PALMĬPES, a Roman measure of length, equal to a foot and a palm.
PALMUS, properly the width of the open hand, or, more exactly, of the
four fingers, was used by the Romans for two different measures of
length, namely, as the translation of the Greek παλαιστή, or δῶρον in
old Greek, and σπιθαμή respectively. In the former sense it is equal
to 4 digits, or 3 inches, or 1-4th of a foot, or 1-6th of the cubit.
The larger palm of 9 inches only occurs in later Roman writers. From
this large _palmus_ the modern Roman _palmo_ is derived.
[Illustration: Paludamentum, Military Cloak. (Statue of a Roman
Emperor.)]
PĂLŪDĀMENTUM, the cloak worn by a Roman general commanding an army,
his principal officers and personal attendants, in contradistinction
to the _sagum_ of the common soldiers, and the _toga_ or garb of
peace. It was the practice for a Roman magistrate, after he had
received the _imperium_ from the comitia curiata and offered up
his vows in the Capitol, to march out of the city arrayed in the
paludamentum (_exire paludatus_), attended by his lictors in similar
attire (_paludatis lictoribus_), nor could he again enter the gates
until he had formally divested himself of this emblem of military
power. The paludamentum was open in front, reached down to the
knees or a little lower, and hung loosely over the shoulders, being
fastened across the chest by a clasp. The colour of the paludamentum
was commonly white or purple, and hence it was marked and remembered
that Crassus on the morning of the fatal battle of Carrhae went forth
in a dark-coloured mantle. In the cut below, representing the head of
a warrior, we see the paludamentum flying back in the charge, and the
clasp nearly in front.
[Illustration: Paludamentum, Military Cloak. (From a Mosaic at
Pompeii.)]
PAMBOEŌTĬA (παμβοιώτια), a festive panegyris of all the Boeotians,
like the Panathenaea of the Atticans, and the Panionia of the
Ionians. The principal object of the meeting was the common worship
of Athena Itonia, who had a temple in the neighbourhood of Coronea,
near which the panegyris was held.
PĂNĂTHĒNAEA (παναθήναια), the greatest and most splendid of the
festivals celebrated in Attica in honour of Athena, in the character
of Athena Polias, or the protectress of the city. It was said to
have been instituted by Erichthonius, and its original name, down
to the time of Theseus, was believed to have been Athenaea; but
when Theseus united all the Atticans into one body, this festival,
which then became the common festival of all the Attic tribes,
was called Panathenaea. There were two kinds of Panathenaea, the
greater and the lesser; the former were held every fourth year
(πενταετηρίς), the latter every year. The lesser Panathenaea were
probably celebrated on the 17th of the month Hecatombaeon; the
great Panathenaea in the third year of every Olympiad, and probably
commenced on the same day as the lesser Panathenaea. The principal
difference between the two festivals was, that the greater one was
more solemn, and that on this occasion the peplus of Athena was
carried to her temple in a most magnificent procession, which was
not held at the lesser Panathenaea. The solemnities, games, and
amusements of the Panathenaea were, rich sacrifices of bulls, foot,
horse, and chariot races, gymnastic and musical contests, and the
lampadephoria; rhapsodists recited the poems of Homer and other epic
poets, philosophers disputed, cock-fights were exhibited, and the
people indulged in a variety of other amusements and entertainments.
The prize in these contests was a vase filled with oil from the
ancient and sacred olive tree of Athena on the Acropolis. A great
many of such vases, called Panathenaic vases, have in late years
been found in Etruria, southern Italy, Sicily, and Greece. They
represent on one side the figure of Athena, and on the other the
various contests and games in which these vases were given as prizes
to the victors. Of the discussions of philosophers and orators at the
Panathenaea we still possess two specimens, the λόγος Παναθηναικός of
Isocrates, and that of Aristeides. Herodotus is said to have recited
his history to the Athenians at the Panathenaea. The management of
the games and contests was entrusted to persons called _Athlothetae_
(ἀθλοθέται), whose number was ten, one being taken from every tribe.
Their office lasted from one great Panathenaic festival to the other.
The chief solemnity of the great Panathenaea was the magnificent
procession to the temple of Athena Polias, which probably took place
on the last day of the festive season. The whole of the procession
is represented in the frieze of the Parthenon, the work of Phidias
and his disciples, now deposited in the British Museum. The chief
object of the procession was to carry the peplus of the goddess
to her temple. This peplus was a crocus-coloured garment for the
goddess, and made by maidens, called ἐργαστῖναι. In it were woven
Enceladus and the giants, as they were conquered by the goddess. The
peplus was not carried to the temple by men, but suspended from the
mast of a ship. The procession proceeded from the Ceramicus, near a
monument called Leocorium, to the temple of Demeter at Eleusis, and
thence along the Pelasgic wall and the temple of Apollo Pythius to
the Pnyx, and thence to the Acropolis, where the statue of Minerva
Polias was adorned with the peplus. In this procession nearly the
whole population of Attica appears to have taken part, either on
foot, on horseback, or in chariots, as may be seen in the frieze
of the Parthenon. Aged men carried olive branches, and were called
_Thallophori_ (θαλλοφόροι); young men attended, at least in earlier
times, in armour, and maidens who belonged to the noblest families of
Athens carried baskets, containing offerings for the goddess, whence
they were called _Canephori_ (κανηφόροι). Respecting the part which
aliens took in this procession, and the duties they had to perform,
see HYDRIAPHORIA. Men who had deserved well of the republic were
rewarded with a gold crown at the great Panathenaea, and the herald
had to announce the event during the gymnastic contests.
[Illustration: Pancratiastae. (Krause, Gymnastik und Agonistik der
Hellen, tav. 21.)]
PANCRĂTĬUM (παγκράτιον), is derived from πάν and κράτος, and
accordingly signifies an athletic game, in which all the powers of
the fighter were called into action. The pancratium was one of the
games or gymnastic contests which were exhibited at all the great
festivals of Greece; it consisted of boxing and wrestling (πυγμή and
πάλη), and was reckoned to be one of the heavy or hard exercises
(ἀγωνίσματα βαρέα or βαρύτερα), on account of the violent exertions
it required, and for this reason it was not much practised in the
gymnasia. In Homer we find neither the game nor the name of the
pancratium mentioned, and as it was not introduced at the Olympic
games until Ol. 33, we may presume that the game, though it may
have existed long before in a rude state, was not brought to any
degree of perfection until a short time before that event. The name
of the combatants was _Pancratiastae_ (παγκρατιασταί) or _Pammachi_
(πάμμαχοι). They fought naked, and had their bodies anointed and
covered with sand, by which they were enabled to take hold of one
another. When the contest began, each of the fighters might commence
by boxing or by wrestling, accordingly as he thought he should be
more successful in the one than in the other. The victory was not
decided until one of the parties was killed, or lifted up a finger,
thereby declaring that he was unable to continue the contest either
from pain or fatigue.
PĂNĒGỸRIS (πανήγυρις), signifies a meeting or assembly of a whole
people for the purpose of worshipping at a common sanctuary. The word
is used in three significations:--1. For a meeting of the inhabitants
of one particular town and its vicinity; 2. For a meeting of the
inhabitants of a whole district, a province, or of the whole body
of people belonging to a particular tribe [DELIA; PANIONIA]; and 3.
For great national meetings, as the Olympic, Pythian, Isthmian, and
Nemean games. Although in all panegyreis which we know, the religious
character forms the most prominent feature, other subjects, political
discussions and resolutions, as well as a variety of amusements,
were not excluded, though they were perhaps more a consequence of
the presence of many persons than objects of the meeting. Every
panegyris, moreover, was made by tradespeople a source of gain, and
it may be presumed that such a meeting was never held without a fair,
at which all sorts of things were exhibited for sale.
PĂNIŌNĬA (πανιώνια), the great national panegyris of the Ionians on
mount Mycalé, where the national god Poseidon Heliconius had his
sanctuary called the Panionium. One of the principal objects of this
national meeting was the common worship of Poseidon, to whom splendid
sacrifices were offered on the occasion. But religious worship was
not the only object for which they assembled at the Panionium; on
certain emergencies, especially in case of any danger threatening
their country, the Ionians discussed at their meetings political
questions, and passed resolutions which were binding upon all.
PĂNOPLĬA (πανοπλία), a panoply or suit of armour. The articles of
which it consisted both in the Greek and in the Roman army, are
enumerated under ARMA.
PANTŎMĪMUS, the name of a kind of actors peculiar to the Romans, who
very nearly resembled in their mode of acting the modern dancers in
the ballet. They did not speak on the stage, but merely acted by
gestures, movements, and attitudes. All movements, however, were
rhythmical like those in the ballet, whence the general term for them
is _saltatio_, _saltare_; the whole art was called _musica muta_;
and to represent Niobe or Leda was expressed by _saltare Nioben_ and
_saltare Ledam_. During the time of the republic the name pantomimus
does not occur, though the art itself was known to the Romans at an
early period; for the first histriones said to have been introduced
from Etruria were in fact nothing but pantomimic dancers [HISTRIO],
whence we find that under the empire the names histrio and pantomimus
were used as synonymous. The pantomimic art, however, was not carried
to any degree of perfection until the time of Augustus. The greatest
pantomimes of this time were Bathyllus, a freedman and favourite
of Maecenas, and Pylades and Hylas. Mythological love-stories were
from the first the favourite subjects of the pantomimes, which were
disgraced by the most licentious scenes. In Sicily pantomimic dances
were called _ballismi_ (βαλλισμοί), whence perhaps the modern words
ball and ballet.