VŎCŌNIA, enacted on the proposal of Q. Voconius Saxa, a tribunus
plebis, B.C. 169. One provision of the lex was, that no person
who should be rated in the census at 100,000 sesterces (_centum
millia aeris_) after the census of that year, should make any
female (_virginem neve mulierem_) his heres. The lex allowed no
exceptions, even in favour of an only daughter. It applied simply
to testaments, and therefore a daughter or other female could
inherit ab intestato to any amount. The vestal virgins could make
women their heredes in all cases, which was the only exception to
the provisions of the lex. Another provision of the lex forbade
a person who was included in the census to give more in amount,
in the form of a legacy to any person, than the heres or heredes
should take. This provision secured something to the heres or
heredes, but still the provision was ineffectual, and the object of
the lex was only accomplished by the Lex Falcidia, B.C. 44, which
enacted that a testator should not give more than three-fourths in
legacies, thus securing a fourth to the heres.
LĪBELLA, a small Roman silver coin, which existed in the early age
of the city. The name was retained later as a proverbial expression
for a very small value. The _libella_ was equal in value to the old
full-weight _as_; and it seems most probable that the coin ceased
being struck at the time of the reduction of the _as_, on account
of the inconveniently small size which it would have assumed.
The _libella_ was subdivided into the _sembella_, its half, and
the _teruncius_, its quarter. Cicero uses these words to express
fractions of an estate, with reference to the _denarius_ as the unit,
the _libella_ signifying 1-10th, and the _teruncius_ 1-40th of the
whole.
LĬBELLUS, the diminutive form of liber, signifies properly a little
book. It was distinguished from other kinds of writings, by being
written like our books by pages, whereas other writings were written
_transversa charta_. It was used by the Romans as a technical term
in the following cases:--1. _Libelli accusatorum_ or _accusatorii_,
the written accusations which in some cases a plaintiff, after having
received the permission to bring an action against a person, drew up,
signed, and sent to the judicial authorities. 2. _Libelli famosi_,
libels or pasquinades, intended to injure the character of persons.
A law of the Twelve Tables inflicted very severe punishments on
those who composed defamatory writings. 3. _Libellus memorialis_,
a pocket or memorandum book. 4. _Libellus_ is used by the Roman
jurists as equivalent to _Oratio Principis_. 5. The word libellus was
also applied to a variety of writings, which in most cases probably
consisted of one page only; such as short letters, advertisements, &c.
[Illustration: Ancient Writing Materials. (From a Painting at
Herculaneum.)]
LĬBER (βιβλίον), a book. The most common material on which books
were written by the Greeks and Romans, was the thin coats or rind
(_liber_, whence the Latin name for a book) of the Egyptian papyrus.
This plant was called by the Egyptians Byblos (βύβλος), whence the
Greeks derived their name for a book (βιβλίον). The papyrus-tree
grows in swamps to the height of ten feet and more, and paper
(_charta_) was prepared from the thin coats or pellicles which
surround the plant. Next to the papyrus, parchment (_membrana_)
was the most common material for writing upon. It is said to have
been invented by Eumenes II. king of Pergamus, in consequence of
the prohibition of the export of papyrus from Egypt by Ptolemy
Epiphanes. It is probable, however, that Eumenes introduced only
some improvement in the manufacture of parchment, as Herodotus
mentions writing on skins as common in his time, and says that the
Ionians had been accustomed to give the name of skins (διφθέραι) to
books. The ancients wrote usually on only one side of the paper or
parchment. The back of the paper, instead of being written upon, was
usually stained with saffron colour or the cedrus, which produced a
yellow colour. As paper and parchment were dear, it was frequently
the custom to erase or wash out writing of little importance, and
to write upon the paper or parchment again, which was then called
_Palimpsestus_ (παλιμψήστος). The paper or parchment was joined
together so as to form one sheet, and when the work was finished, it
was rolled on a staff, whence it was called a _volumen_; and hence we
have the expression _evolvere librum_. When an author divided a work
into several books, it was usual to include only one book in a volume
or roll, so that there was generally the same number of volumes as
of books. In the papyri rolls found at Herculaneum, the stick on
which the papyrus is rolled does not project from the papyrus, but
is concealed by it. Usually, however, there were balls or bosses,
ornamented or painted, called _umbilici_ or _cornua_, which were
fastened at each end of the stick and projected from the papyrus. The
ends of the roll were carefully cut, polished with pumice-stone and
coloured black; they were called the _geminae frontes_. The way in
which a book was held while reading is shown in the following cut,
taken from a painting at Herculaneum. To protect the roll from injury
it was frequently put into a parchment case, which was stained with
a purple colour or with the yellow of the Lutum. The title of the
book (_titulus_, _index_) was written on a small strip of papyrus or
parchment with a light red colour (_coccum_ or _minium_).
[Illustration: Book held by a crowned Poet. (From a Painting at
Herculaneum.)]