TYMPĂNUM (τύμπανον), a small drum carried in the hand. Of these, some
resembled in all respects a modern tambourine with bells. Others
presented a flat circular disk on the upper surface and swelled out
beneath like a kettle-drum. Both forms are represented in the cuts
below. Tympana were covered with the hides of oxen, or of asses; were
beaten with a stick, or with the hand, and were much employed in all
wild enthusiastic religious rites, especially the orgies of Bacchus
and Cybele.--(2) A solid wheel without spokes, for heavy waggons,
such as is shown in the cut on p. 298.
[Illustration: Tympana. (From ancient Paintings.)]
TỸRANNUS (τύραννος). In the heroic age all the governments in
Greece were monarchical, the king uniting in himself the functions
of the priest, the judge, and military chief. In the first two or
three centuries following the Trojan war various causes were at
work, which led to the abolition, or at least to the limitation, of
the kingly power. Emigrations, extinctions of families, disasters
in war, civil dissensions, may be reckoned among these causes.
Hereditary monarchies became elective; the different functions
of the king were distributed; he was called _Archon_ (ἄρχων),
_Cosmus_ (κόσμος), or _Prytanis_ (πρύτανις), instead of _Basileus_
(βασιλεύς), and his character was changed no less than his name.
Noble and wealthy families began to be considered on a footing
of equality with royalty; and thus in process of time sprang up
oligarchies or aristocracies, which most of the governments that
succeeded the ancient monarchies were in point of fact, though not
as yet called by such names. These oligarchies did not possess the
elements of social happiness or stability. The principal families
contended with each other for the greatest share of power, and were
only unanimous in disregarding the rights of those whose station was
beneath their own. The people, oppressed by the privileged classes,
began to regret the loss of their old paternal form of government;
and were ready to assist any one who would attempt to restore it.
Thus were opportunities offered to ambitious and designing men to
raise themselves, by starting up as the champions of popular right.
Discontented nobles were soon found to prosecute schemes of this
sort, and they had a greater chance of success, if descended from
the ancient royal family. Pisistratus is an example; he was the
more acceptable to the people of Athens, as being a descendant of
the family of Codrus. Thus in many cities arose that species of
monarchy which the Greeks called _tyrannis_ (τυραννίς), which meant
only _a despotism_, or irresponsible dominion of one man; and which
frequently was nothing more than a revival of the ancient government,
and, though unaccompanied with any recognised hereditary title, or
the reverence attached to old name and long prescription, was hailed
by the lower orders of people as a good exchange, after suffering
under the domination of the oligarchy. All _tyrannies_, however,
were not so acceptable to the majority; and sometimes we find the
nobles concurring in the elevation of a despot, to further their
own interests. Thus the Syracusan _Gamori_, who had been expelled
by the populace, on receiving the protection of Gelon, sovereign
of Gela and Camarina, enabled him to take possession of Syracuse,
and establish his kingdom there. Sometimes the conflicting parties
in the state, by mutual consent, chose some eminent man, in whom
they had confidence, to reconcile their dissensions; investing him
with a sort of dictatorial power for that purpose, either for a
limited period or otherwise. Such a person they called _Aesymnetes_
(αἰσυμνήτης). The _tyrannus_ must be distinguished, on the one hand,
from the _aesymnetes_, inasmuch as he was not elected by general
consent, but commonly owed his elevation to some violent movement
or stratagem, such as the creation of a body-guard for him by the
people, or the seizure of the citadel; and on the other hand, from
the ancient king, whose right depended, not on usurpation, but on
inheritance and traditionary acknowledgment. The power of a king
might be more absolute than that of a _tyrant_; as Phidon of Argos
is said to have made the royal prerogative greater than it was
under his predecessors; yet he was still regarded as a king; for
the difference between the two names depended on title and origin,
and not on the manner in which the power was exercised. The name of
_tyrant_ was originally so far from denoting a person who abused
his power, or treated his subjects with cruelty, that Pisistratus
is praised for the moderation of his government. Afterwards, when
_tyrants_ themselves had become odious, the name also grew to be
a word of reproach, just as _rex_ did among the Romans. Among
the early _tyrants_ of Greece those most worthy of mention are:
Clisthenes of Sicyon, grandfather of the Athenian Clisthenes, in
whose family the government continued for a century since its
establishment by Orthagoras, about B.C. 672; Cypselus of Corinth,
who expelled the Bacchiadae, B.C. 656, and his son Periander, both
remarkable for their cruelty; their dynasty lasted between seventy
and eighty years; Procles of Epidaurus; Pantaleon of Pisa, who
celebrated the thirty-fourth Olympiad, depriving the Eleans of the
presidency; Theagenes of Megara, father-in-law to Cylon the Athenian;
Pisistratus, whose sons were the last of the early _tyrants_ on the
Grecian continent. In Sicily, where _tyranny_ most flourished, the
principal were Phalaris of Agrigentum, who established his power in
B.C. 568; Theron of Agrigentum; Gelon, already mentioned, who, in
conjunction with Theron, defeated Hamilcar the Carthaginian, on the
same day on which the battle of Salamis was fought; and Hieron, his
brother: the last three celebrated by Pindar. The following also are
worthy of notice: Polycrates of Samos; Lygdamis of Naxos; Histiaeus
and Aristagoras of Miletus. Perhaps the last mentioned can hardly be
classed among the _Greek tyrants_, as they were connected with the
Persian monarchy. The general characteristics of a _tyranny_ were,
that it was bound by no laws, and had no recognised limitation to its
authority, however it might be restrained _in practice_ by the good
disposition of the _tyrant_ himself, or by fear, or by the spirit of
the age. It was commonly most odious to the wealthy and noble, whom
the _tyrant_ looked upon with jealousy as a check upon his power,
and whom he often sought to get rid of by sending them into exile
or putting them to death. The _tyrant_ usually kept a body-guard
of foreign mercenaries, by aid of whom he controlled the people at
home; but he seldom ventured to make war, for fear of giving an
opportunity to his subjects to revolt. The causes which led to the
decline of _tyranny_ among the Greeks were partly the degeneracy of
the _tyrants_ themselves, corrupted by power, indolence, flattery,
and bad education; for even where the father set a good example, it
was seldom followed by the son; partly the cruelties and excesses of
particular men, which brought them all into disrepute; and partly
the growing spirit of inquiry among the Greek people, who began to
speculate upon political theories, and soon became discontented
with a form of government, which had nothing in theory, and little
in practice, to recommend it. Few dynasties lasted beyond the third
generation. Most of the tyrannies, which flourished before the
Persian war, are said to have been overthrown by the exertions of
Sparta, jealous, probably, of any innovation upon the old Doric
constitution, especially of any tendency to ameliorate the condition
of the Periocci, and anxious to extend her own influence over the
states of Greece by means of the benefits which she conferred. Upon
the fall of _tyranny_, the various republican forms of government
were established, the Dorian states generally favouring oligarchy,
the Ionian democracy. Of the tyrants of a later period, the most
celebrated are the two Dionysii. The corruption of the Syracusans,
their intestine discords, and the fear of the Carthaginian invaders,
led to the appointment of Dionysius to the chief military command,
with unlimited powers; by means of which he raised himself to the
throne, B.C. 406, and reigned for 38 years, leaving his son to
succeed him. The younger Dionysius, far inferior in every respect to
his father, was expelled by Dion, afterwards regained the throne, and
was again expelled by Timoleon, who restored liberty to the various
states of Sicily.
UDO, a sock of goat’s-hair or felt, worn by countrymen with the low
boots called _perones_. [PERO.]