AVICENNA (IBN SINA)
(AD 980-1037)
Avicenna, now best known as a philosopher, was perhaps better known in
the middle ages as a kind of magician owing to the mastery of medical
science. His father was a native of Balkh, but removed from that city to
Bokhara; having displayed great abilities as a government tax collector
he was appointed to fill that office in a town called Kharmaithen, one
of the dependencies of Bokhara. Here Avicenna was born. At the age of
ten years he was a perfect master of the Koran, and had studied
arithmetic and algebra.
The philosopher An-Natili having visited them about that time,
Avicenna's father lodged him in his own house, and Avicenna studied
under him logic, Euclid and the Almagest (an astronomical treatise of
Ptolemy). He soon surpassed his master, and explained to him
difficulties and obscurities which the latter had not understood. On the
departure of An-Natili, Avicenna applied himself to the study of natural
philosophy, divinity, and other sciences. He then felt an inclination to
learn medicine, and studied medical works; he treated patients, not for
gain, but in order to increase his knowledge. When he was sixteen years
of age, physicians of the highest eminence came to him for instruction
and to learn from him those modes of treatment which he had discovered
by his practice. But the greater portion of his time was given to the
study of logic and philosophy. "When I was perplexed about any
question," he says in an autobiographical fragment, "I went to the
mosque and prayed God to resolve the difficulty. At night I returned
home; I lit the lamp, and set myself to read and write. When I felt
myself growing tired and sleepy I drank a glass of wine, which renewed
my energy, and then resumed reading. When finally I fell asleep I kept
dreaming of the problems which had exercised my waking thoughts, and as
a matter of fact often discovered the solution of them in my sleep."
When he came across the "Metaphysics" of Aristotle, that work in spite
of his acuteness seemed to present an insuperable difficulty. "I read
this book," he says, "but I did not understand it, and the purport of it
remained so obscure to me that though I read it forty times through and
could repeat it by heart, I was as far from understanding it as ever. In
despair, I said to myself, 'This book is quite incomprehensible.' One
day at the time of afternoon prayer I went to a bookseller's, and there
I met a friend who had a book in his hand, which he praised and showed
me. I looked at it in a listless way and handed it back, certain that it
was of no use to me. But he said to me, 'Buy it; it is very cheap. I
will sell it you for three dirhems; its owner is in need of money.' It
was a commentary of Al Farabi on the metaphysics of Aristotle. I bought
it, took it home and began to read it. Immediately all my difficulties
were cleared up, as I knew the "Metaphysics" by heart. I was delighted,
and the next day distributed alms to the poor in order to show my
gratitude to God."
About this time the Emir Nuh Ibn Mansur, prince of Khorassan, fell ill,
and having heard of Avicenna's talent, sent for him and was restored to
health under his treatment. As a reward, Avicenna was allowed to study
in the prince's library, which contained several chests of rare
manuscripts. Here he discovered treatises on the sciences of the
ancients, and other subjects, the essence of which he extracted. It
happened some time afterwards that this library was destroyed by fire,
and Avicenna remained the sole depository of the knowledge which it
contained. Some persons even said that it was he who had set fire to the
library because he alone was acquainted with its contents, and wished to
be their sole possessor.
At the age of eighteen he had completely mastered all the sciences which
he had studied. The death of his father and the fall of the Samanide
dynasty forced him to quit those literary treasures which he had learnt
to appreciate so well. At the age of twenty-two he left Bokhara and went
to Jorjan, the capital of Khwarezm where he frequented the Court of Shah
Ali ibn Mamoun. At this time the celebrated Sultan Mahmoud of Ghazni,
having heard that there were several learned men, and among them
Avicenna, at the Court of Mamoun, requested the latter to send them to
him. Several of them went, but Avicenna refused, probably because his
orthodoxy was suspected, and Sultan Mahmoud was a strict Sunni. Mahmoud
was much displeased at not seeing Avicenna appear at his court with the
rest, and sent descriptions and drawings of him in several directions in
order that he might be arrested. In the meantime, Avicenna finding the
allowance made to him at the Court of Mamoun insufficient, left Jorjan
and wandered through the towns of Khorassan. Finally he settled in a
little village near Balkh. There he composed the greater part of his
philosophical works, and among others the book on the "Eternal Principle
and the Return of the Soul." Some time afterwards he was called to
Hamadan to treat the Buwayhid Sultan Shams-ed Dawla, who suffered from a
dangerous gastric malady. He was successful in curing the Sultan, who
showed his gratitude by appointing Avicenna his vizier.
The affairs of State did not prevent Avicenna from carrying on his
studies, for during his stay at Hamadan he found time to commence his
exposition of the philosophy of Aristotle entitled the "Shifa" which he
undertook at the Sultan's request. At this time Avicenna presented the
rare spectacle of a philosopher discharging the functions of a
statesman, without injury to either statesmanship or philosophy. His
great physical energy enabled him to spend the day in the service of the
Sultan and a great part of the night in philosophical discussions with
his disciples. His writings, which date from this time, allow us to
judge with what success he pursued his philosophical studies, and we
have every reason to believe that he was equally successful in the
conduct of affairs, for, after the death of Shams-ed-Dawla, his son and
successor Taj-ed-Dawla requested him to retain the post of vizier.
Avicenna appreciated this testimony to his worth, but declined the offer
in order to devote himself to the completion of his great work, the
Shifa. But even in his studious retirement he was not out of reach of
political disturbance. Suspected of carrying on secret correspondence
with Ala-ed-Dawla, the governor of Ispahan, an enemy of Taj-ed-Dawla,
Avicenna was imprisoned in a neighbouring fortress. He would probably
have remained there a long time had not the fortune of war put
Ala-ed-Dawla in possession of Hamadan, Avicenna was liberated after an
imprisonment of four months. Despite this misadventure he succeeded
during his stay at Hamadan in completing the Shifa and several medical
treatises, besides, a little mystical allegory, "Hay ibn Yokdhan" ("The
living one, son of the Waking One"). This shows the mystical side of
Avicenna's philosophy, and we therefore subjoin an abridgment and
explanation of it.
"During my sojourn in a certain country, I used to make excursions with
my friends to pleasant spots in our vicinity. One day when strolling out
with them I met an old man who, in spite of his advanced age, seemed
brimful of juvenile ardour, being neither bent nor having white hairs.
We felt attracted by him and accosted him. After the usual salutations,
I opened the conversation by requesting him to inform us about himself,
his trade, name, family, and country. 'As to my name and family,' he
answered, 'I am called Hay ibn Yokdhan, and I was born in Jerusalem; as
to my occupation, it consists in traversing all the regions of the
earth, always following the direction indicated by my Father. He has
entrusted to me the keys of all the sciences and guided me through all
ways even to the utmost bounds of the universe.' We continued to ask him
questions regarding different branches of science till we touched on the
science of physiognomy, on which he spoke with marvellous precision,
taking it as the starting point of a discourse which he delivered to
us."
This exordium may be interpreted as follows: "During the sojourn of my
soul in the body I felt a desire under the guidance of my imagination
and my senses to examine whatever presented itself to me. While thus
engaged, I came in contact with active Intelligence (the old man), the
salutary effects of which I had long experienced and which had preserved
my vigour unabated. I commenced to examine the nature of this
Intelligence freed as it is from all material grossness and yet in a
certain way, linked to the material world. Since life includes the two
conditions necessary to actual development, consciousness and movement,
he calls himself 'Hay' 'the Living,' and adds 'ibn Yokdhan' 'Son of the
Waking,' meaning that he derives his origin from a Being higher than
himself, Who is always awake and has no need of repose. His birthplace
is the holy city of Jerusalem, free from all earthly stain, and his
occupation is to traverse the highest regions open to intelligence in
order to understand the nature of his heavenly Father, who has committed
to him the keys of all forms of knowledge. Thus, favoured by his help,
we arrive at Logic, a science which leads by sure and evident
conclusions to a knowledge of what is remote and occult. For this reason
logic is indicated by the term 'physiognomy' which judges of the hidden
by its outward manifestation."
After this commencement the allegory proceeds: "Logic," continued the
old man, "is a science whose income is paid in ready money; she brings
to light what nature conceals, and what may be a source of either joy or
sorrow; she points you out the way of freedom from earthly entanglements
and sensual propensities. If her healing hand touches you, it will give
you salutary support, but if your weakness cause you to stumble, you
will be exposed to ruin, accompanied as you always are by bad
companions[35] from which it is impossible to get free.
"As to thy nearest companion (imagination), he is a confused babbler,
abounding in futility and falsity; he brings you news in which truth and
falsehood are mingled together, and that, though he professes to be your
guide and enlightener. He often brings matters before you very
ill-suited to your dignity and position, and you must be at the pains of
distinguishing the false from the true in them. But for all that, he is
very necessary to you, and would exert a healthy influence on you, if
his false witness did not lead you into error.
"But your companion on the right (irascibility) is still more impetuous,
and it is only with the greatest difficulty that his attacks can be
repulsed by reason or avoided by dexterity. He is like a blazing fire, a
rushing torrent, a runaway horse, or a lioness deprived of its young.
Similarly with your left-hand companion (carnal concupiscence) whose
evil influence springs from insatiable appetite; he is like a famished
beast let loose to graze. Such are your companions, unhappy mortal, to
whom you are tied, and from whom no release is to be obtained except by
migrating to those countries where such creatures are unknown. But till
you are allowed to do so, your hand at any rate must tame them; beware
of flinging the rein on their necks and giving them free course; if you
hold the reins tight they will submit, and you will be master."
"After I had heard this description of my companions, I began to
recognise the justice of it, and accordingly I varied gentleness and
severity in my treatment of them. Alternately I and they had the upper
hand. But I constantly invoked the help of God in this respect, until I
was delivered. Meanwhile I prepared for the journey, and the old man
added this last counsel: 'You and those like you will be constantly
impeded in this journey, and the road will be very difficult for you,
unless you can succeed in quitting this world for ever; but you cannot
hasten the time fixed by God. You must therefore be content with a
frequently interrupted progress; sometimes you will make way, sometimes
you will be at the beck and call of your companions. When you apply
yourself with your whole heart to making progress, you will succeed, and
your companions will lose all influence over you; but if you connive at
their importunities, they will conquer you, and you will altogether lose
touch with me.'
"I then asked the old man for information on the various regions of the
universe, of which he possessed ample knowledge, and he replied: 'The
universe has three parts; first, the visible heaven and earth, the
nature of which is ascertainable by ordinary observation: But as to the
other two parts, they are marvellous indeed; one is on the East, the
other on the West. Each of these regions is separated from our world by
a barrier which only a few elect souls succeed in passing, and that only
by divine grace; the man who relies only on his natural powers is
excluded from them. What makes the passage thither easier is to wash in
the flowing waters of the fountain whose source is close to a stagnant
pool.[36] The traveller who has found the way to it and is refreshed by
its healing waters, will feel himself endued with a marvellous energy,
which will help him to traverse savage deserts. Unfatigued he will scale
the heights of Mount Kaf, and the guardians of hell will lose all power
to seize him and to cast him into the abyss.'
"We asked him to explain more precisely the situation of this fountain,
and he said: 'You are doubtless aware that perpetual darkness surrounds
the pole[37] unpenetrated by any ray of light till God permits. But he
who fearlessly enters this darkness will emerge into a clearly lighted
plain, where he will find this springing fountain.
"We then asked him to tell us more about the Western region bordering
our earth, of which he had spoken, and he gave us the following
information:
"'In the extreme West is an immense sea called in the Divine
Revelation[38] "the miry sea," where the sun sets and along which
stretches a desolate and sterile land, where the inhabitants never abide
but are always passing away, and which is covered by thick darkness.
Those who go there are exposed to every kind of illusion. The sun only
gives a feeble light, the soil is completely barren, whatever is built
there is soon destroyed again, conflict and strife perpetually rage
there, whatever gets the upper hand tyrannises over those which were in
power before it. There are found all kinds of animals and plants passing
through strange developments.
"'Now if you turn to the East[39] you will see a region where there is
no human being, nor plant, nor tree, nor animal; it is an immense and
empty plain. Crossing it, you will reach a mountainous region, where are
clouds and strong winds and rapid rivers; there are also gold and silver
and precious stones, but no plants. From thence you will pass into a
region where there are plants but no animals, then into another where
there are animals but no men. Lastly you will arrive at a region where
there are human beings such as are familiar to you.
"'After passing the extreme limit of the East, you will see the sun
rising between the two horns of Satan, "the flying horn" and "the
marching horn." This latter is divided into two parts, one having the
form of a fierce animal, the other of a gross one; between these two
composing the left horn is perpetual strife. As to "the flying horn," it
has no one distinct form, but is composed of several, such as a winged
man, a serpent with a swine's head, or merely a foot or an arm. The
human soul which rules this region has established five ways of
communication under the care of a watchman who takes whatever comes
along them and passes it on to a treasurer who presents it to the King.
"'The two horns continually attack the human soul, even to the point of
driving it to madness. As to "the marching horn," the fierce animal of
which it is partly composed lays a trap for man by embellishing in his
eyes all his evil actions, murder, mutilation, oppression and
destruction, by exciting his hatred and impelling him to violence and
injustice; while the other part in the shape of a gross animal
continually attacks the human soul by casting a glamour over vileness
and foulness and urging her thereto; nor does it cease its assaults till
she is brought into complete subjection. It is seconded in its attacks
by the spirits of the flying horn, which make man reject whatever he
cannot see with his own eyes, whispering to him that there is no
resurrection nor retribution nor spiritual Lord of the universe.
"'Passing hence, we find a region inhabited by beings of angelic origin,
free from the defects above-mentioned. They enter into communication
with man, and contribute towards his spiritual progress. These are the
intellectual faculties, which, though they are far below the pure
Intelligences, have an instinctive desire to shake off the yoke of
irascibility and concupiscence. Beyond this region is that of the
angels, and further still, one directly governed by the Great King, and
dwelt in by his faithful servants, who are engaged in fulfilling His
commands. These are free from all evil inclination, whether to
concupiscence or injustice or envy or idleness. To them is committed the
defence of the frontier of this Kingdom, which they guard in person.
Allotted to different parts, they occupy lofty forts constructed of
crystal and precious stones, which surpass in durability all that may be
found in the region of earth. They are immortal, and subject to no
feebleness nor decay of force in discharging their duties.
"'Beyond this region again are beings in immediate and continual
relation with the supreme King, constantly occupied in His service, and
never replaced by others. They are allowed to approach the Lord, to
contemplate the throne of His Majesty and to adore Him, enjoying the
sight of Him continually and without intermission. They have the
gentlest natures, great spiritual beauty, and a keen faculty of
penetration and of arriving at the truth. To each has been assigned a
distinct place and fixed rank, which can be shared by no one. Highest of
all is that unique being, the nearest to the Lord, and the parent of all
the rest. Active Intelligence[40]; it is by his mediation that the word
and commandment of the Lord go forth to all the other beings of
creation.
"'In this highest region all are pure spirits, having no relation to
matter, except in so far as innate desire may set them in movement or
cause them to move others. From such desire only, the Lord himself is
absolutely exempt.
"'Those who think that He had a beginning are in complete error, and
those who think to describe Him fully are beside themselves. In relation
to Him all description and comparison are impossible. Those who attempt
to describe Him can only indicate the distance which separates Him from
all human attributes; the beauty of being is represented in scriptural
language by His Face and His infinite bounty by His Hand. If even one of
the cherubims wished to contemplate His essence, he would be dazzled and
frustrated by His glory. Since beauty is the veil of beauty, His
manifestation must always remain a mystery, in the same way as the sun,
when lightly obscured by a cloud allows its disc to be seen, but when it
blazes forth in all its splendour, its disc is veiled from human eye by
excess of light. The Lord, however, is always communicating His
splendour to His creation without grudging or reserve; He imparts
Himself generously and the plenitude of His bounty is without limit: He
who has the least glimpse of His beauty remains entranced by it for
ever; sometimes saints of extraordinary attainments who have given
themselves up to Him and have been favoured by His grace, aware of the
worthlessness of the perishable world, when, from their ecstatic state
they return to it, are haunted for the rest of their lives by regret and
sadness.'
"Here Hay ibn Yokdhan closed his discourse by adding:
"'If I had not, in thus addressing you, been acting in obedience to the
commands of my Lord, I would rather have left you for Him. If you will,
accompany me on the path of safety.'"
Thus concludes this brief allegory, which, like Avicenna's other
mystical treatises, is concerned with the progress and development of
the human soul. According to him, the soul is created for eternity, and
the object of its union with the body is the formation of a spiritual
and independent microcosm. During our earthly life we have but a dim
presentiment of this future condition; this presentiment produces in
different characters a lesser or greater desire for it, and the
thoroughness of our preparation depends on this desire. This preparation
is only accomplished by the development of the highest faculties of the
soul, and the inferior faculties of the senses furnish the indispensable
basis for this.
Every human faculty has some pleasure corresponding to it. The pleasure
of the appetitive faculty for example, is to receive a sensation which
accords with its desire; the pleasure of the irascible faculty is
attack; the pleasure of the surmising faculty, hope; that of the
recollective faculty, memory. Generally speaking, the pleasures
attending these faculties consist in their realising themselves in
action, but they differ widely in rank, the soul's delight in
intellectual perception of realities, in which the knower and the known
are one, being incomparably higher than any mere sensual satisfaction.
By attaining to such perceptions, the soul prepares itself for the
beatitude of the next life. The degree of this beatitude will correspond
to the intensity of spiritual desire awakened in it during its earthly
sojourn.[41]
It is extremely difficult, not to say impossible, to determine the
degrees of beatitude of the soul after death. We may, nevertheless,
understand that the various impediments of passions, prejudices, etc.,
to which its union with the body has given rise, are not immediately
dissolved on its separation from the body. Souls thus hindered may pass
into a state depicted by Plato and other ancient philosophers, in which
they are still weighed down by the passions they indulged in. Every soul
is eternal and imperishable, and will finally attain the beatitude for
which it was created. But it may be punished after death by a shorter or
longer exclusion from that beatitude. To suppose with Alexander
Aphrodisius that an imperfect or ill-prepared soul may be annihilated,
would be to admit a belief at complete variance with its eternal essence
and origin.
But we may well conjecture that the punishment of such ill-prepared and
refractory souls would consist in their being in a state in which after
separation from the body they still pine after sensual enjoyments and
suffer from the impossibility of such gratification.
It may also be supposed that such ill-prepared souls remember the
notions that were current in this world regarding beatitude and
damnation; their conceptions would in that case resemble dreams which
are often more vivid than impressions received in waking moments. They
would imagine themselves undergoing the examination in the tomb and all
the other punishments depicted in the Koran, or it may be enjoying the
sensual pleasures there described. On the other hand, the noble and
well-prepared soul will pass at once to the contemplation of the
eternal, and will be exempt from every memory and every conception
relating to this world. For if anything of this kind remained in it as a
reminder of its union with the body, it would so far fall short of the
plenitude of its perfection.
Besides his mystical treatise "On the soul," Avicenna has left a short
but remarkable poem on the same subject, which runs as follows:--
"THE SOUL.
"It descended upon thee from the lofty station (heaven); a dove rare and
uncaptured, curtained from the eyes of every knower yet which is
manifest and never wore a veil.[42] It came to thee unwillingly and it
may perhaps be unwilling to abandon thee although it complain of its
sufferings. It resisted at first, and would not become familiar, but
when it was in friendly union with the body, it grew accustomed to the
desert waste (the world). Methinks it then forgot the recollections of
the protected park (heaven), and of those abodes which it left with
regret; but when in its spiral descent it arrived at the centre of its
circle in the terrestrial world, it was united to the infirmity of the
material body and remained among the monuments and prostrate ruins. It
now remembers the protected park and weepeth with tears which flow and
cease not till the time for setting out towards the protected park
approacheth; till the instant of departure for the vast plain (the
spiritual world) draweth nigh. It then cooeth on the top of a lofty
pinnacle (for knowledge can exalt all who were not exalted) and it has
come to the knowledge of every mystery in the universe, while yet its
tattered vest hath not been mended.[43]
"Its descent was predestined so that it might hear what it had not
heard, else why did it descend from the high and lofty heaven to the
depth of the low and humble earth? If God sent it down by a decision of
His will, His motive is concealed from the intelligence of man. Why did
it descend to be withheld from the exalted summit of heaven by the
coarse net of the body, and to be detained in a cage? It is like a flash
of lightning shining over the meadow, and disappearing as if it had
never gleamed."
Although Avicenna's reputation in the Muhammedan world has always been
high, his mystical treatises have generally been regarded as heretical,
and many have only been preserved in Hebrew translations. He himself
says explicitly that he only intended them for his most intimate
disciples, and forbade them to be communicated to the multitude. For his
own part, he conformed to the religious law and customs. The celebrated
contemporary Sufi Abou Said Abi'l Khair having asked his opinion
regarding the custom of praying for the dead, and visiting their tombs,
he answers thus:
"God the Unique Being and Source of all that exists--angels,
intelligences exempt from connection with matter, souls united to
matter, elements in all their varied developments--animal, vegetable and
mineral, inspires His whole creation, and His omniscience embraces all.
His influence in the first place acts immediately on the Active
Intelligences and angels, who in their turn act on souls which in their
turn act on our sublunary world. If there were not homogeneity of
substance between celestial and terrestrial souls and likeness between
the macrocosm of the universe, and the microcosm of man, the knowledge
of God would be impossible for us, as the Prophet himself hath said, 'He
who knows himself, knows God.' All creation, whose parts are linked
together, is subject to influences which all derive from a single
source--God. Terrestrial souls differ widely in rank; the highest are
endowed with gifts of prophecy, and perfected so far that they attain
the sphere of pure intelligence. A soul of this kind entering after
death into eternal beatitude, shared with its peers, continues along
with them to exercise a certain influence on terrestrial souls. The
object of prayer for the dead and visiting their tombs is to beg for the
help of those pure souls, a help which is realised sometimes in a
material, sometimes in a spiritual way. The former kind of help may be
compared with the direction which the body receives from the brain;
spiritual assistance is realised by the purification of the mind from
every thought but that of God."
Avicenna, after his liberation from imprisonment by Ala-ed-Dowla, being
anxious to quit Hamadan, left the city secretly with his brother, his
disciple Joujani and two servants, all five disguised as Sufis. After a
painful journey they reached Ispahan, where they were received in a
friendly manner by Ala-ed-Dowla. Avicenna here continued to hold
philosophical discussions as he had done at Hamadan. At Ispahan he also
composed two of his most important works, the "Shifa" and the "Najat,"
treating of medicine. Later on he followed Ala-ed-Dowla to Bagdad, but
on the way was seized with a gastric malady, accompanied by an attack of
apoplexy. He recovered at the time, but not long afterwards the sickness
returned, and he died at the age of 57, A.D. 1037.
In his Literary History of Persia (vo. II., p. 108) Professor Browne
points out that one of the most celebrated stanzas in Fitzgerald's
translation of Omar Khayyam was really composed by Avicenna:--
"Up from earth's centre through the Seventh Gate
I rose, and on the throne of Saturn sate,
And many a knot unravelled by the road,
But not the master-knot of human fate."
Another interesting link between the two philosophers is supplied by the
fact, mentioned by Professor Browne, that a few days before his death
Omar Khayyam was reading in the "Shifa" of Avicenna the chapter treating
of the One and of the Many.
[35] The bad companions of man which hinder his intellectual
progress are unregulated imagination, irascibility and carnal
concupiscence. Death alone delivers him and transports him to the
celestial country of true repose.
[36] The flowing waters signify logic and metaphysics, which help
man to attain to the unknown. Because they provoke argument and
discussion, they are called "flowing." The stagnant pool
signifies positive science, which is the basis of philosophy. The
man who is refreshed by the flowing waters of philosophy will
grasp the scheme of the universe without losing himself in the
confusion of details; he will scale the heights of science (the
encircling mountain of Kaf) without being held back by worldly
entanglements.
[37] The pole surrounded by darkness signifies the soul of man
which, though intended to govern the body, is without any power
to attain truth unless guided by divine grace, but then it will
emerge into the full light and attain the end for which it was
created.
[38] Koran, c. 18, v. 84. The "miry sea" indicates _Matter_
stirred into life by the setting sun (Form), entering at every
moment into union with some new form, birth and death and ebb and
flow proceeding in ceaseless change.
[39] In the kingdom of _Form_ at first nothing is found but the
four elements mingled with each other, developed successively
through mineral, vegetable and animal stages. After the last is
found pure intellect struggling with powerful opponents, that is
to say, the various human faculties. "The flying horn" signifies
imaginitive faculties; "the marching horn" the passions, the
fierce animal representing irascibility, and the gross one,
concupiscence. "The flying horn," irregulated imagination, is in
need of constant supervision by the human soul. The watchman is
the perceptive faculty, which, gathering the various impressions
of the five senses, conveys them to the King, the human soul.
[40] c.f. the Logos of Philo.
[41] c.f. Lowell
"Perhaps the _longing_ to be so,
Helps make the soul immortal."
[42] The existence of the soul, though not manifest to the
senses, is yet too manifest to leave any doubt.
[43] The tattered vest of the soul or the body destroyed by death
is not mended till the day of resurrection; and yet the soul is
in heaven and in the enjoyment of all knowledge.