its long and interesting history it teaches how it is only a monistic
knowledge of nature, not a dualistic notion of revelation, that affords
the foundations of true science and the profitable application of
this to the most important aspects of practical life. Medicine was
originally the business of the priests, and for thousands of years
it was under the influence of mystic and superstitious ideas which
were connected with religious dogmas. However, two thousand years ago
the great physicians of classic antiquity made a serious effort to
provide a solid base for medical practice by a thorough anatomic and
physiological study of the human frame. But in the general reaction
of the Middle Ages superstitious and miraculous ideas once more
defeated independent scientific investigation. Disease was supposed
to be the work of evil spirits (as Christ thought) which had to be
exorcised. Miracles are still thought to take place, even in cultured
circles. I need only mention the wonders of patent medicines, magnetic
cures, Christian Science, and other charlatanry. However, the great
development of science in the nineteenth century, especially the
astonishing advance of biology about the middle of the century,
gradually shaped medicine into the monistic science which assuages so
much pain and suffering in humanity to-day. Pathology, the science
of disease, and therapeutics, the rational science of healing, are
grounded now on the safe methods of physics and chemistry and a
thorough knowledge of the human organism. Disease is no longer regarded
as a special entity that comes on the body like an evil spirit or
mysterious organism, but is conceived as a baneful disturbance of its
normal activity. Pathology is only a branch of physiology; it studies
the changes that take place in the tissues and cells under abnormal and
dangerous conditions. When the causes of these changes are poisons or
foreign organisms (such as bacteria or amœbæ), the art of healing
has to remove them and restore the normal equilibrium of the functions.
The science of mental disease is a special branch of medicine; it has
the same relation to it as psychology has to physiology. However, as
pathological psychology it deserves special consideration, not only
on account of its extreme practical importance, but also because of
its theoretical interest. The misleading dualist idea of body and soul
that has perverted our notions of mental life from the oldest times
has led people to regard mental disorders as special phenomena, at one
time directly as evil spirits that enter from without into the human
body, at another time as mysterious dynamic occurrences affecting the
mystic being of the soul (independently of the body). These dualistic
and still wide-spread and mischievous errors have caused the most
fatal mistakes in the treatment of mental disease; they have had the
most unfortunate effect on juristic and social and other aspects of
practical life. But the ground has been cut from under these irrational
and superstitious ideas by modern psychiatry, which regards all mental
disease as a disorder of the brain, and traces it to changes in the
cortex that lie at the root of all psychoses (delusions, lunacy,
etc.). As we call this central organ of mind the phronema, we may say:
Psychiatry is the pathology and therapeutics of the phronema. In many
disorders we have already succeeded in anatomically and chemically
tracing the changes in the psychic or phronetal cells (the neurona
in the phronema). These acquisitions of the pathological anatomy and
physiology of the phronema have a great philosophic interest, because
they throw a good deal of light on the monistic conception of psychic
life. As the greater part (sixty to ninety per cent.) of these diseases
are hereditary, and they have mostly been acquired gradually by the
ancestors of the patient, they also afford clear proof of progressive
heredity, or the inheritance of acquired characters.
Thousands of years ago, when barbaric races began to adapt themselves
to civilized life, they had a concern for their bodily health and
strength. In classic antiquity the care of the body by baths, gymnastic
exercises, etc., was greatly developed, and connected with religious
ceremonies. The splendid aqueducts and baths of Greece and Rome show
how much importance they attached to the external and internal use of
water. The Middle Ages brought reaction in this province like so many
others. As Christianity depreciated this life and said it was merely a
preparation for the life to come, it led to a disdain of culture and
of nature; and as it regarded man's body only as the temporary prison
of his immortal soul, it attached no importance to the care of it. The
frightful plagues that swept away millions of men in the Middle Ages
were only fought with prayer, processions, and other superstitious
devices, instead of with rational hygienic and sanitary measures. We
have only gradually learned to discard this superstition. It was not
until the second half of the nineteenth century that a sound knowledge
of the physiological functions and environment of the organism induced
people once more to have a concern for bodily culture. All that modern
hygiene now does for the public health, especially the improvement of
the dwellings and food of the poorer classes, the prevention of disease
by healthier habits, baths, athletics, etc., can be traced to the
monistic teaching or reason, and is altogether opposed to the Christian
belief in Providence and the dualism connected therewith. The maxim of
modern hygiene is: God helps those who help themselves.
The remarkable progress of technical science in the nineteenth
century, which has stamped our age as "an age of machinery," is a
direct consequence of the immense advance of theoretical science.
All the privileges and comforts which modern life gives us are due
to scientific discoveries, especially in physics and chemistry.
We need only recall the enormous importance of steam and electric
machinery, modern mining, agriculture, and so on. If by these means
modern industry and international commerce have prospered beyond all
expectations, we owe this to the practical application of empirical
truths. "Mental science" and metaphysical speculation have had nothing
to do with it. There is no need of further proof that all the technical
sciences have a purely monistic character, like their exact sources,
physics and chemistry.
The scientific development of education is one of the greatest tasks
of modern civilization. The ideas that are impressed on the mind in
early youth are most persistent, and generally determine the direction
of thought and conduct for the whole of life. Hence we find the
struggle between the two philosophic tendencies assuming the greatest
practical importance in this department. As the priests were, thousands
of years ago, in the first stages of civilization, the sole trainers
of the growing mind, they had charge of the school as well as of
medicine. Religion was made the chief foundation of instruction, and
its doctrines were the moral guide for the whole of life. The isolated
attempts that were made by monistic philosophy in ancient times to
destroy this theistic superstition had no effect on the education of
the young. In this the dualistic principles of Plato and Aristotle
prevailed, their metaphysical theories being blended with the teaching
of the Church. In the Middle Ages the power of the Roman priesthood
enforced them everywhere. And, although a good deal of this teaching
lost its prestige at the Reformation, the influence of the Church on
the school was maintained down to our own time. The spiritual power of
the Church finds a useful ally in this in the conservative attitude
of most governments. Throne and altar support each other; both dread
the advance of scientific inquiry. In face of this powerful dualistic
alliance, supported by the mental apathy of the masses and a convenient
blind submission to authority, the monistic system has a difficult
position to maintain. It will only gain solid ground in education when
the school is divorced from the Church and scientific knowledge is made
the foundation of the curriculum. I have pointed out in the nineteenth
chapter of the _Riddle_ the guiding principles to be followed in this
reform of education in opposition to the influence of Church and state.
As we have dealt in the eighteenth chapter with morals and their
development from habit and adaptation, we need only mention here the
contradiction that we still find between the monistic claims of pure
reason and the dualistic claims of practical reason. This has been
largely sustained by Kant's teaching, but his categorical imperative
has been completely refuted by modern science. The metaphysical
grounding of morality on free will and ethical intuitions (_a
priori_) must be replaced by a physiological ethic, based on monistic
psychology. As this can no more recognize a moral order of the world
in history than a loving Providence in the life of the individual,
the monistic morality of the future must be reducible to the laws of
biology, and especially of evolution.
The great importance that attaches to the new science of sociology is
due to its close relations to theoretical anthropology and psychology
on the one hand, and to practical politics and law on the other. When
we take it in the wider sense, human sociology joins on to that of
the nearest mammals. The family life, marriage, and care of the young
in the mammals, the formation of herds in the carnivora and ungulates
and of troops in the social apes, lead on to the looser associations
of savages and barbarians, and from these to the beginnings of
civilization. The history of these associations is connected with
the social rules that govern the intercourse of smaller and larger
communities. In the biological reduction of social rules to the natural
laws of heredity and adaptation, dynamic sociology (as Lester Ward
has called it) proceeds on purely monistic lines, while in social
intercourse itself we still find a good deal of dualism. How little
truth and nature count for in our cultured society, how much hypocrisy
and insincerity have to do with social rules, has been well shown by
Max Nordau in his _Conventional Lies of Civilization_.
Politics is closely connected with sociology on the one hand and
law on the other. As internal politics it controls the organization
of the state by a constitution; as external or foreign politics it
directs the relations of states to each other. In my opinion, pure
reason should prevail in both departments; the relations of the
citizens to each other and to the whole should be regulated by the
same ethical principles that we recognize in personal intercourse. We
are, unfortunately, very far from this ideal in the life of a modern
state. Brutal egoism rules in foreign politics; every nation thinks
only of its own advantage, and furthers it with all its military and
other resources. Domestic politics is still largely directed by the
barbaric prejudices of the Middle Ages. Great struggles are in progress
between the central government and the mass of the people. Both parties
spend themselves in fruitless conflicts; yet reason in the life of the
state suffers more than its special political complexion. "Whether the
state shall be a monarchy or a republic, aristocratic or democratic,
are subordinate questions. The great question is: Shall the modern
state be spiritual or secular? Shall it be governed _theocratically_ by
irrational beliefs and clerical arbitrariness, or _nomocratically_ by
rational laws and civic right?" (_Riddle_, chapter i.).
In the science of law, too, we find the prevalence of the dualistic
principles that have come down from the Middle Ages and antiquity, and
have acquired a certain sacredness by blending with the teaching of
the Church. Kant's dualism is again found to be at work, influencing
the ideas of jurists and statesmen. With it we find in our codes many
carefully preserved relics of mediæval superstition. A great deal of
harm is done by this religious influence. Every day we read in the
papers of curious deliverances in the lower and higher courts at which
every thoughtful man can only shake his head. Here also there will be
no solid improvement until the education of jurists includes a thorough
training in anthropology and psychology as well as in the code.
Theology has stood at the head of the four venerable "faculties" at
our universities for centuries. It still holds this place of honor,
as the Church, the organ of practical theology, continues to exercise
a profound influence on life. In fact, most of the other branches
of applied science--especially jurisprudence, politics, ethics, and
pedagogics--are still more or less affected by religious prejudices.
The chief of these is the idea of God conceived in some form or other
as the Supreme Being; as Goethe says, "Every one calls the best he
knows his God." However, the idea of God is not the chief feature
of all religions. The three greatest Asiatic religions--Buddhism,
Brahmanism, and Confucianism--were at first purely atheistic; Buddhism
was at once idealistic and pessimistic, whence Schopenhauer regarded
it as the highest of all religions. On the other hand, belief in a
personal God is the central feature of the three great Mediterranean
religions. This anthropomorphic God is conceived in a hundred forms in
the various sects of the Mosaic, Christian, and Mohammedan religions,
but his existence remains one of the chief articles of faith. No
evidence of his existence is to be found; this was very ably shown by
Kant, although he thought that practical reason postulated it. All that
revelation is supposed to teach us on the matter belongs to the region
of fiction. The whole field of theology, especially dogmatic theology,
and the whole of the Church teaching based on it, are based on
dualistic metaphysics and superstitious traditions. It is no longer a
serious subject of scientific treatment. On the other hand, comparative
religion is a very important branch of theoretical theology. It deals
with the origin, development, and significance of religion on the
basis of modern anthropology, ethnology, psychology, and history. When
we study without prejudice the results of these sciences bearing on
religion, theology turns out to be pantheism, in the sense of Spinoza
and Goethe, and thus monism becomes a connecting link between religion
and science.
This brief survey of the twenty chief branches of modern science
and their relation to monism and dualism shows that we are face to
face with great contradictions, and that we are still far from the
harmonious and successful adjustment of these differences. They are
partly due to a real antinomy of reason in the Kantist sense--an
antithesis in ideas, in which the positive seems to be just as
capable of proof as its contradictory. But, for the most part, this
unfortunate antinomy in the sciences is connected with their historical
development. Pure reason, the highest quality of civilized man, was
gradually evolved from the intelligence of the savage, and this in turn
from the instincts of the apes and lower mammals; and many relics of
its former lower condition remain to-day, and have, through practical
reason, a most prejudicial influence on science. These dualistic
prejudices and irrational dogmas--intellectual residua of the primitive
condition of the race, fossil ideas and rudimentary instincts--still
pervade the whole of modern theology, jurisprudence, politics, ethics,
psychology, and anthropology. If we glance at the whole field of modern
science at the beginning of the twentieth century in this connection,
we can distribute its twenty sections into three groups--rational
(purely monistic), semi-dogmatic (half-monistic), and dogmatic
(predominantly dualistic) disciplines.
The following may be classed as rational or purely monistic sciences,
in which no competent and thoroughly expert representative now admits
dualistic considerations: of the pure or theoretical sciences, physics,
chemistry, mathematics, astronomy, and geology; of the applied or
practical sciences, medicine, hygiene, and technology. On the other
hand, in the semi-dogmatic sciences we still find a mixture of
monistic and dualistic ideas in the appreciation of their aims and
objects, one or the other prevailing according to the party position
or personal training of the individual representative. This is the
case with most of the biological sciences, biology (in the broadest
sense), anthropology, psychology, philology, history, psychiatry;
and of the applied sciences, pedagogics and ethics. The two latter
sciences form a transition to the four purely dogmatic sciences in
which the traditional dualism is still paramount: sociology, politics,
jurisprudence, and theology. In these branches of science mediæval
traditions retain a good deal of their power. Most of their official
representatives cling to prejudices and superstitions of all sorts,
and very slowly and gradually admit the acquisitions of pure reason as
embodied in monistic anthropology and psychology. The intellectual life
was in many respects more advanced at the beginning of the nineteenth
than of the twentieth century.
This classification of the chief branches of knowledge in their
relation to philosophy, the comprehensive science of general truths,
is naturally only a provisional and personal sketch. It is especially
difficult from the circumstance that all the sciences have very complex
relations to each other, and have undergone many changes as to their
aims and subjects in the course of their historical development. I
will only point out that a good deal of science--in fact, the rational
sciences with exact mathematical basis--have now been completely won
over to monism; and in the semi-dogmatic sciences it is gaining ground
from day to day, so that we may hope sooner or later to see the four
dogmatic sciences also, the strong bulwarks of dualism--sociology,
politics, jurisprudence, and theology--succumb to monism. For the
ultimate aim of all the sciences can only be the unity of their
underlying principles, or their harmonious unification by pure reason.
It is now more and more generally acknowledged in educated countries
that a complete reform of our educational curriculum is needed,
both in elementary and secondary schools and at the universities.
The great struggle between two different tendencies assumes larger
proportions every day. On the one hand, most governments, following
their conservative instinct, cling as far as possible to mediæval
traditions, and find support in the dogmatic teaching of theology
and jurisprudence. On the other hand, the representatives of pure
reason seek to get rid of these fetters, and to introduce the
empirical and critical methods of modern science and medicine into
what are called the mental sciences. The opposition between the two
parties is accentuated by their different sociological tendencies.
Liberal humanists claim that the freedom and education of all men is
the aim of progressive evolution, in the conviction that the free
development of the personality of each individual is the surest
guarantee of happiness. To conservative governments this is a matter of
indifference; they look on the individual citizens, in accordance with
the manifold division of labor, merely as so many screws and wheels in
the great organism of the state. The "upper ten thousand" naturally
think of their own welfare first, and desire to keep all higher
education to themselves. But in the light of pure reason the state is
not an end in itself; it is a means to insure the prosperity of the
citizens. To each of these, whatever their condition, the opportunity
should be afforded of acquiring the higher education and developing
their talents. Hence in education we should impart a general outlook
on all the sides of human life. Each should acquire the elements of
science, not only of physics and chemistry, but also of biology and
anthropology. On the other hand, the predominance of the classical
training over modern ought to be restricted. Every student and every
faculty should be occupied with only philosophy and science in the
first sessions, and not take up special studies until afterwards.
At the close of the _Riddle_ I brought out in clear relief the
antagonism between modern monism and traditional dualism, but also
pointed out that
this strenuous opposition may be toned down to a certain degree
on clear and logical reflection--may, indeed, be converted into a
friendly harmony. In a thoroughly logical mind, applying the highest
principles with equal force in the entire field of the cosmos--in
both organic and inorganic nature--the antithetical positions of
theism and pantheism, vitalism and mechanism, approach until they
touch each other. Unfortunately, consecutive thought is a rare
phenomenon in nature.
This conciliatory disposition has grown stronger and stronger in
me. Every year increases my belief that the dualism of Kant and the
prevalent metaphysical school must give way to the monism of Goethe and
the rising pantheistic tendency. In this we do not lose sight of our
ideals. On the contrary, our "realist philosophy of life" teaches us
that they are rooted deep in human nature. While occupying ourselves
with the ideal world in art and poetry, and cultivating the play of
emotion, we persist, nevertheless, in thinking that the real world,
the object of science, can be truly known only by experience and pure
reason. Truth and poetry are then united in the perfect harmony of
monism.
INDEX
Abiogenesis, 339-358;
may still occur, 357.
Abiology, 27, 78.
Abortion, 325.
Abstraction, power of, 316.
Achromin, 140, 142.
Acquired characters, inheritance of, 367-369, 376.
Actinal beauty, 185.
Active movements in organisms, 262.
Adaptation, 415.
Æsthesis, 296, 308.
Æsthetal cells, 14.
Æsthetic selection, 422.
Agassiz on the creation of species, 30.
Agnostic position on the origin of life, 338.
Albumin, 39, 126, 128.
Albuminoids, the, 39, 125, 126.
Algæ, 161, 195, 220.
Alimentary system, the, 227.
Allopola, 174.
Alternation of generations, 253.
Altmann on the structure of plasm, 134.
Altruism, sources of, 115.
Ambulacral system, 280.
Amœboid movements, 268.
Amphigony, 240.
Amphimixis, 244.
Amphithecta, 176.
Angiophyta, 220.
Animal states, 36, 148, 150, 168.
Animals, kindness to, 115;
younger than plants, 216.
Animism, 58.
Annelids, motor apparatus of the, 281.
Antheridia, 249.
Anthophyta, 162, 220.
_Anthropogeny, The_, 283, 320.
Anthropogeny, the science of, 321, 332.
Anthropologists and evolution, 321.
Anthropology, 86, 478.
Antivitalism, 50.
Ape, mind in the, 332, 333.
Apes and men, common structure of, 285.
Aphanocapsa, 32, 130, 182, 196, 205.
Apostles' Creed, the, 60-65.
Apotelia, 163.
Apposition, 42.
Archegonia, 249.
Archigony, 341-358;
formulation of, 355, 356;
repetition of, 356;
statement of grounds, 341;
theories of, 343-348.
Archiplasm, 129, 142, 158.
Aristotle, 66.
Art, modern development of, 407.
Articulates, motor apparatus of the, 282.
Articulation, 281.
Asexual generation, 241-244.
Assimilation, 42, 211.
Association-centres, 12, 13.
Associational beauty, 185.
Astrolarva, 279.
Astronomy, monism of, 457.
Astrozoon, 280.
Asymmetrical types, 179.
Auditory vesicles, 311.
Autogony, 341.
Autonomous movement, 262.
Bacilli, 200, 201, 202.
Bacon, the founder of empiricism, 7.
Bacteria, the, 157, 198-206, 218, 234, 235;
absence of nucleus in the, 200, 201.
Bacteriology, 198.
Baptism, 425, 426.
Barbarians, higher, 395;
life of, 394;
lower, 394;
mental life of, 58;
middle, 395;
religion of, 58.
Baræsthesis, 309.
Barotaxis, 309.
Bathybius Haeckelii, 207.
Beauty, evolution of the sense of, 188;
sources of, 184;
stages of, 184-187.
Beggiatoa, 199, 205, 218.
Berzelius on catalysis, 44.
Bilateral-radial types, 177.
Bilateral symmetry, 177.
Bioblasts, 134.
Bio-crystals, 41.
Biogen-hypothesis of Verworn, 46, 137, 138.
Biogens, 102, 128, 137, 192.
Biogenetic law, the, 380-382, 384.
Biogeny, 94, 360.
Biology, division of, 94;
sphere of, 27, 78.
Bionomy, 78, 95.
Bionta, 149, 151;
virtual, 151;
partial, 151.
Biophora, 137.
Biotonus, 103.
Blastoderm, the, 161.
Botanists and zoologists, divergence of, 374.
Brain, as an organ of mind, 25;
evolution of the, 22, 327, 328.
Brownian movement, 260.
Bryophyta, 162.
Budding, 242, 243.
Bunge, as vitalist, 50.
Bütschli on the monera, 31;
on the structure of plasm, 132.
Calymma, the, 270.
Canon law, the, 324, 325.
Carbon assimilation, 34, 130, 212, 213, 342.
Carbon, importance of, 37, 38.
Caryokinesis, 139, 267.
Caryolymph, 141, 142.
Caryolysis, 268.
Child, mind of the, 90, 323.
Child-soul, study of the, 20.
Children, destruction of incurable, 21, 120.
Chitine, 282.
Chlorophyll, 33, 141, 195, 214.
Chorology, 95.
Chromacea, 32, 130, 137, 157, 182, 194-197;
description of the, 194;
structure of the, 197.
Chromatella, 33, 343.
Chromatin, 140, 142.
Chromatophora, 33, 343.
Chromoplasts, 141, 196.
Chroococcacea, the, 32, 182.
Chroococcus, 32, 130, 182, 196, 197, 208.
Ciliary movement, 272, 276.
Circulation of the blood, 228.
Civilization, characteristics of, 58-59;
evils of, 114;
growth of, 334;
modern, 335, 402;
shades of, 401, 408;
stages of, 398;
progress of, 469;
value of, 309.
Civilized races, higher, 397;
life of, 396;
lower, 396;
middle, 396;
mind in, 334.
Cleanliness in antiquity, 464.
Clothing, beginning of, 423;
fashions in, 430.
Cnidaria, 224;
generation of the, 250, 253.
Cœlenteria, 166, 221, 223, 225.
Cœloma, the, 223, 225.
Cœlomaria, 166, 221, 225.
Cœnobia, 160, 161.
Colloids, nature of, 39.
Colon, the, 226.
Coloring methods, 208.
Conjugation, 246.
Consciousness a function of the brain, 331;
development of, 331;
nature of, 19, 23, 290, 291.
Conservatism of governments, 73.
Contact-action, 45.
Copulation, 251.
Cormophyta, 165, 167.
Cormus, 36, 148, 150, 154, 168, 184.
Corset, the, 430.
Cortex of the brain, 12, 323, 327, 329.
Cosmic intelligence, 30;
monism, 37.
Cosmogony, 360.
Cosmokinesis, 266.
Craniota, mind in the, 326.
Creationism, 337.
Crustacea, parasitic, 237.
Crystals, 41;
forms of, 172;
growth of, 42, 43;
life of, 41;
and organisms compared, 35, 40, 41, 43, 44;
reproduction of, 44.
Crystallization, 265, 266.
Crystalloids, nature of, 39.
Culmus, the, 165, 183.
Cultivated races, definition of, 397;
higher, 400;
lower, 398;
middle, 399.
Custom, tyranny of, 421.
Cuticle, 146.
Cyanogen, 346.
---- theory, 347.
Cytodes, 33, 157, 192, 194.
Cytology, 128, 190.
Cytophyta, 220.
Cytoplasm, 35, 122, 138, 139, 142, 158, 191.
Cytosoma, 122, 138.
Cytotheca, 145.
Cytula, 244.
Darwin on the origin of life, 338.
Darwinism, 50, 80, 361, 363, 364, 373.
De Bries on heredity, 373.
Death, nature of, 98;
of the unicellulars, 99;
of the histona, 100;
real cause of, 101;
total and partial, 105.
Decomposability of plasm, 345.
Descartes' idea of the soul, 16, 18.
Descriptive science, 4, 5, 6.
Design, argument for, 388.
Dialysis, 39.
Diatomes, 41, 182.
Diclinism, 247.
Diœcia, 248.
Disassimilation, 212.
Disease, nature of, 106.
Dissogony, 252.
Division of labor, 35;
in the cell, 143, 158;
in the organism, 149, 167;
in the state, 150, 169.
Divorce, 428, 429.
Dogmatic sciences, 470.
Dominants, the, of Reinke, 264.
Driesch, as vitalist, 51.
Dualism, 81, 91, 433.
Dualistic view of life, 337, 348, 366;
of the mind, 332;
of morality, 411;
of sensation, 446, 447.
Dumas, Louis, as vitalist, 47.
Duty an evolved sense, 413.
Dwarf races, 422.
Dynamism, 85, 110.
Ear, canals in the, 311;
the, 312.
Echinoderms, motor organs of the, 279-281.
Ectogenesis, 369.
Education, reform of, 471;
struggle over, 465.
Egoism, 115, 403;
and altruism, 419.
Elasticity, 310.
Eleatic philosophers, the, 66.
Electric organs, 313.
Electricity, sensation of, 312, 313.
Elements, chemical, 37, 38.
Embryo, legal view of the, 325, 326;
mind in the, 325.
Embryology, 20, 21;
mechanical, 383.
End of life, 387.
Energism, 85.
Energy as attribute of substance, 446, 449;
definition of, 449.
Enzyma, 46, 128.
Epicureanism, 83.
Epitelia, 163.
Epithelium, ciliated and flagellated, 276.
Erect posture, the, 285.
Ergology, 95.
Ergonomy, 35, 150.
Erotic chemotropism, 306.
Eternity hypothesis of life, 338.
Ethic, the perfect, 400.
Ethics, 411.
Eucharist, the, 426.
Excretion, 232, 233.
Experience, importance of, 3, 4.
Experiment, limited use of, 352, 353, 383;
nature of, 7, 8.
Experimental science, 4, 8.
Extension, 446, 448.
Eye, the, 298;
evolution of, 298, 299.
Faith, 437, 439;
natural and supernatural, 54.
Family, evolution of the, 402.
Fashion, 422.
Fechner on sensation, 295;
on the universality of life, 340.
Feeling, 296, 308.
Fetichism, 57, 58.
Filar theory of plasm, 134.
Fistella, 344.
Flagelliform movement, 271, 276.
Flame, analysis of the, 28.
Flat-fishes, metamorphosis of, 178.
Flechsig, discoveries of, 13.
Flemming on the structure of plasm, 113.
Food, artificial production of, 400.
Forms of organic structure, 173-184.
Frommann on plasm, 133.
Frothy theory of plasm, 132, 133.
Fungi, 162, 204, 215, 234, 236.
Fungilli, 204, 235.
Gameta, the, 244.
Gastræa theory, the, 223.
Gastræads, 223.
Gastric canal, 228.
Gastro-canal system, 222, 223.
Gastrula, the, 166.
Gemmation, 242, 243.
Genealogy of organisms, 304, 305, 376.
Generation, sexual and asexual, 241-251.
Geogeny, 360.
Geology, historical nature of, 378;
monism of, 458.
Geotropism, 310.
Germ-plasm, 143;
the theory of, 367, 372.
German mind, Janus character of, 441.
Gills, 229, 230.
Globular shape, origin of, 34.
Glœocapsa, 32, 196, 205.
Goethe, monism of, 442;
realism of, 440;
scientific studies of, 440, 441.
Gonades, 249.
Gonochorism, 246.
Gonoducts, 250.
Granular theory of plasm, 134.
Gravitation, sensation in, 309.
Growth, 241.
Growth movements, 264.
Habit, 415-417;
in inorganic bodies, 417.
Heart, the, 228;
work of the, 277.
Heat, sensation of, 300, 301.
Heaven, 109.
Hedonism, 84.
Heliotropism, 298.
Helmholtz on the origin of life, 339.
Heraclitus on life, 28.
Heredity, conservative and progressive, 368;
cumulative, 369;
theories of, 135, 136, 366.
Hermaphrodism, 245, 246, 258, 259.
Hermaphroditic glands, 249.
Hertwig, O., on the biogenetic law, 382;
on the monera, 31.
Heterogenesis, 254.
His, W., theories of, 383.
Histolysis, 106.
Histona, the, 36.
Histonals, 165, 166, 171, 182.
Historical waves, 389.
History, 461;
nature of, 9;
sources of, 9.
Hofmeister on organic chemistry, 45.
Holosphæra, 173.
Honor, false sense of, 430.
Huxley on organic individuality, 152.
Hyaloplasm, 130, 143.
Hybrids, 255, 256;
fertility of, 255.
Hydrostatic movements, 270.
Hygiene, 401, 464.
Hylonism, 82.
Hylozoism, 81, 86, 451.
Hypogenesis, 255.
Hypotheses, nature of, 54;
necessity for, 86, 87, 89, 378, 439.
Idealism, theoretical and practical, 84, 92.
Idiocy, 20.
Idioplasm theory, the, 136, 137, 366, 367.
Ileum, the, 226.
Imagination, function of the, 87.
Imbibition energy of plasm, 39.
Imbibition in organisms, 261.
Immaterial world, the, 436, 437.
Immortality, the belief in, 64, 65, 71, 108;
of the unicellulars, 99-101.
Incurables and suicide, 118, 119.
Individuality, organic, 149, 152.
Infusoria, movement in the, 268, 269, 272.
Inoculation, 204.
Insanity, increase of, 114, 118, 119.
Insectivorous plants, 304, 305.
Instinct, 418.
Intelligence, 316, 317.
Intercellular matter, 145.
Intussusception, 42.
Ionic philosophers, the, 66.
Irritability, 287, 288, 291, 293.
Isopola, 174.
Kant as natural historian, 9;
biological ignorance of, 11, 318, 319;
critical views of, 438;
contradictory views of, 68, 434, 444;
influence of, 25;
mechanical views of, 435;
moral philosophy of, 412, 413;
mystic training of, 443;
narrow life of, 443;
philosophy of, 68, 69, 74, 434-440;
popularity of, 444;
theory of knowledge of, 9, 10, 69, 317-319, 332.
Kassowitz on archigony, 355.
Kelvin, Lord, on the origin of life, 339.
Kidneys, the, 233.
Kirchhoff on the work of science, 6.
Knowledge, _a priori_ and _a posteriori_, 11, 24, 317;
and faith compared, 54;
dualistic
theory of, 24;
monistic theory of, 12-14.
Kusamaul on the child-soul, 30.
Lamarck, 79.
Lamarck's transformism, 363.
Landscape beauty, 187.
Lange on Kant, 439.
Larvæ, 253.
Law, beginning of idea of, 420;
reaction in science of, 401.
Leibnitz, philosophy of, 110.
Leucocytes, 228;
and bacteria, 305.
Lichens, 238.
Life, artificial production of, 352, 358;
as a flame, 28, 29;
constant change of, 386, 387;
evolution of, 360-365;
length of, 101;
nature of, 27, 343;
origin of, 337-358;
value of, 386-410.
Light, action of, 297-300.
Living substance, 36, 123.
Lobmonera, 206.
Localization of functions, 17, 19, 20;
of mental functions, 328, 329.
Locomotion, 275-285;
modern progress in, 404.
Lord's Supper, the, 426.
Love, progressive refinement of, 402.
Luminous animals, 312.
Lungs, 230, 231.
Machine-theory of life, the, 29, 30, 102.
Macrogameton, 244.
Mammals, common descent of the, 284;
motor apparatus of the, 283.
Manners and morals, 421.
Marriage, development of, 402, 403;
evolution of, 427;
priestly control of, 428.
Materialism, 82, 451.
Mathematics, 456.
Matrimony, 427, 428.
Matter as attribute of substance, 448.
Mechanical embryology, 103.
Mechanics, 259.
Medicine, development of, 462.
Membranes, cellular, 144, 145, 155, 157, 194.
Memory, 416.
Mental disease, evidential value of, 19.
Metabolism, 28,38, 44, 46, 103, 130, 210, 211, 217;
a mechanical process, 259, 260;
in the metaphyta, 219-221;
in the metazoa, 221, 233;
in the protophyta, 217-219;
in the protozoa, 219, 220.
Metagenesis, 253.
Metamerism, 167, 168, 281.
Metamorphology, 94.
Metaphysicians disdain physical science, 16.
Metaphysics, nature of, 10, 88, 89.
Metaphyta, 161, 165.
Metaplasm, 106, 129.
Metaplasmosism, 107.
Metasitism 217.
Metazoa, 163.
Micella, 137, 344.
Micrococcus, 201, 202.
Microgameton, 244.
Middle Ages, thought in the, 66, 67.
Mimicry, 421, 422.
Mind, the, 315, 316;
a function of the brain, 328-330;
evolution of the, 319, 320, 322, 323, 326.
Miracles, 60;
in biology, 55;
nature of, 54.
Mohl, Hugo, 122.
Molecular structure of the monera, 34, 137;
theories of plasm, 342-346.
Molecules, 126, 127.
Monaxonia, 174.
Monera, the, 31-33, 40, 157, 182, 190-209, 342.
Monism, 81, 433-445.
Monobia, 160, 196.
Monoclinism, 247.
Monœcia, 248.
Monogamy, 240.
Morality, 411, 412;
a social instinct, 419, 420;
conventional, 430;
evolution of, 413, 414, 430-432;
a form of adaptation, 414.
Morphology, 94, 171.
Morphonta, 149, 152.
Motion in metabolism, 259.
Müller, Johannes, on the nature of life, 49;
on sensation, 288.
Muscles, the, 273, 276-279;
forms of in lower animals, 278;
striated and non-striated, 277.
Muscular cells, 277.
Mutation theory, the, 365, 373.
Myophæna, 269.
Nägeli on evolution, 365;
on plasm, 137;
on the origin of life, 343, 344, 354, 356;
on universality of sensation, 450.
Natural history, 9.
Naturalism, 86, 87.
Necrobiosis, 106, 349.
Neo-Darwinism, 375, 376.
Neo-Lamarckism, 375, 376.
Neovitalism, 48;
sceptical and dogmatic, 50.
Neurona, 12, 13, 328.
Nitrobacteria, 201, 215, 218.
Nuclein, 156.
Nucleolus, 140.
Nucleus of the cell, 122, 139, 155.
Nutrition, progress in supply of, 401.
Observation, subjective and objective, 7.
Occultism, 74, 75.
Œcology, 78, 95.
Oken, Lorentz, 79, 80.
Olfactory region, 303.
Ontogeny, 94, 361, 376, 379.
Optimism, 109, 110.
Organella, 35, 130, 159, 163, 191.
Organic chemistry, 37;
and inorganic, differences between, 27, 28, 40;
meaning of, 37;
sensations, 302, 308.
Organism, nature of an, 29, 30, 36.
Organization, nature of, 29;
progress of, 338;
stages of, 149, 150, 151.
Organs, 159, 163;
apparatus of, 164;
systems of, 164;
of sense and thought, 12.
Osmosis, 39.
Ostwald, as a monist, 38;
on enzyma, 46;
on growth, 44;
on mental energy, 330;
system of, 85.
Ovary, 325.
Ovoplasm, 245.
Ovulum, the, 245, 247, 250.
Pædogenesis, 253.
Palavitalism, 48, 49.
Palingenesis, 382.
Pangenesis theory, the, 366.
Panpsychism, 340.
Pantheism, 82.
Paranuclein, 141.
Parasites, 235-238.
Parasitology, 235.
Paratonic movement, 262, 274.
Parthenogenesis, 251, 252.
Passive movements in organisms, 262.
Pasteur disproves spontaneous generation, 350-352.
Paulospores, 244.
Peptones, 45.
Perception of stimuli, 292, 293, 296.
Perigenesis of the plastidules, 136.
Perpetual motion of universe, 258.
Persons, 36, 148, 150, 154, 166, 183.
Pessimism, 109, 110, 111.
Pflüger on origin of life, 345, 346, 356.
Philology, 461.
Philosophy, history of, 81;
modern, defects of, 453;
nature of, 2, 3, 453, 454.
Phoronomy, 259.
Photo-synthesis, 214, 217.
Phototaxis, 298.
Phronema, the, 14, 15-17;
structure of the, 329.
Phroneta, the, 13, 329, 331.
Phronetal cells, 14, 17.
Phylogeny, 94, 361, 376, 379;
sources of, 377.
Physicians, liberal views of, 116-118.
Physics, monism of, 455; nature of, 89, 454.
Physiologists, dualism of, 18.
Physiology, 93.
Phytomonera, 193.
Phytoplasm, 213, 217.
Piano theory of the soul, 16.
Pineal gland, the, 16.
Planospores, 244.
Plants, spontaneous movement in, 274, 275.
Plasm, 121, 123, 128-146;
chemical constituents of, 125, 126;
differentiation of the, 138;
molecules of, 136;
nature of, 27, 28, 159;
structure of, 128, 129, 130-138.
Plasma products, 144.
Plasmodomism, 33, 34, 130, 193, 197, 212, 213, 343, 357.
Plasmogony, 354.
Plasmophaga, 193, 196, 200, 212.
Plasson, 158.
Plassonella, 355, 358.
Plastids, 138, 192.
Plastidules, 136.
Plastin, 141.
Plate on Darwinism, 364.
Platnosphæra, 174.
Plato, dualism of, 436;
philosophy of, 66.
Platodes, 225.
Pleuronectides, 178.
Poetry, pedagogical value of, 439.
Poisonous bacteria, 221, 305;
fungi, 236.
Polioplasm, 130, 143.
Politics, 467.
Polytomy, 243.
Powder, 31.
Pressure, sense of, 310.
Preyer on the child-soul, 20;
on the earth as an organism, 37;
on universality of life, 340.
Principle of individuation, 153.
Probionta, 354.
Promorphology, 94, 172.
Protamœba, 206.
Proteids, 126, 127.
Protestants, liberalism among, 73.
Protists, the, 34, 35, 131, 160, 171, 182, 190-209;
can endure extreme temperatures, 300;
movements of the, 267, 271;
science of the, 92, 93;
sensitiveness to electricity, 313.
Protoplasm, 32;
nature of, 121, 122, 125.
Providence, belief in, 107, 108.
Pseudopodia, 268.
Psychiatry, 19, 329, 463.
Psychogenesis, 21.
Psychology, 461;
comparative, 21, 22;
modern, errors of, 71;
monistic, 322;
nature of, 18.
Psycho-monism, 92.
Psychophysics, 330.
Pteridophyta, 162, 220.
Ptomaines, 203.
Purposive movement, 264, 265.
Pyramidal types, 176.
Radiolaria, 41, 156, 172, 181;
movement in the, 322.
Ranke, J., on evolution, 322.
Rational sciences, 470.
Reaction, 293.
Realism, 90, 91.
Reason, 316, 317;
pure and practical, 317.
Reason and authority, 423.
Redemption, dogma of, 62.
Reflex movement, 262, 263.
Regeneration, organic, 101-105.
Reinke, as vitalist, 51;
dualism of, 30;
on the monera, 31;
on the origin of life, 337;
theory of dominants, 264;
works of, 80, 81.
Release of energy, 294.
Religion, evolution of, 57-65, 420, 421, 424.
Reproduction a monistic process, 257;
by division, 242;
nature of, 241.
Respiration, 228-232.
Resurrection, the, 64.
Resurrection plants, 262.
Rhizomonera, 206.
Rhizopods, 129, 192, 193, 219;
movement in the, 270.
Rhodocytes, 228.
Rhumbler, L., on the cell-life, 132.
Rhythmic beauty, 185.
Richter, H. E., on life, 339.
Rindfleisch, as vitalist, 51.
Romanes, conversion of, 22, 23.
Romanism, 63, 425, 426.
Sacraments, 425, 426.
Saposites, 234.
Saprobiosis, 349, 350.
Sarcode, 155.
Savage, mind in the, 56, 57, 90, 333, 391, 405, 406, 424;
religion of the, 57;
sense-life in the, 406, 407;
views of the, 390.
Savages, higher, 394;
life of the, 392-394;
lower, 398;
middle, 393.
Schiller, idealism of, 439, 440-442.
Schizpphyta, 201.
Schleiden, 154.
Schleiermacher, 72.
Schopenhauer, as pessimist, 111, 112;
on the categorical imperative, 412;
on suicide, 114.
Schultze, Max, on the cell, 155.
Schwann, 154.
Science, confusion in, 77;
nature of, 4;
schools of, 4;
work of, 5, 6;
value of, 407, 408.
Science and tradition, conflict of, 70, 71.
Secretory movement, 271.
Selection, theory of, 361, 363.
Self-cleavage, 242.
Self-consciousness, beginning of, 323, 324.
Semi-dogmatic sciences, 470.
Senility, causes of, 106.
Sensation and consciousness, 290, 291, 295.
Sensation as attribute of substance, 447, 448;
analysis of, 293;
common to all bodies, 295, 296, 309;
evolution of, 450;
in atoms, 83;
in plants, 292, 304; nature of, 287-293;
neglected by physiologists, 289, 292;
of matter, 302;
universal, 449.
Sensations in savage and civilized man, 405, 406;
organic, 302, 308.
Sense-centres, 13, 329.
Senses, finer development of the, 406.
Sensibility, 287, 288, 293.
Sensitiveness, 293.
Sensorium, the, 14.
Sensualism, 4, 14, 15.
Sentiment and reason, 120.
Sex sense, the, 245.
Sexual beauty, 186.
---- characters, secondary, 251.
---- generation, 244-253.
---- selection, 251.
---- sense, the, 306, 307.
Shame, feeling of, 423.
Sight, evolution of, 24.
Silicon, 40.
Skeletal theory of plasm, 113.
Skeleton, common type of the, 371.
---- the, 278, 279, 283, 284.
Sleep of flowers, 274.
Smell, 303, 304.
Snails, evolution of the, 279;
muscles of the, 278.
Sociology, 467.
Soul, the, 315, 324;
dualistic idea of the, 15, 16;
found in all substance, 397;
seat of the, 15-18.
Space, nature of, 70;
sense of, 311.
Spallanzani and spontaneous generation, 350.
Spartan selection, 22, 119.
Specialism, dangers of, 92.
Species, nature of the, 204.
Speech, 461.
Sperm-plasm, 245.
Spermatozoon, the, 245;
movement of the, 271, 272.
Spinoza, system of, 82;
monism of, 445.
Spirilla, 202.
Spiritism, 74, 75,
Spiritualism, 451.
Spontaneous generation, 348;
conflict over, 349, 350;
older belief in, 349.
Sporangia, 244.
Spores, 244.
Sporozoa, 235.
Sprouts, 36, 148, 151, 154, 165, 183.
State and the individual, the, 409.
States, modern, defects of, 409, 410.
Stationary life in animals, 275.
Stauraxonia, 175.
Stimuli, acoustic, 311;
action of, 295;
chemical, 301-309;
conduction of, 295, 396;
electric, 312, 313;
gravitational, 309-312;
optic, 297-300;
thermic, 299-302.
Stock, the, 168, 184.
Strauss, D. F., 72.
Strophogenesis, 254.
Substance, attributes of, 446, 448;
eternity, of, 97;
the problem of, 2.
Suicide, contradictory views of, 112;
occasional justice of, 112, 113, 116.
Sun-dew, action of the, 304.
Supernatural, the, 87, 88.
Superstition, 56.
Sutherland, A., on morality, 392.
Swimming-bladder, the, 231.
Symbiosis, 238.
Symmetry, 171, 172.
Sympathy, 115.
Tailor theory, the, 383.
Tape-worms, 237.
Taste, 302, 303.
Technical science, progress of, 465.
Tectology, 94.
Teleology, 181, 366.
Teleology in movement, 265.
Teleology, mechanical, 362, 363.
Temperature, perception of, 299-301.
Thallophyta, 161, 165.
Thallus, the, 165, 195.
Theology, 468.
Thermotaxis, 301.
Thigmotaxis, 310.
Thought as attribute of substance, 445.
Thought centres, 13, 329.
Time, nature of, 70.
Tissue animals, 163;
plants, 162.
Tissues, primary and secondary, 161, 162.
Tocogony, 240.
Touch, sense of, 309;
in plants, 300, 310.
Tracheata, the, 231.
Tradition, power of, 423.
Transgressive growth, 42, 44, 240, 241.
Transubstantiation, 426.
Treviranus, 79.
Tropesis, 296, 308.
Trophoplasts, 143.
Truth, nature of, 1, 2, 4.
Tübingen school, the, 72.
Turgescence movements, 274, 275.
Turgor, 273-275.
Types of organic structure, 173-184.
Unequal value of life, 390.
Value of modern life, 408, 409.
Variability in species, 373.
Variation movements, 274.
Veddahs, the, 393.
Vegetal diet, 227.
Vertebrates, mind in the, 328;
motor apparatus of the, 283, 284;
succession of the, 327.
Verworn, Max. on enzyma, 46;
on the nature of life, 28;
on the origin of life, 348.
Vibratory movement, 271.
Virchow and evolution, 322;
on the aim of science, 5.
Vital force, the, 47-51.
---- movement, 266-286.
Vitalism, 47-51, 459.
Voluntary movement mechanical, 262-264.
War, 400, 409.
Watch compared with organism, 30.
Water-feet, 280.
Water-vessels, 230.
Weismann on immortality, 90-101;
on selection, 364;
on the structure of plasm, 137.
Will, freedom of the, 263, 265, 286.
Wind-pipe, the, 232.
Woman, improvement in position of, 402.
Zehnder on the origin of life, 344.
Ziegler on instinct, 418.
Zoomonera, 193, 219.
Zooplasm, 213.
THE END
FOOTNOTES:
[1] The English translation met with almost equal success. Nearly
one hundred thousand copies of the cheap edition have already been
sold.--TRANS.
[2] Further particulars about the relations of the thought-centres to
the sense-centres will be found in the tenth chapter of _The Riddle of
the Universe_.
[3] English readers who are acquainted with Romanes's posthumous
_Thoughts on Religion_ will recognize the justice of this analysis.
Romanes speaks expressly of the acceptance of Christianity entailing
"the sacrifice of his intellect."--TRANS.
[4] This refers almost entirely to Germany. The reader will remember
that, when Lord Kelvin endeavored to make theosophic capital out
of this temporary confusion in German science, he was immediately
silenced by the leading biologists of this country, Professor E.
Ray-Lankester (for zoology), Sir W. T. Thiselton-Dyer (for botany),
and Sir J. Burdon-Sanderson (for physiology), who sharply rejected
vitalism.--TRANS.
[5] The German word _wunder_ corresponds equally to the English
"miracle" and "wonder." It has seemed necessary to translate it
"wonder" in the title of the work, but frequently as "miracle" in this
chapter.--TRANS.
[6] The English reader may usefully be reminded that Professor Loofs,
Haeckel's chief critic, and one of the foremost German theologians,
rejects these articles of the Creed no less than Haeckel does. A glance
at the pertinent articles in the _Encyclopædia Biblica_ will show how
widely theologians now discard these beliefs.--TRANS.
[7] Compare the opinion of the distinguished American psychologist,
Münsterberg "Science opposes to any doctrine of individual immortality
an unbroken and impregnable barrier" (_Psychology and Life_, p.
85).--TRANS.
[8] A translation of the latest edition of the _Anthropogenie_, with
the full number of fresh illustrations (thirty plates and five hundred
and twelve wood-cuts), will be issued very shortly by the Rationalist
Press Association, under the title of _The Evolution of Man_.
[9] I may remind the English reader that the chosen ecclesiastical
champion against Haeckel in this country, the Rev. F. Ballard, made
this extraordinary fallacy the very pith of his "scientific" attack on
monism.--TRANS.
[10] As already stated, it will presently appear in England with the
title, _The Evolution of Man_.--TRANS.
[11] At the moment I translate this, telegrams from Germany announce
that, by the emperor's orders, a number of ladies were excluded from
the opera for not observing this custom.--TRANS.
[12] The English reader will find in this a reply to the foolish notion
which has been circulated that the recent discovery of radioaction
and the composition of the atom from electrons has affected Haeckel's
position. His monism is completely indifferent to changes in the
physicist conception of the nature of matter.--TRANS.
TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:
--Obvious print and punctuation errors were corrected.
--The large tables at pages 96 and 189 have been splitted into two parts.
--Original work has "CHAPTER I" instead of "CHAPTER VI" at page 121.
Corrected.
--Original work does not have "XI" at the beginning of chapter (page 239).
Added.