GĔROUSĬA (γερούσια), or _assembly of elders_, was the aristocratic
element of the Spartan polity. It was not peculiar to Sparta only,
but found in other Dorian states, just as a _Boulé_ (βουλή) or
democratical council was an element of most Ionian constitutions.
The _Gerousia_ at Sparta, including the two kings, its presidents,
consisted of thirty members (γέροντες): a number which seems
connected with the divisions of the Spartan people. Every Dorian
state, in fact, was divided into three tribes: the Hylleis, the
Dymanes, and the Pamphyli. The tribes at Sparta were again subdivided
into _obae_ (ὠβαί), which were, like the _Gerontes_, thirty in
number, so that each oba was represented by its councillor: any
inference which leads to the conclusion that two obae at least of
the Hyllean tribe, must have belonged to the royal house of the
Heracleids. No one was eligible to the council till he was sixty
years of age, and the additional qualifications were strictly of
an aristocratic nature. We are told, for instance, that the office
of a councillor was the reward and prize of virtue, and that it
was confined to men of distinguished character and station. The
election was determined by vote, and the mode of conducting it
was remarkable for its old-fashioned simplicity. The competitors
presented themselves one after another to the assembly of electors;
the latter testified their esteem by acclamations, which varied
in intensity according to the popularity of the candidates for
whom they were given. These manifestations of esteem were noted by
persons in an adjoining building, who could judge of the shouting,
but could not tell in whose favour it was given. The person whom
these judges thought to have been most applauded was declared the
successful candidate. The office lasted for life. The functions of
the councillors were partly deliberative, partly judicial, and partly
executive. In the discharge of the first, they prepared measures
and passed preliminary decrees, which were to be laid before the
popular assembly, so that the important privilege of initiating all
changes in the government or laws was vested in them. As a criminal
court, they could punish with death and civil degradation (ἀτιμία).
They also appear to have exercised, like the Areiopagus at Athens,
a general superintendence and inspection over the lives and manners
of the citizens, and probably were allowed a kind of patriarchal
authority, to enforce the observance of ancient usage and discipline.
It is not, however, easy to define with exactness the original
extent of their functions, especially as respects the last-mentioned
duty, since the ephors not only encroached upon the prerogatives of
the king and council, but also possessed, in very early times, a
censorial power, and were not likely to permit any diminution of its
extent.
GERRHA (γέῤῥα), in Latin, _Gerrae_, properly signified any thing made
of wicker-work, and was especially used as the name of the Persian
shields, which were made of wicker-work, and were smaller and shorter
than the Greek shields.
GLĂDĬĀTŌRES (μονομάχοι) were men who fought with swords in the
amphitheatre and other places, for the amusement of the Roman people.
They are said to have been first exhibited by the Etrurians, and to
have had their origin from the custom of killing slaves and captives
at the funeral pyres of the deceased. [BUSTUM; FUNUS.] A show of
gladiators was called munus, and the person who exhibited (_edebat_)
it, _editor_, _munerator_, or _dominus_, who was honoured during the
day of exhibition, if a private person, with the official signs of
a magistrate. Gladiators were first exhibited at Rome in B.C. 264,
in the Forum Boarium, by Marcus and Decimus Brutus, at the funeral
of their father. They were at first confined to public funerals, but
afterwards fought at the funerals of most persons of consequence, and
even at those of women. Combats of gladiators were also exhibited at
entertainments, and especially at public festivals by the aediles
and other magistrates, who sometimes exhibited immense numbers, with
the view of pleasing the people. Under the empire the passion of
the Romans for this amusement rose to its greatest height, and the
number of gladiators who fought on some occasions appears almost
incredible. After Trajan’s triumph over the Dacians, there were more
than 10,000 exhibited. Gladiators consisted either of captives,
slaves, and condemned malefactors, or of freeborn citizens who fought
voluntarily. Freemen, who became gladiators for hire, were called
_auctorati_, and their hire _auctoramentum_ or _gladiatorium_. Even
under the republic, free-born citizens fought as gladiators, but
they appear to have belonged only to the lower orders. Under the
empire, however, both knights and senators fought in the arena,
and even women.--Gladiators were kept in schools (_ludi_), where
they were trained by persons called _lanistae_. The whole body of
gladiators under one lanista was frequently called _familia_. They
sometimes were the property of the lanistae, who let them out to
persons who wished to exhibit a show of gladiators; but at other
times they belonged to citizens, who kept them for the purpose of
exhibition, and engaged lanistae to instruct them. Thus we read of
the ludus Aemilius at Rome, and of Caesar’s ludus at Capua. The
gladiators fought in these ludi with wooden swords, called _rudes_.
Great attention was paid to their diet, in order to increase the
strength of their bodies.--Gladiators were sometimes exhibited at
the funeral pyre, and sometimes in the forum, but more frequently in
the amphitheatre. [AMPHITHEATRUM.]--The person who was to exhibit
a show of gladiators, published some days before the exhibition
bills (_libelli_), containing the number and frequently the names
of those who were to fight. When the day came, they were led along
the arena in procession, and matched by pairs; and their swords
were examined by the editor to see if they were sufficiently sharp.
At first there was a kind of sham battle, called _praelusio_, in
which they fought with wooden swords, or the like, and afterwards
at the sound of the trumpet the real battle began. When a gladiator
was wounded, the people called out _habet_ or _hoc habet_; and the
one who was vanquished lowered his arms in token of submission.
His fate, however, depended upon the people, who pressed down
their thumbs if they wished him to be saved, but turned them up if
they wished him to be killed, and ordered him to receive the sword
(_ferrum recipere_), which gladiators usually did with the greatest
firmness. If the life of a vanquished gladiator was spared, he
obtained his discharge for that day, which was called _missio_;
and hence in an exhibition of gladiators _sine missione_, the
lives of the conquered were never spared. This kind of exhibition,
however, was forbidden by Augustus. Palms were usually given to the
victorious gladiators. Old gladiators, and sometimes those who had
only fought for a short time, were discharged from the service by
the editor, at the request of the people, who presented each of them
with a rudis or wooden sword; whence those who were discharged were
called _Rudiarii_.--Gladiators were divided into different classes,
according to their arms and different mode of fighting, or other
circumstances. The names of the most important of these classes are
given in alphabetical order:--_Andabatae_ wore helmets without any
aperture for the eyes, so that they were obliged to fight blindfold,
and thus excited the mirth of the spectators.--_Catervarii_ was the
name given to gladiators when they did not fight in pairs, but when
several fought together.--_Essedarii_ fought from chariots, like the
Gauls and Britons. [ESSEDA.]--_Hoplomachi_ appear to have been those
who fought in a complete suit of armour.--_Laqueatores_ were those
who used a noose to catch their adversaries.--_Meridiani_ were those
who fought in the middle of the day, after combats with wild beasts
had taken place in the morning. These gladiators were very slightly
armed.--_Mirmillones_ are said to have been so called from their
having the image of a fish (_mormyr_, μορμύρος) on their helmets.
Their arms were like those of the Gauls, whence we find that they
were also called Galli. They were usually matched with the Retiarii
or Thracians.--_Provocatores_ fought with the Samnites, but we do
not know any thing respecting them except their name.--_Retiarii_
carried only a three-pointed lance, called _tridens_ or _fuscina_
[FUSCINA], and a net (_rete_), which they endeavoured to throw over
their adversaries, and they then attacked them with the fuscina while
they were entangled. The retiarius was dressed in a short tunic,
and wore nothing on his head. If he missed his aim in throwing the
net, he betook himself to flight, and endeavoured to prepare his net
for a second cast, while his adversary followed him round the arena
in order to kill him before he could make a second attempt. His
adversary was usually a _secutor_ or a _mirmillo_. In the following
woodcut a combat is represented between a retiarius and a mirmillo;
the former has thrown his net over the head of the latter, and is
proceeding to attack him with the fuscina. The lanista stands behind
the retiarius.--_Samnites_ were so called, because they were armed
in the same way as that people, and were particularly distinguished
by the oblong _scutum_.--_Secutores_ are supposed by some writers to
be so called because the secutor in his combat with the retiarius
pursued the latter when he failed in securing him by his net.
[Illustration: A Mirmillo and a Retiarius. (Winckelmann, ‘Monum.
Ined.,’ pl. 197.)]
Other writers think that they were the same as the _supposititii_,
who were gladiators substituted in the place of those who were
wearied or were killed.--_Thraces_ or _Threces_ were armed, like the
Thracians, with a round shield or buckler, and a short sword or
dagger (_sica_). They were usually matched, as already stated, with
the mirmillones. The following woodcut represents a combat between
two Thracians. A lanista stands behind each.
[Illustration: Thracians. (Winckelmann, l. c.)]
GLĂDĬUS (ξίφος, _poet._ ἄορ, φάσγανον), a sword or glaive, by the
Latin poets called _ensis_. The ancient sword had generally a
straight two-edged blade, rather broad, and nearly of equal width
from hilt to point. The Greeks and Romans wore them on the left side,
so as to draw them out of the sheath (_vagina_, κολεός) by passing
the right hand in front of the body to take hold of the hilt with the
thumb next to the blade. The early Greeks used a very short sword.
Iphicrates, who made various improvements in armour about 400 B.C.,
doubled its length. The Roman sword was larger, heavier, and more
formidable than the Greek.