DUUMVĬRI, or the two men, the name of various magistrates and
functionaries at Rome, and in the coloniae and municipia. (1)
DUUMVIRI JURI DICUNDO were the highest magistrates in the municipal
towns. [COLONIA.]--(2) DUUMVIRI NAVALES, extraordinary magistrates,
who were created, whenever occasion required, for the purpose
of equipping and repairing the fleet. They appear to have been
originally appointed by the consuls and dictators, but were first
elected by the people, B.C. 311.--(3) DUUMVIRI PERDUELLIONIS.
[PERDUELLIO.]--(4) DUUMVIRI QUINQUENNALES, were the censors in the
municipal towns, and must not be confounded with the _duumviri juri
dicundo_. [COLONIA.]--(5) DUUMVIRI SACRORUM originally had the charge
of the Sibylline books. Their duties were afterwards discharged by
the _decemviri sacris faciundis_. [DECEMVIRI.]--(6) DUUMVIRI were
also appointed for the purpose of building or dedicating a temple.
ECCLĒSĬA (ἐκκλησία), the name of the general assembly of the citizens
at Athens, in which they met to discuss and determine upon matters
of public interest, and which was therefore the sovereign power
in the state. These assemblies were either _ordinary_ (νόμιμοι or
κυρίαι), and held four times in each prytany, or _extraordinary_,
that is, specially convened, upon any sudden emergency, and therefore
called σύγκλητοι. The place in which they were anciently held was
the _agora_. Afterwards they were transferred to the Pnyx, and at
last to the great theatre of Dionysus, and other places. The most
usual place, however, was the Pnyx, which was situated to the west
of the Areiopagus, on a slope connected with Mount Lycabettus, and
partly at least within the walls of the city. It was semicircular in
form, with a boundary wall part rock and part masonry, and an area of
about 12,000 square yards. On the north the ground was filled up and
paved with large stones, so as to get a level surface on the slope.
Towards this side, and close to the wall, was the _bema_ (βῆμα), a
stone platform or hustings ten or eleven feet high, with an ascent
of steps. The position of the _bema_ was such as to command a view
of the sea from behind, and of the Propylaea and Parthenon in front,
and we may be sure that the Athenian orators would often rouse the
national feelings of their hearers by pointing to the assemblage of
magnificent edifices, “monuments of Athenian gratitude and glory,”
which they had in view from the Pnyx.--The right of convening
the people was generally vested in the prytanes or presidents of
the council of Five Hundred [see BOULÉ], but in cases of sudden
emergency, and especially during wars, the strategi also had the
power of calling extraordinary meetings, for which, however, the
consent of the senate appears to have been necessary. The prytanes
not only gave a previous notice of the day of assembly, and published
a programme of the subjects to be discussed, but also, it appears,
sent a crier round to collect the citizens. All persons who did not
obey the call were subject to a fine, and six magistrates called
lexiarchs were appointed, whose duty it was to take care that the
people attended the meetings, and to levy fines on those who refused
to do so. With a view to this, whenever an assembly was to be held,
certain public slaves (Σκύθαι or τοξόται) were sent round to sweep
the agora, and other places of public resort, with a rope coloured
with vermilion. The different persons whom these ropemen met, were
driven by them towards the ecclesia, and those who refused to go were
marked by the rope and fined. An additional inducement to attend,
with the poorer classes, was the μισθὸς ἐκκλησιαστικός, or pay which
they received for it. The payment was originally an obolus, but was
afterwards raised to three. The right of attending was enjoyed by all
legitimate citizens who were of the proper age (generally supposed
to be twenty, certainly not less than eighteen), and not labouring
under any _atimia_, or loss of civil rights.--In the article BOULÉ it
is explained who the prytanes and the proedri were; and we may here
remark, that it was the duty of the proedri of the same tribe, under
the presidency of their chairman (ὁ ἐπιστάτης), to lay before the
people the subjects to be discussed; to read, or cause to be read,
the previous bill (τὸ προβούλευμα) of the senate, without which no
measure could be brought before the ecclesia, and to give permission
to the speakers to address the people. The officers who acted under
them, were the crier (ὁ κήρυξ), and the Scythian bowmen.--Previous,
however, to the commencement of any business, the place was purified
by the offering of sacrifices, and then the gods were implored in
a prayer to bless the proceedings of the meeting. The privilege of
addressing the assembly was not confined to any class or age among
those who had the right to be present: all, without any distinction,
were invited to do so by the proclamation, Τίς ἀγορεύειν βούλεται,
which was made by the crier after the proedri had gone through the
necessary preliminaries, and laid the subject of discussion before
the meeting; for though, according to the institutions of Solon,
those persons who were above fifty years of age ought to have been
called upon to speak first, this regulation had in later times
become quite obsolete. The speakers are sometimes simply called οἱ
παρίοντες, and appear to have worn a crown of myrtle on their heads
while addressing the assembly. The most influential and practised
speakers of the assembly were generally distinguished by the name of
ῥήτορες. After the speakers had concluded, any one was at liberty
to propose a decree, whether drawn up beforehand or framed in the
meeting, which, however, it was necessary to present to the proedri,
that they might see, in conjunction with the _nomophylaces_, whether
there was contained in it anything injurious to the state, or
contrary to the existing laws. If not, it was read by the crier;
though, even after the reading, the chairman could prevent it being
put to the vote, unless his opposition was overborne by threats and
clamours. Private individuals also could do the same, by engaging
upon oath (ὑπωμοσία) to bring against the author of any measure
they might object to, an accusation called a γραφὴ παράνομων. If,
however, the chairman refused to submit any question to the decision
of the people, he might be proceeded against by _endeixis_; and if
he allowed the people to vote upon a proposal which was contrary
to existing constitutional laws, he was in some cases liable to
_atimia_. If, on the contrary, no opposition of this sort was offered
to a proposed decree, the votes of the people were taken, by the
permission of the chairman and with the consent of the rest of the
proedri. The decision of the people was given either by show of
hands, or by ballot, _i.e._ by casting pebbles into urns (καδίσκοι);
the former was expressed by the word χειροτονεῖν, the latter by
ψηφίζεσθαι, although the two terms are frequently confounded. The
more usual method of voting was by show of hands, as being more
expeditious and convenient (χειροτονία). Vote by ballot, on the other
hand, was only used in a few special cases determined by law; as,
for instance, when a proposition was made for allowing those who
had suffered _atimia_ to appeal to the people for restitution of
their former rights; or for inflicting extraordinary punishments on
atrocious offenders, and generally, upon any matter which affected
private persons. In cases of this sort it was settled by law, that
a decree should not be valid unless six thousand citizens at least
voted in favour of it. This was by far the majority of those citizens
who were in the habit of attending; for, in time of war, the number
never amounted to five thousand, and in time of peace seldom to ten
thousand.--The determination or decree of the people was called a
ψήφισμα, which properly signifies a law proposed to an assembly,
and approved of by the people. Respecting the form for drawing up a
ψήφισμα, see BOULÉ.--When the business was over, the order for the
dismissal of the assembly was given by the prytanes, through the
proclamation of the crier; and as it was not customary to continue
meetings, which usually began early in the morning, till after
sunset, if one day were not sufficient for the completion of any
business, it was adjourned to the next. But an assembly was sometimes
broken up, if any one, whether a magistrate or private individual,
declared that he saw an unfavourable omen, or perceived thunder and
lightning. The sudden appearance of rain also, or the shock of an
earthquake, or any natural phenomenon of the kind called διοσημίαι,
was a sufficient reason for the hasty adjournment of an assembly.