PLANTING.

_Distances for Muscat Vines._--An examination of the various vineyards

in any or in all the different raisin districts will not help us much in

deciding upon how far apart the vines should be set, as most vineyards

have been planted by men of no previous experience in the raisin

business, and when that experience was at last acquired the vineyards

were already established and could not easily be changed. In planting,

we are too apt to do as other people do without first inquiring from

them if their experience has not taught them anything else, and if they

would not do otherwise if they had to commence over again. For years the

standard distances between raisin-vines have been eight by eight feet.

Of late years this distance was considered too small, as our soil was

supposed to be so rich, that all that was required, in order to get

large crops, was to give the vines plenty of room. Many vineyards have

been set nine by nine, nine by ten, ten by ten, or even ten by twelve

and twelve by sixteen feet. The effect has, however, been different from

that which was expected. Instead of producing larger crops, those vines

which were given more room produced only more wood and more leaves. They

followed that law of nature, which causes any animal or vegetable to

grow luxuriantly when overfed, and which, on the contrary, causes seed

and fruit to form when the vegetable system is restricted to certain

proportions, which, of course, we can only determine by actual

experience. By giving the vines less space, some inconvenience will be

experienced in working the soil, and in drying the crop between the

rows. On that account some vineyards have been planted with the vines

closer one way than the other, thus giving plenty of room in which to

work the soil, while on the other hand sufficiently confining the vines

in order to cause them to bear well. I therefore now recommend that the

vines be set four and a half by eleven, five by ten and a half, or five

by eleven feet. The first would probably be my choice. I claim for this

system many advantages, and beg intending growers to carefully consider

the following points:

It gives us more vines to the acre, which means more grapes to the acre,

as long as the land is of the best quality, and no raisin grapes should

ever be planted on inferior soil, or at least the soil should be

sufficiently rich to supply plant food to the greater number of vines.

It makes the working of the soil cheaper, and fully one-third more of

the work can be done by two-horse plows. The single-horse work can be

confined to plowing a furrow on each side of the vines, and to running a

cultivator crosswise. As the number of rows in this system is less, it

also follows that less single-team work is needed.

The vines protect themselves from the hot sun and hot winds which cause

sunscald. The short distances should be in the direction of the hot

wind, if any there be, or in the direction of east and west if there are

no hot winds in the district. The spaces between the rows will thus

catch the morning sun, which is of importance when we dry on trays

between the vines.

Less roads will be needed in the vineyard, as the larger distance is

sufficient to enable any teams to pass between every row of vines, and

distribute trays, boxes, etc., without interfering with the vines. The

saving thereby of labor in carrying the boxes and trays is quite an item

in vineyards where the vines are planted say eight by eight feet or

closer.

[Illustration: Land Scrapers.]

The trimmings of the vines can be burned in the vineyard between the

rows, and will thus help to fertilize the soil. Besides, the expense of

hauling the trimmings away will be saved.

_The Marking Out of a Vineyard._--As any practical horticulturist knows

how to stake out an orchard or vineyard, a minute description is not

here needed. I will only indicate the most important points. Cut a large

number of small pegs, one inch or so square and a foot or so long. Next

get two lines of twisted wire, each say 150 feet long. Mark off on one

wire every five feet by inserting a small, bright copper wire in the

twist, and wind it around the iron wire three or four times, enough to

show the place. On the other wire mark off similarly every ten or eleven

feet, always supposing these are the distances decided upon. Now stretch

one of the wires along one end of the future vineyard and call this line

the base line No. 1. Set a peg close to every copper ringlet, on the

side of the wire away from the vineyard. When done, stretch the other

wire, No. 2, at a right angle with the former, and set pegs similarly.

Remove wire No. 1 from base line No. 1 and stretch it at the end of wire

No. 2, parallel to the base line. Call this base line No. 2. Set pegs as

before every eight feet. It is now evident that, by stretching

successively the wire No. 2 between the pegs set on the two base lines,

and by setting cuttings or rooted vines close to the copper ringlets on

the wire line, perfectly straight and even rows can be had in every

direction.

Too much stress cannot be laid on this work. Remember that the vineyard

is to last for a lifetime or more, and that any careless work will ever

be an eyesore and a drawback. Unsightly vineyards, carelessly staked

out, are never worth as much as those carefully planted, where every row

is straight, and where plowing, cultivating and other farming and

vineyard work can be performed without meeting any obstacles in the way

of crooked rows, or of vines standing out of line. Only too frequently

vineyard rows are plowed out, and the cuttings are “slapped” in anyway

in order to get the work quickly done. In after years, when the

proprietor’s taste and experience has improved, he finds that his

reputation as a careless or ignorant grower cannot be changed; for the

vineyard is there to last, and to tell the tale of early ignorance or

neglect.

[Illustration: 1-_a_, _b_, _c_, _d_.--Vineyard Tools used in the Currant

Vineyards of Zante.]

_Relative Value of Cuttings and Rooted Vines._--Cuttings and rooted

vines have their advocates, but the majority of vineyardists are now in

favor of planting rooted vines, and I would myself choose the latter

every time. As, however, rooted vines and cuttings are both likely to be

used as long as vines are planted, a few words in regard to their

respective merits may be of general interest. In planting cuttings, we

are never sure that they will all grow. Cuttings if cared for generally

do well, but sometimes, even with good care, they fail, and the loss and

annoyance is then always great, and even in very careful planting seldom

over ninety per cent live, while often twenty-five per cent die. The

reason is often careless planting, when the season is favorable, but in

unfavorable seasons the failure must be attributed to other causes.

Those cuttings which grow, generally grow well and often make as good

vines as those raised from previously rooted ones.

The replanting of the cuttings that failed to live is both expensive and

troublesome. Every vineyardist knows how difficult it is to succeed in

making cuttings, or even vines, grow on places in the vineyard where

other ones have failed to grow before. Some attribute this difficulty to

some poison in the soil, but I believe the cause will be found in the

greater difficulty to attend to a few young vines in among the older

ones. The older vines will naturally use up the moisture in the soil,

and the cuttings, with their young and tender roots, will have but

little chance in the general struggle for life. But even if we suppose

that the replanted vines will do equally well, it will be found that the

replanting of the cuttings is actually more expensive than the first

planting. The reason why this is so lies in the greater work in getting

the soil in first-class condition after the first planting failed. In

the first planting, the soil has been put in order with the help of

horses and plows, while, when we replant, the very spots where the vines

are to be located cannot be reached by other means than by a pick or

shovel, as, no matter how well the old vineyard is plowed, there will

always be a hard spot around every vine, or around the place where the

vine should be, and where it failed to grow. If only a few cuttings have

taken root, it is better to plow up the whole vineyard and reset, and in

so doing endeavor to do better work. I know of vineyards where the

owners have not succeeded in replanting during ten years, every year

spending money and labor with little success. There will always be a few

cuttings that fail to live.

The causes of the uncertainty of cuttings are our inability to foresee

the outcome of the season’s climatic conditions. More or less rain has a

direct influence on our success. Thus in very rainy seasons the cuttings

should be small or rather short, so as to be as much as possible in the

upper, dryer and warmer soil. In dry seasons, again, the cuttings should

be long, so as to be in the moist ground, but as we can never foresee

what the season will be, we had better have a recourse to rooted vines,

which, if in good condition, will be comparatively independent of

weather and wind.

_The Making of Cuttings._--The making of cuttings is not a difficult

process, but nevertheless it should be carefully done in order to insure

final success. After the vines have been trimmed and the trimmings have

been placed in small piles along the rows of the vineyard, the cuttings

should be made as quickly as possible on the spot, the laborers moving

from pile to pile as they finish up. The shears should be sharp and kept

sharp, both to insure good cuttings and to hasten the work. A poor shear

is worse than a poor farmhand, and it pays to keep the best kind of

every tool that is used in vineyard work. The size of the cutting must

be decided upon according to the conditions of the soil. If the land is

very wet and is likely to remain so, an eight-inch, or even a six-inch,

cutting, will do, and will grow better than a long one. Long cuttings

will reach down into the wet soil and decay at the lower end before

they take root. In dry and warm soils the cuttings may be from twelve to

eighteen inches long, or even longer if it is desirable to bend them in

a circular way in the holes in which they are to be planted, or if the

soil is very warm and dry, when it is of importance that the cutting

should reach the deeper moisture. A twelve or fourteen inch cutting is

probably an average size cutting, and one that will answer most

conditions, in case they are not previously known.

A nurseryman, or any one who can give his cuttings as much attention as

they require, can use even the very tips of the vines and make them

grow. But for general planting, especially direct in the field, seldom

more than one or two cuttings can be made from a branch. The cutting

should be cut immediately below an eye or joint. Such cuttings grow

better, are easier to plant and are less apt to dry out. The more eyes a

cutting contains the better is the cutting, as the roots mostly form at

the joints. Many make the cuttings with a heel of old wood, but I do not

believe such cuttings are in any way preferable to those made of only

one season’s wood. The old wood does not grow any better than young

wood, generally not so well, and, besides, such cuttings with heels are

more difficult to plant and handle. When the cuttings are made, they

should at first be placed in small piles, with the top ends all the same

way, and as soon as possible afterwards tied up in bundles, with at

least two strings to every bundle. For tying, any string will do, but

split basket-willow twigs are probably the strongest and least apt to

root. Still any stout twine will answer the purpose. From one hundred to

two hundred cuttings may conveniently be put in each bundle, according

to the size of the cuttings.

_The Care of Cuttings._--After the cuttings are made and bundled, they

should be labeled with wooden labels and immediately taken to some place

where they can be heeled in. The lead-pencil is the best for writing the

names. The best place in which to heel in the cuttings is on the north

side of some large building, under an open shed or under some large

trees. In fact, any place which is partially shaded and cool will do. If

the bundles are to be used soon or shipped, they might be placed on the

wet ground, and only covered with sacks or with straw, but, if they are

to remain any longer time, they must be placed in the ground and

carefully covered. A trench should be dug half the depth of the cutting,

but slightly wider. The bundles are placed in the trench upright, and

after the trench is full the soil from the new trench, parallel with the

first one, is thrown on and around the bundles so as to keep them moist.

It is best not to keep the cuttings too moist, and on no account should

they be wet, as they will then begin to root rapidly, and when they are

again removed these roots will break or dry up to the great injury of

the cutting. If unavoidably the planting is delayed longer than

expected, the bundles of cuttings may be taken out and placed in dry air

for a day or for a few hours, and then replaced in the soil. This may be

done several times without any injury accruing to the cuttings, the only

effect of the drying being to retard their rooting and sprouting, but it

should of course not be done after they have once begun to callus or

root. To place cuttings in water for any length of time is nearly always

injurious, and especially so if the water is bad or contains manure.

Manure water always kills cuttings readily. If the cuttings have

sprouted, or begun to make roots, or form callus, a careful vineyardist

will take his bundles to the field submerged in a barrel or bucket of

water, or at least wrapped in wet sacks or blankets. If again the

cuttings are dry and a fresh cut does not show a flow of sap, they may

be freshened by soaking in fresh water over night. Even very poor and

dry cuttings are easily revived this way, but a continuous immersion for

several days will injure the cuttings and cause them to rot. It is also

of importance that the water should be clear and cold, or at least not

warm. Instead of immersing the cuttings in water, they may be set down

in cool and moist soil for three or four days before being planted. The

soaking in water is the simplest, quickest and most effective for

slightly dried cuttings.

_Planting Cuttings._--Planting cuttings in the vineyard can be done in

several different ways. They may be planted with a spade, with a flat

planting bar, or with the “sheep’s-foot.” Each one of these tools will

answer the purpose if properly used, but their selection must depend

upon the quality of the soil, and upon the nature of the land generally.

In all planting of cuttings, the following points must be observed as of

importance in insuring success. The cuttings must be set in moist and

cool soil. The lower end of the cuttings must lodge in solid ground, and

there must be no air space at the bottom. Only one eye should be left

above the surface of the soil. The soil must be tamped well around the

cutting from the bottom to the top. All inferior cuttings should be

thrown away, and every cutting should be examined before it is planted.

For a description of the tools used in planting, I beg to refer to the

end of this chapter. I will now further consider the above points. Many

failures are made by not planting in moist soil. If irrigation is

needed, irrigate before planting, then plow and harrow, and then plant.

When moist cuttings are planted in dry and warm soil, the latter will

extract all the moisture from the cuttings, and the latter will fail to

grow. I have seen parties first plow deep furrows through the vineyard,

so as to air and dry the ground before planting the cuttings. This is

not necessary and even harmful. Moist and warm ground is essential to

the starting and growth of cuttings. The lower end of the cutting should

be lodged in solid ground, or the cutting will fail to grow. This point

is of the utmost importance, and should be carefully observed. If, when

the cutting is pushed down in the soil, a small air chamber form at the

lower end, the butt end of the cutting will mold, and the latter will be

poisoned and die. Nine-tenths of all the failures in planting are caused

by neglect in this respect. Care is especially needed when the

sheep’s-foot is used. Only one eye should be left above ground, which is

enough for all purposes. Any more eyes will exhaust the cutting before

it is rooted, and the additional length of the cutting will expose it to

the danger of being broken or otherwise injured. The soil must be tamped

hard all along the cutting so as to cause the latter to attract the

necessary moisture. Loosely set cuttings very often fail, especially in

dry seasons. All inferior cuttings, especially those frosted or

otherwise injured, should be thrown out before being brought to the

field. A cutting costs so little that it pays to use only the strongest

and best, when a much better stand will be the result. Frosted cuttings

can be detected by their darker color. Fresh and healthy cuttings should

have a green and fresh cambium or inner bark, and a fresh cut should

show fresh sap oozing out.

When the sheep’s-foot is used in planting, the butt end of the cutting

is inserted in the forked end of this tool, and this explains why it is

necessary to have as little wood as possible below the last eye of the

cutting. By pushing the sheep’s-foot down in the soil, the cutting is

pushed simultaneously down to the proper length; a twist is then given

the sheep’s-foot so as to get it loose from the cutting, and the former

is then pulled up. It may in some instances be necessary to push down

the cutting with the left hand, while the sheep’s-foot is being pulled

back, as care must be taken that in pulling back the sheep’s-foot the

cutting is not lifted. Even the smallest lift will cause the lower end

of the cutting to hang in an air chamber, and this will, as I have

stated, cause the cutting to mold and die. When planted, a few sharp

taps with the foot will sufficiently fix the cutting. When the flat bar

is used, a hole is first made by the bar, the cutting is then inserted,

and the hole filled up by again inserting the bar near the cutting, and

by pressing it forward towards the latter. Neither of these tools can be

used in dry or stony soils, but in moist and loamy soil, which has been

previously well prepared, they are most excellent, as doing the work

both quickly and well. The sheep’s-foot is unexcelled for speed in loose

soil, while the flat bar is of advantage where the soil is a little

harder. The flat spade is used when rocky and stony or even gravelly

soil interferes with the using of the former tools. Every farmer will

know how to use the spade, and no further explanation is required here.

Some plant the cuttings slantingly in the soil, in order to bring them

as near the surface as possible. This is well enough and proper in very

wet soils, where the lower strata are too cool, but in this warm country

the perpendicular planting is easier and better. By twisting and bending

the cutting in the dug hole a longer cutting can be used, but I have

seldom found any advantage of very long cuttings, and few soils are

suited to raisin grapes when such methods are needed to produce strong

and rapidly growing vines.

_Care of Young Cuttings._--In places where irrigation is needed and

used, many irrigate the cuttings immediately after they are planted, so

as to settle the soil. This, however, is only needed where the ground is

very dry or very sandy. It is much the better way to irrigate before

planting and to plant on the loose soil after it has been replowed and

properly prepared. Such soil keeps the moisture for a long time, and

even in dry climates will require no irrigation for months after the

planting. The principal care, after the cuttings have been planted, but

before they are fairly started, is to keep the ground loose and to

prevent it from baking on the surface. The best way to accomplish this

is to run a revolving randel harrow over the land regardless of the

cuttings. This kind of harrow consists of a row of vertical, slightly

concave steel discs, which revolve when the harrow is pulled over the

land. No regard need be paid to the rows of cuttings, provided they do

not stand too high above the surface, or have begun to swell. Not one

cutting in a hundred is injured, and those that are cut off are sure to

sprout from below. After every shower of rain, the land should be

harrowed or pulverized in this way. If the soil is baked and hard around

the cuttings, the latter will be slow to start, but a loosening of the

soil will have the desired effect almost immediately. The amount of

irrigation needed for young plantations can only be decided upon on the

ground. The cuttings should be kept growing, and young leaves should

always be seen at the tips of the branches. Long before these young

leaves cease growing, a copious supply of water should be added to keep

the soil from becoming too dry.

_Transporting Cuttings to Distant Parts._--When cuttings are to be

shipped any distance, they must be packed. The simplest method of

packing for short distances is to fill the bottom of a sack with wet

straw, and then slip the bundle of cuttings down in the sack, and a

single string will then suffice to secure the sack to the bundle. Packed

this way, cuttings can stand a voyage of a week or more if the weather

is not too hot. If a longer voyage, of say several weeks’ duration, is

necessary, the cuttings should be packed in dry-goods boxes, and, if the

time of transit is not too long, no other packing is needed. If,

however, a very long transit is in view, more precautions for the safe

arrival of the cuttings are required. After the bundles have been

pressed down in the box, moist and fresh moss is packed tightly down all

along the sides of the box. Such packing will keep the cuttings fresh

for over a month. For a longer time, coarse, pulverized charcoal filled

in between the cuttings is a splendid packing. The charcoal must be dry,

the moisture in the cuttings being enough to keep them alive for several

months. Packed first in tin boxes surrounded by charcoal, and then the

boxes soldered tightly, so as to allow no air to enter, is the safest

method for transporting cuttings long distances. If there is a

possibility to repack at certain stations on the road, wooden boxes may

be used instead of tin. The waxing of the ends of the cuttings will help

to keep them moist. All lumber boxes should be lined with waxed paper,

and all cracks carefully nailed up, as by the drying of the boards the

contents are very liable to run out. Large and heavy boxes should be

surrounded by iron bands.

_Rooting Cuttings._--There are two ways of planting cuttings in the

nursery in order to have them rooted for next season’s planting. One way

is to plant in nursery rows four feet apart; the other is to set in

beds. For such nursery, a plat of land with rich soil and with good

water facilities should be selected. Water should never fail in the

nursery, as cuttings always require more water than old plants set

farther apart. The rows should be staked out four feet from each other.

Six or eight inch cuttings should be used, according to the depth to

moisture; the more moisture, the shorter need be the cuttings. With a

big, flat hoe the soil along the line of the row is thrown up on one

side, the cuttings are set down upright close to the perpendicular

side, and the soil is again raked back with the same kind of hoe, and

then tamped hard around the cuttings. The latter need not be over two or

three inches apart, and from forty to fifty thousand may be set on one

acre of ground. In no instance should the cutting be left more than one

or two inches above the surface of the ground. The best instrument or

tool for opening the soil and for covering the cuttings is the large

flat-faced Italian hoe, used by Italian workmen both in Europe and in

this country.

If the bed system is adopted, much smaller cuttings may be used,

although it is not necessary to have them smaller than six inches. The

beds may be two feet wide and four feet apart, in this respect

resembling nursery rows, and treated just as such. The cuttings are set

in the beds two or three inches apart each way. We must remember that

such cuttings require much more water than cuttings planted in four-foot

rows, as the quantity soon exhausts the moisture in the soil. The beds

may also be square, each one surrounded by a little bank or levee of

soil in order to hold the water. In these beds, which should be slightly

below the general surface of the ground, the cuttings are set very

close,--two or three inches apart,--until the whole bed is filled up.

These beds are never cultivated in any other way than by pulling the

weeds out by hand. They must be frequently irrigated by flooding, except

when the soil is immensely wet or moist.

Vines may also be propagated from a single eye, or from cuttings

containing a single eye. Such cuttings may be set perpendicularly in

beds or in rows, or they may be placed horizontally in boxes with pure

sand, and entirely covered over. The single eyes soon sprout and make

nice little plants, with a well-developed system of roots.

All these cuttings planted in beds, if properly watered during the

summer, will make excellent vines to be set in vineyard form next

season. Being set so close, they require much moisture and irrigation,

the many new roots soon exhausting the moisture in the soil. It is

better, however, to have the cuttings set as closely as possible, so as

not to get too strong vines. An overgrown vine is more expensive to

plant and more difficult to handle than one of medium growth. Besides,

the latter has a greater number of fibrous roots, which, if in good

condition, will give a quick start and rapid growth to the new vine.

_Care of Rooted Vines._--The same precautions are to be observed with

rooted vines as with cuttings, only more care is required to shield the

roots from the sun and wind. Wet blankets or sacks should always be used

when the roots are taken to the field, and, if the vines show the least

sign of being dry, they should be soaked for several hours in pure

water, and in this respect treated just like cuttings.

_Planting Rooted Vines._--Planting rooted vines is not attended with

many difficulties. The most important points to observe are these. The

vines must be freshly dug. If not, or if the least dry, soak in water

over night. Cut away all dead or dry rootlets. Prune the top of the vine

down to two or three buds, and leave only one spur. Have the vines

covered while carried out in the field, and plant only in moist ground.

The young and tender roots are easily dried if set in warm and dry

soil, and they will afterwards decay and injure the vine. A carefully

planted vineyard, where rooted vines alone have been used, and where

every precaution has been taken to insure success, should have about

ninety-seven per cent of the vines growing. To make every one grow would

only be possible in a very small plantation. In the large raisin

centers, all this planting may be contracted for. The cost of planting

cuttings is generally calculated at one-half cent per cutting, and for

rooted vines at one cent per vine. Frequently parties contract to supply

cuttings and to plant the land for from eighteen to twenty dollars per

acre or less. It is generally better to pay the higher price and get the

work done properly.

_Proper Time for Planting._--The time for planting cuttings depends

greatly upon the season, the quality of the soil and the moisture. In

wet seasons the dry land should be planted first, and cuttings might be

started there as soon as the first frost allows us to make them with

advantage. The moister the soil the later should the planting be begun,

and on the contrary the drier the soil and the warmer, the sooner should

the cuttings as well as the rooted vines be planted in the fall.

December and January are the best months to plant, although with care

cuttings as well as rooted vines may be set as late as in April or even

in May. As a rule, early planting is better, as it gives the cuttings

chance to root well before the hot weather causes the shoots to start.

In very rainy seasons, or in wet places, cuttings should be planted

later than rooted vines. Moisture in undue degree will cause cuttings to

rot, while its influence on the roots of the vines is not as great.

Rooted vines stand both moisture and drought better than cuttings do. On

sandy, dry soil and in dry seasons I would wish my cuttings planted as

early in December as possible; while, on wet places, I would delay

planting until after the frost is over in February. The same rule

applies to rooted vines, but we must remember that roots begin to send

out rootlets almost as soon as they are dug, and that early planting

will preserve these for the early use of the vine, while, in late

planting, almost every one of these new roots will be destroyed in

planting and must be produced over again. We might also say that both

cuttings and rooted vines should be set as soon as the soil is in proper

condition in the fall. Do not wait for anything after the soil is dry

enough to permit planting. Early planted vines will have a good start.

_Cost of Cuttings and Rooted Vines._--The price of Muscat or

raisin-grape cuttings generally varies from two dollars and fifty cents

to five dollars per thousand, and have been sold as low as one dollar

per thousand cuttings. Rooted vines again vary from ten to twenty

dollars per thousand, according to the demand and supply. The cost of

planting is, of course, different in different localities. In Fresno the

ruling prices for vineyard planting with cuttings is one-half cent per

cutting. The men board and lodge themselves for this sum. For rooted

vines the price is from sixty cents to one dollar per hundred vines. The

ground must be in a perfect condition, but the success of the work is

never guaranteed, as so much depends upon after treatment. While the

actual cost of planting the grapes is insignificant, it will be found

that the many different expenses of a large vineyard of say 160 acres

will be quite considerable, and few of our larger raisin vineyards in

irrigated districts have cost less than fifty dollars per acre during

the first year. This includes labor, buildings, tools, etc., but not the

first cost of land. With experience and constant supervision, this cost

may be reduced somewhat, and under very favorable circumstances from

twenty to forty dollars even per acre may cover the cost of planting and

maintenance during the first season. But estimates in this direction are

not reliable, as one man will spend twice as much as another under

similar circumstances.