EXCŬBĬTŌRES, which properly means watchmen or sentinels of any kind,
was the name more particularly given to the soldiers of the cohort
who guarded the palace of the Roman emperor.
EXEDRA (ἐξέδρα), which properly signifies a seat out of doors, came
to be used for a chamber furnished with seats, and opening into a
portico, where people met to enjoy conversation; such as the rooms
attached to a gymnasium, which were used for the lectures and
disputations of the rhetoricians and philosophers. In old Greek the
word λέσχη appears to have had a similar meaning; but the ordinary
use of the word is for a larger and more public place of resort than
the ἐξέδρα. [LESCHE.] Among the Romans the word had a wider meaning,
answering to both the Greek terms, ἐξέδρα and λέσχη.
EXĒGĒTAE (ἐξηγηταί, interpreters) is the name of the Eumolpidae, by
which they were designated as the interpreters of the laws relating
to religion and of the sacred rites. [EUMOLPIDAE.] The name ἐξηγητής
was also applied to those persons who served as guides (ciceroni) to
the visitors in the most remarkable towns and places of Greece.
EXERCĬTŌRĬA ACTĬO, an action granted by the edict against the
exercitor navis. By the term navis was understood any vessel, whether
used for the navigation of rivers, lakes, or the sea. The exercitor
navis is the person to whom all the ship’s gains and earnings
(_obventiones et reditus_) belong, whether he is the owner, or has
hired the ship (_per aversionem_) from the owner for a time definite
or indefinite.
EXERCĬTUS (στρατός), army. (1) GREEK.
1. _Spartan Army._--In all the states of Greece, in the earliest as
in later times, the general type of their military organisation was
the _phalanx_, a body of troops in close array with a long spear as
their principal weapon. It was among the Dorians, and especially
among the Spartans, that this type was most rigidly adhered to.
The strength of their military array consisted in the heavy-armed
infantry (ὁπλίται). They attached comparatively small importance to
their cavalry, which was always inferior. Indeed, the Thessalians and
Boeotians were the only Greek people who distinguished themselves
much for their cavalry; scarcely any other states had territories
adapted for the evolutions of cavalry. The whole life of a Spartan
was little else than either the preparation for or the practice of
war. The result was, that in the strictness of their discipline,
the precision and facility with which they performed their military
evolutions, and the skill and power with which they used their
weapons, the Spartans were unrivalled among the Greeks. The
heavy-armed infantry of the Spartan armies was composed partly of
genuine Spartan citizens, partly of Perioeci. Every Spartan citizen
was liable to military service (ἔμφρουρος) from the age of twenty
to the age of sixty years. They were divided into six divisions
called μόραι, under the command or superintendence of a polemarch,
each mora being subdivided into four λόχοι(commanded by λοχαγοί),
each λόχος into two πεντηκοστύες (headed by πεντηκοστῆρες), each
πεντηκοστύς into two ἐνωμοτίαι (headed by enomotarchs). The ἐνωμοτίαι
were so called from the men composing them being bound together by
a common oath. These were not merely divisions of troops engaged in
actual military expeditions. The whole body of citizens at all times
formed an army, whether they were congregated at head-quarters in
Sparta, or a portion of them were detached on foreign service. The
strength of a mora on actual service, of course, varied, according to
circumstances. To judge by the name pentecostys, the normal number
of a mora would have been 400; but 500, 600, and 900 are mentioned
as the number of men in a mora on different occasions. When in the
field, each mora of infantry was attended by a mora of cavalry,
consisting at the most of 100 men, and commanded by an hipparmost
(ἱππαρμοστής). Plutarch mentions squadrons (οὐλαμοί) of fifty, which
may possibly be the same divisions. The cavalry seems merely to
have been employed to protect the flanks, and but little regard was
paid to it. The corps of 300 ἱππεῖς formed a sort of body-guard for
the king, and consisted of the flower of the young soldiers. Though
called horsemen, they fought on foot. A Spartan army, divided as
above described, was drawn up in the dense array of the phalanx, the
depth of which depended upon circumstances. An ἐνωμοτία sometimes
made but a single file, sometimes was drawn up in three or six files
(ζύγα). The enomotarch stood at the head of his file (πρωτοστάτης),
or at the head of the right-hand file, if the enomotia was broken up
into more than one. The last man was called οὐραγός. It was a matter
of great importance that he, like the enomotarch, should be a man of
strength and skill, as in certain evolutions he would have to lead
the movements. The commander-in-chief, who was usually the king,
had his station sometimes in the centre, more commonly on the right
wing. The commands of the general were issued in the first place
to the polemarchs, by these to the lochagi, by these again to the
pentecosteres, by the latter to the enomotarchs, and by these last to
their respective divisions. From the orderly manner in which this was
done, commands were transmitted with great rapidity: every soldier,
in fact, regulating the movements of the man behind him, every two
being connected together as πρωτοστάτης and ἐπιστάτης. In later times
the king was usually accompanied by two ephors, as controllers and
advisers. These, with the polemarchs, the four Pythii, three peers
(ὅμοιοι), who had to provide for the necessities of the king in war,
the laphyropolae and some other officers, constituted what was called
the _damosia_ of the king. The Spartan hoplites were accompanied in
the field by helots, partly in the capacity of attendants, partly
to serve as light-armed troops. The number attached to an army was
probably not uniform. At Plataeae each Spartan was accompanied by
seven helots; but that was probably an extraordinary case. One helot
in particular of those attached to each Spartan was called his
θεράπων, and performed the functions of an armourer or shieldbearer.
Xenophon calls them ὑπασπισταί. In extraordinary cases, helots
served as hoplites, and in that case it was usual to give them their
liberty. A separate troop in the Lacedaemonian army was formed by
the Sciritae (Σκιρῖται), originally, no doubt, inhabitants of the
district Sciritis. The arms of the phalanx consisted of the long
spear and a short sword (ξυήλη). The chief part of the defensive
armour was the large brazen shield, which covered the body from the
shoulder to the knee, suspended, as in ancient times, by a thong
round the neck, and managed by a simple handle or ring (πόρπαξ).
Besides this, they had the ordinary armour of the hoplite [ARMA]. The
heavy-armed soldiers wore a scarlet uniform. The Spartan encampments
were circular. Only the heavy-armed were stationed within them, the
cavalry being placed to look out, and the helots being kept as much
as possible outside. Preparatory to a battle the Spartan soldier
dressed his hair and crowned himself as others would do for a feast.
The signal for attack was given not by the trumpet, but by the music
of flutes, and sometimes also of the lyre and cithara, to which the
men sang the battle song (παιὰν ἐμβατήριος). The object of the music
was not so much to inspirit the men, as simply to regulate the march
of the phalanx. This rhythmical regularity of movement was a point to
which the Spartans attached great importance.
2. _Athenian Army._--In Athens, the military system was in its
leading principles the same as among the Spartans, though differing
in detail, and carried out with less exactness; inasmuch as when
Athens became powerful, greater attention was paid to the navy.
Of the four classes into which the citizens were arranged by the
constitution of Solon, the citizens of the first and second served
as cavalry, or as commanders of the infantry (still it need not be
assumed that the ἱππεῖς never served as heavy-armed infantry), those
of the third class (ζευγῖται) formed the heavy-armed infantry. The
Thetes served either as light-armed troops on land, or on board the
ships. The same general principles remained when the constitution
was remodelled by Cleisthenes. The cavalry service continued to
be compulsory on the wealthier class. Every citizen was liable to
service from his eighteenth to his sixtieth year. On reaching their
eighteenth year, the young citizens were formally enrolled εἰς
τὴν ληξιαρχικὸν γραμματεῖον, and received a shield and spear in a
public assembly of the people, binding themselves by oath to perform
rightly the duties of a citizen and a soldier. During the first two
years, they were only liable to service in Attica itself, chiefly
as garrison soldiers in the different fortresses in the country.
During this period, they were called περίπολοι. Members of the senate
during the period of their office, farmers of the revenue, choreutae
at the Dionysia during the festival, in later times, traders by sea
also, were exempted from military service. Any one bound to serve who
attempted to avoid doing so, was liable to a sentence of ἀτιμία. The
resident aliens commonly served as heavy-armed soldiers, especially
for the purpose of garrisoning the city. They were prohibited
from serving as cavalry. Slaves were only employed as soldiers in
cases of great necessity. Of the details of the Athenian military
organisation, we have no distinct accounts as we have of those of
Sparta. The heavy-armed troops, as was the universal practice in
Greece, fought in phalanx order. They were arranged in bodies in a
manner dependent on the political divisions of the citizens. The
soldiers of each tribe (φυλή) formed a separate body in the army,
also called a tribe, and these bodies stood in some preconcerted
order. It seems that the name of one division was τάξις, and of
another λόχος, but in what relations these stood to the φυλή, and
to each other, we do not learn. Every hoplite was accompanied by
an attendant (ὑπηρέτης) to take charge of his baggage, and carry
his shield on a march. Each horseman also had a servant, called
ἱπποκόμος, to attend to his horse. For the command of the army, there
were chosen every year ten generals [STRATEGI], and ten taxiarchs
[TAXIARCHI], and for the cavalry, two hipparchs (ἵππαρχοι) and ten
phylarchs (φύλαρχοι). Respecting the military functions of the ἄρχων
πολέμαρχος, see the article Archon. The number of strategi sent with
an army was not uniform. Three was a common number. Sometimes one was
invested with the supreme command; at other times, they either took
the command in turn (as at Marathon), or conducted their operations
by common consent (as in the Sicilian expedition). The practice of
paying the troops when upon service was first introduced by Pericles.
The pay consisted partly of wages (μισθός), partly of provisions,
or, more commonly, provision-money (σιτηρέσιον). The ordinary μισθός
of a hoplite was two obols a day. The σιτηρέσιον amounted to two
obols more. Hence, the life of a soldier was called, proverbially,
τετρωβόλου βίος. Officers received twice as much; horsemen, three
times; generals, four times as much. The horsemen received pay even
in time of peace, that they might always be in readiness, and also a
sum of money for their outfit (κατάστασις). As regards the military
strength of the Athenians, we find 10,000 heavy-armed soldiers at
Marathon, 8,000 heavy-armed, and as many light-armed at Plataeae;
and at the beginning of the Peloponnesian war there were 18,000
heavy-armed ready for foreign service, and 16,000 consisting of those
beyond the limits of the ordinary military age and of the metoeci,
for garrison service. It was the natural result of the national
character of the Athenians and their democratical constitution,
that military discipline was much less stringent among them than
among the Spartans, and after defeat especially it was often found
extremely difficult to maintain it. The generals had some power of
punishing military offences on the spot, but for the greater number
of such offences a species of court-martial was held, consisting of
persons who had served in the army to which the offender belonged,
and presided over by the strategi. Various rewards also were held
out for those who especially distinguished themselves for their
courage or conduct, in the shape of chaplets, statues, &c. The
Peltastae (πελτασταί), so called from the kind of shield which they
wore [PELTA], were a class of troops of which we hear very little
before the end of the Peloponnesian war. The Athenian general
Iphicrates introduced some important improvements in the mode of
arming them, combining as far as possible the peculiar advantages
of heavy (ὁπλῖται) and light armed (ψιλοί) troops. He substituted a
linen corslet for the coat of mail worn by the hoplites, and lessened
the shield, while he doubled the length of the spear and sword. He
even took the pains to introduce for them an improved sort of shoe,
called after him Ἰφικρατίδες. This equipment proved very effective.
The almost total destruction of a mora of Lacedaemonian heavy-armed
troops by a body of peltastae under the command of Iphicrates was an
exploit that became very famous. When the use of mercenary troops
became general, Athenian citizens seldom served except as volunteers,
and then in but small numbers. The employment of mercenaries led
to considerable alterations in the military system of Greece. War
came to be studied as an art, and Greek generals, rising above the
old simple rules of warfare, became tacticians. Epaminondas was the
first who adopted the method of charging in column, concentrating his
attack upon one point of the hostile line, so as to throw the whole
into confusion by breaking through it.
3. MACEDONIAN ARMY.--Philip, king of Macedonia, made several
improvements in the arms and arrangement of the phalanx. The spear
(σάρισσα or σάρισα), with which the soldiers of the Macedonian
phalanx were armed, was 24 feet long; but the ordinary length was 21
feet, and the lines were arranged at such distances that the spears
of the fifth rank projected three feet beyond the first, so that
every man in the front rank was protected by five spears. Besides
the spear they carried a short sword. The shield was very large
and covered nearly the whole body, so that on favourable ground an
impenetrable front was presented to the enemy. The soldiers were
also defended by helmets, coats of mail, and greaves; so that any
thing like rapid movement was impossible. The ordinary depth of the
phalanx was sixteen files, though depths of eight and of thirty-two
are also mentioned. Each file of sixteen was called λόχος. Two lochi
made a _dilochia_; two dilochiae made a τετραρχία, consisting of
sixty-four men; two tetrarchies made a τάξις; two τάξεις a σύνταγμα
or ξεναγία, to which were attached five supernumeraries, a herald,
an ensign, a trumpeter, a servant, and an officer to bring up
the rear (οὐραγός); two syntagmata formed a pentacosiarchia, two
of which made a χιλιαρχία, containing 1024 men; two chiliarchies
made a τέλος, and two τέλη made a phalangarchia or phalanx in
the narrower sense of the word, the normal number of which would
therefore be 4096. It was commanded by a polemarch or strategus; four
such bodies formed the larger phalanx, the normal number of which
would be 16,384. When drawn up, the two middle sections constituted
what was termed the ὀμφαλός, the others being called κέρατα or
wings. The phalanx soldiers in the army of Alexander amounted to
18,000, and were divided not into four, but into six divisions,
each named after a Macedonian province, from which it was to derive
its recruits. These bodies are oftener called τάξεις than φάλαγγες
by the historians, and their leaders taxiarchs or strategi. The
phalanx of Antiochus consisted of 16,000 men, and was formed into
ten divisions (μέρη) of 1600 each, arranged 50 broad and 32 deep.
The phalanx, of course, became all but useless, if its ranks were
broken. It required, therefore, level and open ground, so that its
operations were restricted to very narrow limits; and being incapable
of rapid movement, it became almost helpless in the face of an
active enemy, unless accompanied by a sufficient number of cavalry
and light troops. The light-armed troops were arranged in files
(λόχοι) eight deep. Four lochi formed a σύστασις, and then larger
divisions were successively formed, each being the double of the one
below it; the largest (called ἐπίταγμα), consisting of 8192 men.
The cavalry (according to Aelianus), were arranged in an analogous
manner, the lowest division or squadron (ἴλη), containing 64 men,
and the successive larger divisions being each the double of that
below it; the highest (ἐπίταγμα) containing 4096. Both Philip and
Alexander attached great importance to the cavalry, which, in their
armies, consisted partly of Macedonians, and partly of Thessalians.
The Macedonian horsemen were the flower of the young nobles. They
amounted to about 1200 in number, forming eight squadrons, and, under
the name ἕταιροι, formed a sort of body-guard for the king. The
Thessalian cavalry consisted chiefly of the elite of the wealthier
class of the Thessalians, but included also a number of Grecian
youth from other states. There was also a guard of foot soldiers
(ὑπασπισταί), whom we find greatly distinguishing themselves in
the campaigns of Alexander. They seem to be identical with the
πεζέταιροι, of whom we find mention. They amounted to about 3000
men, arranged in six battalions (τάξεις). There was also a troop
called Argyraspids, from the silver with which their shields were
ornamented. They seem to have been a species of peltastae. Alexander
also organised a kind of troops called διμάχαι, who were something
intermediate between cavalry and infantry, being designed to fight on
horseback or on foot, as circumstances required. It is in the time of
Alexander the Great, that we first meet with artillery in the train
of a Grecian army. His _balistae_ and _catapeltae_ were frequently
employed with great effect, as, for instance, at the passage of the
Jaxartes.
(2) ROMAN. _General Remarks on the Legion._--The name _Legio_ is
coeval with the foundation of Rome, and denoted a body of troops,
which, although subdivided into several smaller bodies, was regarded
as forming an organised whole. It was not equivalent to what we
call a _regiment_, inasmuch as it contained troops of all arms,
infantry, cavalry, and, when military engines were extensively
employed, artillery also; it might thus, so far, be regarded as a
complete _army_, but on the other hand the number of soldiers in a
legion was fixed within certain limits, never much exceeding 6000,
and hence when war was carried on upon a large scale, a single army,
under the command of one general, frequently contained two, three,
or more legions, besides a large number of auxiliaries of various
denominations. The legion for many centuries was composed exclusively
of Roman citizens. By the ordinances of Servius Tullius those alone
who were enrolled in the five classes were eligible, and one of the
greatest changes introduced by Marius (B.C. 107) was the admission of
all orders of citizens, including the lowest, into the ranks. Up to
the year B.C. 107, no one was permitted to serve among the regular
troops of the state, except those who were regarded as possessing a
strong personal interest in the stability of the commonwealth; but
the principle having been at this period abandoned, the privilege
was extended after the close of the Social War (B.C. 87) to nearly
the whole of the free population of Italy, and by the famous edict
of Caracalla (or perhaps of M. Aurelius), to the whole Roman world.
Long before this, however, the legions were raised chiefly in the
provinces; but it does not appear that the admission of foreigners
not subjects was ever practised upon a large scale until the reign
of the second Claudius (A.D. 268-270), who incorporated a large body
of vanquished Goths, and of Probus (A.D. 276-282), who distributed
16,000 Germans among legionary and frontier battalions. From this
time forward what had originally been the leading characteristic
of the legion was rapidly obliterated, so that under Diocletian,
Constantine, and their successors, the best soldiers in the Roman
armies were barbarians. The practice of granting pensions for long
service in the shape of donations of land was first introduced upon
a large scale after the Mithridatic wars. Hence, when Augustus, in
compliance with the advice of Maecenas, determined to provide for
the security of the distant provinces, and for tranquil submission
at home by the establishment of a powerful standing army, he found
the public mind in a great degree prepared for such a measure, and
the distinction between soldier and civilian unknown, or at least not
recognised before, became from this time forward as broadly marked
as in the most pure military despotisms of ancient or modern times.
The legions were originally numbered according to the order in which
they were raised. As they became permanent, the same numbers remained
attached to the same corps, which were moreover distinguished by
various epithets of which we have early examples in the _Legio
Martia_, and the _Legio Quinta Alauda_. [ALAUDA.] Several legions
bore the same number: thus there were four _Firsts_, five _Seconds_,
and five _Thirds_. The total number of legions under Augustus was
twenty-five, under Alexander Severus thirty-two, but during the
civil wars the number was far greater.--The number of soldiers who,
at different periods, were contained in a legion, does not appear
to have been absolutely fixed, but to have varied within moderate
limits. Under Romulus the legion contained 3000 foot soldiers. It
is highly probable that some change may have been introduced by
Servius Tullius, but, in so far as numbers are concerned, we have no
evidence. From the expulsion of the Kings until the second year of
the second Punic War, the regular number may be fixed at 4000 or 4200
infantry. From the latter period until the consulship of Marius the
ordinary number may be fixed at from 5000 to 5200. For some centuries
after Marius the numbers varied from 5000 to 6200, generally
approaching to the higher limit. Amid all the variations with regard
to the infantry, 300 horsemen formed the regular complement (_justus
equitatus_) of the legion. When troops were raised for a service
which required special arrangements, the number of horsemen was
sometimes increased beyond 300. It must be observed, however, that
these remarks with regard to the cavalry apply only to the period
before Marius. We now proceed to consider the organisation of the
legion at five different periods.
_First Period. Servius Tullius._ The legion of Servius is so closely
connected with the Comitia Centuriata that it has already been
discussed in a former article [COMITIA], and it is only necessary to
repeat here that it was a phalanx equipped in the Greek fashion, the
front ranks being furnished with a complete suit of armour, their
weapons being long spears, and their chief defence the round Argolic
shield (_clipeus_).
[Illustration:
15 Manipuli of Hastati.
15 Manipuli of Principes.
Triarii proper } 15 triple
Rorarii } Manipuli of
Accensi } Triarii.]
_Second Period. The Great Latin War_, B.C. 340. Our authority for
this period is Livy (viii. 8). The legion in B.C. 340 had almost
entirely discarded the tactics of the phalanx. It was now drawn up in
three, or perhaps we ought to say, in five lines. The soldiers of the
first line, called _Hastati_, consisted of youths in the first bloom
of manhood distributed into 15 companies or maniples (_manipuli_),
a moderate space being left between each. The maniple contained
60 privates, 2 centurions (_centuriones_), and a standard bearer
(_vexillarius_); two-thirds were heavily armed and bore the _scutum_
or large oblong shield, the remainder carried only a spear (_hasta_)
and light javelins (_gaesa_), The second line, the _Principes_,
was composed of men in the full vigour of life, divided in like
manner into 15 maniples, all heavily armed (_scutati omnes_). The
two lines of the _Hastati_ and _Principes_ taken together amounted
to 30 maniples, and formed the _Antepilani_. The third line, the
_Triarii_, composed of tried veterans, was also in 15 divisions, but
each of these was triple, containing 3 manipuli, 180 privates, 6
centurions, and 3 vexillarii. In these triple manipuli the veterans
or _triarii_ proper formed the front ranks; immediately behind them
stood the _Rorarii_, inferior in age and prowess, while the _Accensi_
or supernumeraries, less trustworthy than either, were posted in the
extreme rear. The battle array may be thus represented. The fight was
commenced by the _Rorarii_, so called because the light missiles
which they sprinkled among the foe were like the drops which are the
forerunners of the thunder shower, who, running forwards between the
ranks of the antepilani, acted as tirailleurs; when they were driven
in they returned to their station behind the triarii, and the battle
began in earnest by the onset of the hastati; if they were unable to
make any impression they retired between the ranks of the principes,
who now advanced and bore the brunt of the combat, supported by the
hastati, who had rallied in their rear. If the principes also failed
to make an impression, they retired through the openings between the
maniples of the triarii, who up to this time had been crouched on
the ground (hence called _subsidiarii_), but now arose to make the
last effort (whence the phrase _rem ad triarios redisse_). No longer
retaining the open order of the two first lines, they closed up their
ranks so as to present an unbroken line of heavy-armed veterans in
front, while the rorarii and accensi, pressing up from behind, gave
weight and consistency to the mass,--an arrangement bearing evidence
to a lingering predilection for the principle of the phalanx, and
exhibiting, just as we might expect at that period, the Roman tactics
in their transition state. It must be observed that the words
_ordo_, _manipulus_, _vexillum_, although generally kept distinct,
are throughout the chapter used as synonymous. Livy concludes by
saying, that four legions were commonly levied, each consisting of
5000 infantry and 300 horse. We must suppose that he speaks in round
numbers in so far as the infantry are concerned, for according to his
own calculations the numbers will stand thus:--
Hastati 15 × 60 = 900
Principes 15 × 60 = 900
Triarii, &c. 15 × 3 × 60 = 2700
Centuriones = 150
Vexillarii = 75
---- 4725
4725
_Third Period. During the wars of the younger Scipio._ Polybius
describes minutely the method pursued in raising the four legions
during this period. Under ordinary circumstances they were levied
yearly, two being assigned to each consul. It must be observed that
a regular consular army (_justus consularis exercitus_) no longer
consisted of Roman legions only, but as Italy became gradually
subjugated, the various states under the dominion of Rome were
bound to furnish a contingent, and the number of allies (_socii_)
usually exceeded that of citizens. They were, however, kept perfectly
distinct, both in the camp and in the battle field. After the
election of consuls was concluded, the first step was to choose
the 24 chief officers of the legions, named _tribuni militum_. The
consuls then summoned to the Capitol all citizens eligible for
military service. They first divided the 24 tribunes into 4 parties
of 6, and the tribes were next summoned in succession by lot. The
tribe whose lot came out first being called up, they picked out from
it four youths, as nearly matched as possible in age and form; out of
these four, the tribunes of the first legion chose one, the tribunes
of the second legion one of the remaining three; the tribunes of the
third legion, one of the remaining two, and the last fell to the
fourth legion. Upon the next tribe being called up, the first choice
was given to the tribunes of the second legion, the second choice to
those of the third, and the last man fell to the first legion. On
the next tribe being called up, the tribunes of the third legion had
the first choice, and so on in succession, the object in view being
that the four legions should be as nearly alike as possible, not in
the number only, but in the quality of the soldiers. This process
was continued until the ranks were complete. In ancient times, the
cavalry were not chosen until after the infantry levy was concluded,
but when Polybius wrote, the cavalry were picked in the first place
from the list on which they were enrolled by the censor according
to their fortune, and 300 were apportioned to each legion. The levy
being completed, the tribunes collected the men belonging to their
respective legions, and making one individual stand out from the rest
administered to him an oath “that he would obey orders and execute to
the best of his ability the command of his officers.” (_Sacramento
milites adigere s. rogare, sacramentum s. sacramento dicere._) The
rest of the soldiers then came forward one by one, and swore to do
what the first had bound himself to perform. At the same time the
consuls gave notice to the magistrates of those towns in Italy in
alliance with Rome, from whom they desired to receive a contingent,
of the number which each would be required to furnish, and of the
day and place of gathering. The allied cities levied their troops
and administered the oath much in the same manner as the Romans, and
then sent them forth after appointing a commander and a paymaster.
The soldiers having again assembled, the men belonging to each legion
were separated into four divisions. 1. 1000 of the youngest and
poorest were set apart to form the _Velites_, the light-armed troops,
or skirmishers of the legion. 2. 1200 who came next in age (or who
were of the same age with the preceding but more wealthy), formed
the _Hastati_. 3. 1200, consisting of those in the full vigour of
manhood, formed the _Principes_. 4. 600, consisting of the oldest and
most experienced, formed the _Triarii_. When the number of soldiers
in the legion exceeded 4000, the first three divisions were increased
proportionally, but the number of the Triarii remained always the
same. The Hastati, Principes, and Triarii were each divided into
ten companies, called _Manipuli_. The Velites were not divided into
companies, but were distributed equally among the Hastati, Principes,
and Triarii. Before the division of the three classes into maniples,
officers were appointed inferior to the tribunes. 30 men were chosen
by merit, 10 from the Hastati, 10 from the Principes, and 10 from
the Triarii; and this first choice being completed, 30 more in like
manner. These 60 officers, of whom 20 were assigned to each of the
three classes, and distributed equally among the maniples, were named
_centuriones_, or _ordinum ductores_, and each of the 60 chose for
himself a Lieutenant (_optio_), who, being posted in the rear of the
company while the centurion was at the head, was named οὐραγός (i.e.
_Tergiductor_) by the Greeks, so that in each maniple there were two
centurions and two optiones. Further, the centurions selected out of
each maniple two of the bravest and most vigorous men as standard
bearers (_vexillarii, signiferi_). The first elected centurion of the
whole had a seat in the military council, and in each maniple the
first chosen commanded the right division of the maniple, and the
other the left. Each of these subdivisions of the maniple was called
_centuria_. The cavalry were divided into 10 troops (_turmae_), and
out of each of these 3 officers were chosen, named _decuriones_,
who named 3 lieutenants (_optiones_). In each troop the decurio
first chosen commanded the whole troop, and failing him, the second.
The infantry furnished by the _socii_ was for the most part equal
in number to the Roman legions, the cavalry twice or thrice as
numerous, and the whole were divided equally between the two consular
armies. Each consul named twelve superior officers, who were termed
_Praefecti Sociorum_, and corresponded to the legionary tribunes. A
selection was then made of the best men, to the extent of one-fifth
of the infantry and one-third of the cavalry; these were formed into
a separate corps under the name of _extraordinarii_, and on the
march and in the camp were always near the person of the consul.
The remainder were divided into two equal portions, and were styled
respectively the _Dextera Ala_ and the _Sinistra Ala_ [ALA].--_Agmen_
or _Line of March_. The Extraordinarii Pedites led the van followed
by the right wing of the infantry of the allies and the baggage of
these two divisions; next came one of the Roman legions with its
baggage following; next the other Roman legion with its own baggage,
and that of the left wing of the allies, who brought up the rear. The
different corps of cavalry sometimes followed immediately behind the
infantry to which they were attached, sometimes rode on the flanks
of the beasts of burden, at once protecting them and preventing them
from straggling. Generally, when advancing through a country in which
it was necessary to guard against a sudden onset, the troops, instead
of proceeding in a loose straggling column, were kept together in
close compact bodies ready to act in any direction at a moment’s
warning, and hence an army under these circumstances was said _agmine
quadrato incedere_. Some doubt exists with regard to the force of the
term _Agmen Pilatum_ as distinguished from _Agmen Quadratum_. Varro
defines the _agmen pilatum_ as a compact body marching without beasts
of burthen. Where the phrase occurs in poetry, it probably denotes
merely “columns bristling with spears.” To the preceding particulars
from Polybius, the following may be added.
1. _The levy (delectus.)_ According to the principles of the
constitution, none were enrolled in the legion, except freeborn
citizens (_ingenui_) above the age of 17, and under the age of
60, possessing not less than 4000 asses: but in times of peculiar
difficulty, these conditions were not insisted upon. In such times
all formalities were dispensed with, and every man capable of bearing
arms was summoned to join in warding off the threatened danger, a
force raised under such circumstances being termed _subitarius_ s.
_tumultuarius exercitus_. If citizens between the ages of 17 and 46
did not appear and answer to their names, they might be punished in
various ways,--by fine, by imprisonment, by stripes, by confiscation
of their property, and even, in extreme cases, by being sold
as slaves. At the same time, causes might be alleged which were
recognised as forming a legitimate ground for exemption (_vacatio
justa militiae_). Thus, all who had served for the full period of 20
years were relieved from further service, although they might still
be within the regular age; and so, in like manner, when they were
afflicted by any grievous malady, or disabled by any personal defect,
or engaged in any sacred or civil offices which required their
constant attendance; but these and similar pleas, although sustained
under ordinary circumstances, might be rendered void by a decree
of the senate “ne vacationes valerent.” While those who had served
for the stipulated period were entitled to immunity for the future,
even although within the legal age, and were styled _Emeriti_, so on
the other hand, it appears from some passages in the classics, that
persons who had not completed their regular term within the usual
limits, might be forced, if required, to serve between the ages of
45 and 50. Towards the close of the republic, and under the empire,
when the legions became permanent, the soldier who had served his
full time received a regular discharge (_missio_), together with a
bounty (_praemium_) in money or an allotment of land. The jurists
distinguish three kinds of discharge:--1. _Missio honesta_, granted
for length of service. 2. _Missio causaria_, in consequence of bad
health. 3. _Missio ignominiosa_, when a man was drummed out for
bad conduct. It frequently happened that _emeriti_ were induced to
continue in the ranks, either from attachment to the person of the
general, or from hopes of profit or promotion, and were then called
_veterani_, or when they joined an army, in consequence of a special
invitation, _evocati_.
2. The division of the legion into _Cohortes_, _Manipuli_,
_Centuriae_, _Signa_, _Ordines_, _Contubernia_.--(i.) _Cohortes._
Polybius takes no notice of the _Cohort_, a division of the legion
often mentioned in the Roman writers. When the soldiers of the
legion were classified as Velites, Hastati, Principes and Triarii,
the cohort contained one maniple of each of the three latter
denominations, together with their complement of Velites, so that
when the legion contained 4000, each cohort would consist of 60
Triarii, 120 Principes, 120 Hastati, and 100 Velites, in all 400 men.
The number of cohorts in a legion being always 10, and the cohorts,
during the republic, being all equal to each other, the strength of
the cohort varied from time to time with the strength of the legion,
and thus at different periods ranged between the limits of 300 and
600. They were regularly numbered from 1 to 10, the centurion of
the first century of the first maniple of the first cohort was the
guardian of the eagle, and hence the first cohort seems always to
have been regarded as superior in dignity to the rest. Late writers,
instead of _cohortes_, prefer the somewhat vague term _numeri_,
which appears in Tacitus and Suetonius, and perhaps even in Cicero.
_Numeri_ seems to have signified strictly the muster roll, whence
the phrases _referre in numeros_, _distribuere in numeros_, and
thus served to denote any body of legionaries. Whenever _Cohors_
occurs in the Latin classics in connection with the legion, it
always signifies a specific division of the legion; but it is very
frequently found, in the general sense of _battalion_, to denote
troops altogether distinct from the legion.--(ii.) _Manipulus._ The
original meaning of this word, which is derived from _manus_, was _a
handful or wisp of hay_, _straw_, _fern_, _or the like_, and this,
according to Roman tradition, affixed to the end of a pole, formed
the primitive military standard in the days of Romulus. Hence it was
applied to a body of soldiers serving under the same ensign. When
the phalanx was resolved into small companies marshalled in open
order, these were termed _manipuli_, and down to a very late period
the common soldiers of the legion were designated as _manipulares_
or _manipularii_, terms equivalent to _gregarii milites_. When the
phalanx was first broken up, it appears that each of the three
classes of Hastati, Principes, and Triarii, contained 15 maniples;
but before the second Punic war the number of maniples in each of
these classes was reduced to 10. Hence it is easy to calculate the
number of soldiers in each maniple, according to the varying numbers
in the legion, it being always borne in mind that the Triarii never
exceeded 600, and that the Velites were not divided into maniples,
but distributed equally among the heavy-armed companies.--(iii.)
_Centuriae._ The distribution of soldiers into _centuriae_ must be
regarded as coeval with the origin of Rome. Plutarch speaks of the
force led by Romulus against Amulius as formed of centuries; and from
the close connections between the centuries of Servius Tullius, and
the organization of the military force, we cannot hesitate to believe
that the term was communicated to the ranks of the phalanx. For a
long period after the establishment of the manipular constitution,
the legion contained 60 centuries.--(iv.) _Signum._ This word is used
to denote a division of the legion, but it is doubtful whether it
signifies a maniple or a century.--(v.) _Ordo_ generally signifies
a century, and _ordinum ductor_ is synonymous with _centurio_, and
_ducere honestum ordinem_ means to be one of the principal centurions
in a legion.--(vi.) _Contubernium._ This was the name given under the
empire to the body of soldiers who were quartered together in the
same tent.
3. _Hastati_, _Principes_, _Triarii_, _Pilani_, _Antepilani_,
_Antesignani_, _Principia_.--The _Hastati_ were so called, from
having been armed with a _hasta_, the _Principes_ from having
occupied the front line, the _Triarii_, otherwise named _Pilani_,
from having been ranged behind the first two lines as a body of
reserve and armed with the _pilum_, while the first two lines
were termed collectively _Antepilani_, from standing in front of
the _Pilani_. In process of time, it came to pass, that these
designations no longer expressed the actual condition of the
troops to which they were attached. When Polybius wrote, and long
before that period, the _Hastati_ were not armed with _hastae_,
but in common with the _Principes_ bore the heavy _pilum_: on the
other hand, the _pilani_ carried _hastae_ and not _pila_, while
the _Principes_ were not drawn up in the front, but formed the
second line.--_Antesignani_. While the Hastati and Principes, taken
together, were sometimes termed _Antepilani_, in contradistinction
to the Triarii, so the Hastati alone were sometimes termed
_Antesignani_, in contradistinction to the Principes and Triarii
taken together. The term _Antesignani_ having become established
as denoting the front ranks in a line of battle, was retained in
this general sense long after the Hastati, Principes, and Triarii
had disappeared.--Another term employed to denote the front ranks
of an army in battle array is _Principia_, and in this sense must
be carefully distinguished from the _Principia_ or chief street
in the camp, and from _Principia_, which in the later writers,
such as Ammianus and Vegetius, is equivalent to _principales
milites_. _Postsignani_ does not occur in any author earlier than
Ammianus Marcellinus, and therefore need not be illustrated here;
the _Subsignanus miles_ of Tacitus seems to be the same with the
_Vexillarii_.
4. _Rorarii_, _Accensi_, _Ferentarii_, _Velites_,
_Procubitores_.--When the Hastati had, in a great measure, ceased
to act as tirailleurs, their place was supplied by the _Rorarii_,
whose method of fighting has been described above (p. 165). The
_Accensi_, as described by Livy, were inferior in equipment to the
rorarii, although employed in a similar manner, and seem to have been
camp-followers or servants, and hence the name is given to those
also who attended upon magistrates or other officials. At a later
period the _accensi_ were supernumeraries, who served to fill up any
vacancies which occurred in the course of a campaign. Another ancient
term for light-armed soldiers was _Ferentarii_. The _Velites_, called
also _Procubitores_, because they were employed on outpost duty when
the Romans were encamped before an enemy, were first formed into a
corps at the siege of Capua, B.C. 211.
5. _Officers of the Legion._--_Tribuni Militum_ were the chief
officers of the legion. Their number (six) did not vary for many
centuries. They were originally chosen by the commanders-in-chief,
that is, by the kings in the first instance, and afterwards by the
consuls, or a dictator, as the case might be. In B.C. 361 the people
assumed to themselves the right of electing either the whole or a
certain number; and in B.C. 311 it was ordained that they should
choose sixteen for the four legions. In subsequent times the choice
of the tribunes was divided between the consuls and the people; but
the proportion chosen by each differed at various periods. No one was
eligible to the office of tribune who had not served for ten years
in the infantry or five in the cavalry; but this rule admitted of
exceptions. Augustus introduced certain regulations altogether new.
He permitted the sons of senators to wear the _tunica laticlavia_ as
soon as they assumed the manly gown, and to commence their military
career as tribunes, or as commanders (_praefecti_) of cavalry. Such
persons were the _Tribuni Laticlavii_.--_Centuriones._ Next in
rank to the Tribunus was the _Centurio_, who, as the name implies,
commanded a century; and the century, being termed also _ordo_, the
centurions were frequently designated _ordinum ductores_ (hence,
_adimere ordines_, _offerre ordines_, _ordines impetrare_, _ducere
honestum ordinem_, to be one of the principal centurions, &c.). The
chief ordinary duties of the centurions were to drill the soldiers,
to inspect their arms, clothing, and food, to watch the execution
of the toils imposed, to visit the centinels, and to regulate the
conduct of their men, both in the camp and in the field. They also
sat as judges in minor offences, and had the power of inflicting
corporal punishment, whence their badge of office was a vine sapling,
and thus _vitis_ is frequently used to denote the office itself. Of
the two centurions in each maniple the one first chosen took the
command of the right division, the other of the left. The century
to the right was considered as the first century of the maniple,
and its commander took precedence probably with the title _Prior_,
his companion to the left being called _Posterior_, the _priores_
in each of the three divisions of Triarii, Principes, and Hastati
being the ten centurions first chosen. So long as these divisions
were recognised, all the centurions of the Triarii appear to have
ranked before those of the Principes, and all the centurions of the
Principes before those of the Hastati. Moreover, since the maniples
were numbered in each division from 1 to 10, there was probably a
regular progression from the first centurion of the first maniple
down to the second centurion of the tenth maniple. The first
centurion of the first maniple of the Triarii, originally named
_Centurio Primus_, and afterwards _Centurio Primipili_, or simply
_Primipilus_, occupied a very conspicuous position. He stood next in
rank to the Tribuni militum; he had a seat in the military council;
to his charge was committed the eagle of the legion, whence he is
sometimes styled _Aquilifer_, and, under the empire at least, his
office was very lucrative. A series of terms connected with these
arrangements are furnished by the narrative which Sp. Ligustinus
gives of his own career (Liv. xlii. 34). He thus enumerates the
various steps of his promotion:--“Mihi T. Quinctius Flamininus
_decumum ordinem hastatum_ adsignavit ... me imperator dignum
judicavit cui _primum hastatum prioris centuriae_ adsignaret ... a
M’. Acilio mihi _primus princeps prioris centuriae_ est adsignatus
... quater intra paucos annos _primum pilum duxi_.” The gradual
ascent from the ranks being to the post of centurion:--1. In the
tenth maniple of the Hastati. 2. In the first century of the first
maniple of the Hastati. 3. In the first century of the first maniple
of the Principes. 4. In the first century of the first maniple of the
Triarii.--But even after the distinction between Hastati, Principes,
and Triarii was altogether abolished, and they were all blended
together in the cohorts, the same nomenclature with regard to the
centuries and their commanders was retained, although it is by no
means easy to perceive how it was applied. That great differences
of rank existed among the centurions is evident from the phrases
_primores centurionum_, _primi ordines_ (_i.e._ chief centurions),
as opposed to _inferiores ordines_, and _infimi ordines_, and that
promotion from a lower to a higher grade frequently took place,
is evident from many passages in ancient authors. The election of
_optiones_, or lieutenants, by the centurions, has been already
described.
_Fourth Period. From the times of the Gracchi until the downfall
of the Republic._ After the times of the Gracchi the following
changes in military affairs may be noticed:--In the first consulship
of Marius the legions were thrown open to citizens of all grades,
without distinction of fortune. The whole of the legionaries were
armed and equipped in the same manner, all being now furnished with
the pilum; and hence we see in Tacitus the _pila_ and _gladii_
of the legionaries, opposed to the _hastae_ and _spathae_ of the
auxiliaries. The legionaries when in battle order were no longer
arranged in three lines, each consisting of ten maniples, with an
open space between each maniple, but in two lines, each consisting
of five cohorts, with a space between each cohort. The younger
soldiers were no longer placed in the front, but in reserve, the van
being composed of veterans, as may be seen from various passages
in Caesar. As a necessary result of the above arrangements, the
distinction between Hastati, Principes, and Triarii ceased to exist.
These names, as applied to particular classes of soldiers, are not
found in Caesar, in Tacitus, nor in any writer upon military affairs
after the time of Marius. The Velites disappeared. The skirmishers,
included under the general term _levis armatura_, consisted for
the most part of foreign mercenaries possessing peculiar skill in
the use of some national weapon, such as the Balearic slingers,
(_funditores_), the Cretan archers (_sagittarii_), and the Moorish
dartmen (_jaculatores_). Troops of this description had, it is true,
been employed by the Romans even before the second Punic war, and
were denominated _levium armatorum_ (s. _armorum_) _auxilia_; but now
the _levis armatura_ consisted exclusively of foreigners, were formed
into a regular corps under their own officers, and no longer entered
into the constitution of the legion. When operations requiring
great activity were undertaken, such as could not be performed by
mere skirmishers, detachments of legionaries were lightly equipped,
and marched without baggage, for these special services; and hence
the frequent occurrence of such phrases as _expediti_, _expediti
milites_, _expeditae cohortes_, and even _expeditae legiones_. The
cavalry of the legion underwent a change in every respect analogous
to that which took place in regard of the light-armed troops. It is
evident, from the history of Caesar’s campaigns in Gaul, that the
number of Roman equites attached to his army was very small, and that
they were chiefly employed as aides-de-camp, and on confidential
missions. The bulk of Caesar’s cavalry consisted of foreigners, a
fact which becomes strikingly apparent when we read that Ariovistus
having stipulated that the Roman general should come to their
conference attended by cavalry alone, Caesar, feeling no confidence
in his Gaulish horse, dismounted them, and supplied their place by
soldiers of the tenth legion. In like manner they ceased to form
part of the legion, and from this time forward we find the legions
and the cavalry spoken of as completely distinct from each other.
After the termination of the Social War, when most of the inhabitants
of Italy became Roman citizens, the ancient distinction between the
_Legiones_ and the _Socii_ disappeared, and all who had served as
_Socii_ became incorporated with the legiones. An army during the
last years of the republic and under the earlier emperors consisted
of _Romanae Legiones et Auxilia s. Auxiliares_, the latter term
comprehending troops of all kinds, except the legions. Whenever the
word _socii_ is applied to troops after the date of the Social War,
it is generally to be regarded as equivalent to _auxiliares_. But the
most important change of all was the establishment of the military
_profession_, and the distinction now first introduced between the
civilian and the soldier.
_Fifth Period. From the establishment of the empire until the age of
the Antonines_, B.C. 31-A.D. 150. Under the empire a regular army
consisted of a certain number of _Legiones_ and of _Supplementa_,
the Supplementa being again divided into the imperial guards, which
appear under several different forms, distinguished by different
names; and the _Auxilia_, which were subdivided into _Sociae
Cohortes_ and _Nationes_, the latter being for the most part
barbarians. The _Legiones_, as already remarked, although still
composed of persons who enjoyed the privileges of Roman citizens,
were now raised almost exclusively in the provinces. The legion was
divided into 10 cohorts, and each cohort into 6 centuries; the first
cohort, which had the custody of the eagle, was double the size of
the others, and contained 960 men, the remaining cohorts contained
each 480 men; and consequently each ordinary century 80 men, the
total strength of the legion being thus 5280 men.--It is during this
period that we first meet with the term _Vexillarii_ or _Vexilla_,
which occurs repeatedly in Tacitus. The _vexillarii_, or _vexilla
legionum_, were those soldiers who, after having served in the legion
for sixteen years, became _exauctorati_, but continued to serve in
company with that legion, under a vexillum of their own, until they
received their full discharge. The number attached to each legion
was usually about five or six hundred.--The term _exauctorare_ also
meant _to discharge from military service_, but does not appear to
have been in use before the Augustan period. It signified both a
simple discharge, and a cashiering on account of some crime. During
the later period of the empire the latter signification began
almost exclusively to prevail.--As to the Praetorian troops, see
PRAETORIANI.--From the time when the cavalry were separated from
the legion they were formed into bodies called _alae_, which varied
in number according to circumstances. The _Alae_ were raised in
the Roman provinces and consisted, probably, for the most part, of
citizens, or at least subjects. But in addition to these every army
at this period was attended by squadrons of light horse composed
entirely of barbarians; and the chief duty performed by those named
above was guiding the pioneers as they performed their labours in
advance of the army.--_Cohortes peditatae_, were battalions raised
chiefly in the provinces, composed of Roman citizens, of subjects and
allies, or of citizens, allies, and subjects indiscriminately. To
this class of troops belonged the _cohortes auxiliares_, the _auxilia
cohortium_, and the _sociorum cohortes_, of whom we read in Tacitus,
together with a multitude of others recorded in inscriptions and
named for the most part from the nations of which they were composed.
These cohorts were numbered regularly like the legions.--_Cohortes
Equitatae_ differed from the _Peditatae_ in this only, that they
were made up of infantry combined with cavalry.--_Classici_, which
we may fairly render _Marines_, were employed, according to Hyginus,
as pioneers. They corresponded to the _Navales Socii_, under the
republic, who were always regarded as inferior to regular soldiers.
After the establishment by Augustus of regular permanent fleets at
Misenum, Ravenna, and on the coast of Gaul, a large body of men
must have been required to man them, who were sometimes called
upon to serve as ordinary soldiers.--_Nationes_ were battalions
composed entirely of barbarians, or of the most uncivilised among the
subjects of Rome, and were probably chiefly employed upon outpost
duties.--_Urbanae Cohortes._ Augustus, in addition to the praetorian
cohorts, instituted a force of city guards, amounting to 6000 men
divided into four battalions. They are usually distinguished as
_Cohortes Urbanae_ or _Urbana militia_, their quarters, which were
within the city, being the _Urbana Castra_.--_Cohortes Vigilum._
Augustus also organised a large body of night-watchers, whose
chief duty was to act as firemen. They were divided into seven
cohorts, in the proportion of one cohort to each two _Regiones_,
were stationed in fourteen guardhouses (_excubitoria_), and called
_Cohortes Vigilum_. They were commanded by a _Praefectus_, who was of
equestrian rank.