CŌLĂCRĔTAE (κωλακρέται, also called κωλαγρέται), the name of very
ancient magistrates at Athens, who had the management of all
financial matters in the time of the kings. Cleisthenes deprived them
of the charge of the finances, which he transferred to the Apodectae.
[APODECTAE.] From this time the Colacretae had only to provide for
the meals in the Prytaneium, and subsequently to pay the fees to the
dicasts, when the practice of paying the dicasts was introduced by
Pericles.
COLLĒGĬUM. The persons who formed a collegium were called _collegae_
or _sodales_. The word collegium properly expressed the notion
of several persons being united in any office or for any common
purpose; it afterwards came to signify a body of persons, and the
union which bound them together. The collegium was the ἑταιρία of
the Greeks. The legal notion of a collegium was as follows:--A
collegium or corpus, as it was also called, must consist of three
persons at least. Persons who legally formed such an association were
said _corpus habere_, which is equivalent to our phrase of being
incorporated; and in later times they were said to be _corporati_,
and the body was called a _corporatio_. Associations of individuals,
who were entitled to have a corpus, could hold property in common.
Such a body, which was sometimes also called a _universitas_, was
a legal unity. That which was due to the body, was not due to the
individuals of it; and that which the body owed, was not the debt
of the individuals. The common property of the body was liable
to be seized and sold for the debts of the body. It does not
appear how collegia were formed, except that some were specially
established by legal authority. Other collegia were probably formed
by voluntary associations of individuals under the provisions of
some general legal authority, such as those of the publicani. Some
of these corporate bodies resembled our companies or guilds; such
were the _fabrorum_, _pistorum_, &c. _collegia_. Others were of a
religious character; such as the _pontificum_, _augurum_, _fratrum
arvalium collegia_. Others were bodies concerned about government and
administration; as _tribunorum plebis_, _quaestorum_, _decurionum
collegia_. According to the definition of a collegium, the consuls
being only two in number were not a collegium, though each was called
collega with respect to the other, and their union in office was
called collegium. When a new member was taken into a collegium, he
was said _co-optari_, and the old members were said with respect to
him, _recipere in collegium_. The mode of filling up vacancies would
vary in different collegia. The statement of their rules belongs to
the several heads of AUGUR, PONTIFEX, &c.
CŎLŌNĬA, a colony, contains the same element as the verb _colere_,
“to cultivate,” and as the word colonus, which probably originally
signified a “tiller of the earth.” (1) GREEK. The usual Greek words
for a colony are ἀποικία and κληρουχία. The latter word, which
signified a division of conquered lands among Athenian citizens,
and which corresponds in some respects to the Roman _colonia_, is
explained in the article CLERUCHI. The earlier Greek colonies, called
ἀποικίαι, were usually composed of mere bands of adventurers, who
left their native country, with their families and property, to
seek a new home for themselves. Some of the colonies, which arose
in consequence of foreign invasion or civil wars, were undertaken
without any formal consent from the rest of the community; but
usually a colony was sent out with the approbation of the mother
country, and under the management of a leader (οἰκιστής) appointed
by it. But whatever may have been the origin of the colony, it was
always considered in a political point of view independent of the
mother country, called by the Greeks _metropolis_ (μητρόπολις), the
“mother-city,” and entirely emancipated from its control. At the
same time, though a colony was in no political subjection to its
parent state, it was united to it by the ties of filial affection;
and, according to the generally received opinions of the Greeks, its
duties to the parent state corresponded to those of a daughter to
her mother. Hence, in all matters of common interest, the colony
gave precedence to the mother state; and the founder of the colony
(οἰκιστής), who might be considered as the representative of the
parent state, was usually worshipped, after his death, as a hero.
Also, when the colony became in its turn a parent, it usually sought
a leader for the colony which it intended to found from the original
mother country; and the same feeling of respect was manifested by
embassies which were sent to honour the principal festivals of the
parent state, and also by bestowing places of honour and other marks
of respect upon the ambassadors and other members of the parent
state, when they visited the colony at festivals and on similar
occasions. The colonists also worshipped in their new settlement
the same deities as they had been accustomed to honour in their
native country: the sacred fire, which was constantly kept burning
on their public hearth, was taken from the Prytaneium of the parent
city; and sometimes the priests also were brought from the mother
state. In the same spirit, it was considered a violation of sacred
ties for a mother country and a colony to make war upon one another.
The preceding account of the relations between the Greek colonies
and the mother country is supported by the history which Thucydides
gives us of the quarrel between Corcyra and Corinth. Corcyra was
a colony of Corinth, and Epidamnus a colony of Corcyra; but the
leader (οἰκιστής) of the colony of Epidamnus was a Corinthian who
was invited from the metropolis Corinth. In course of time, in
consequence of civil dissensions, and attacks from the neighbouring
barbarians, the Epidamnians apply for aid to Corcyra, but their
request is rejected. They next apply to the Corinthians, who took
Epidamnus under their protection, thinking, says Thucydides, that the
colony was no less theirs than the Corinthians’: and also induced to
do so through hatred of the Corcyraeans, because they neglected them
though they were colonists; for they did not give to the Corinthians
the customary honours and deference in the public solemnities and
sacrifices, which the other colonies were wont to pay to the mother
country. The Corcyraeans, who had become very powerful by sea,
took offence at the Corinthians receiving Epidamnus under their
protection, and the result was a war between Corcyra and Corinth.
The Corcyraeans sent ambassadors to Athens to ask assistance; and in
reply to the objection that they were a colony of Corinth, they said,
“that every colony, as long as it is treated kindly, respects the
mother country: but when it is injured, is alienated from it; for
colonists are not sent out as subjects, but that they may have equal
rights with those that remain at home.” It is true that ambitious
states, such as Athens, sometimes claimed dominion over other states
on the ground of relationship; but as a general rule, colonies may be
regarded as independent states, attached to their metropolis by ties
of sympathy and common descent, but no further. The case of Potidaea,
to which the Corinthians sent annually the chief magistrates
(δημιουργοί), appears to have been an exception to the general
rule.--(2) ROMAN. A kind of colonisation seems to have existed among
the oldest Italian nations, who, on certain occasions, sent out their
superfluous male population, with arms in their hands, to seek for a
new home. But these were apparently mere bands of adventurers, and
such colonies rather resembled the old Greek colonies, than those
by which Rome extended her dominion and her name. Colonies were
established by the Romans as far back as the annals or traditions
of the city extend, and the practice was continued, without
intermission, during the republic and under the empire. Colonies
were intended to keep in check a conquered people, and also to
repress hostile incursions; and their chief object was originally
the extension and preservation of the Roman dominion in Italy.
Cicero calls the old Italian colonies the _propugnacula imperii_.
Another object was to increase the power of Rome by increasing the
population. Sometimes the immediate object of a colony was to carry
off a number of turbulent and discontented persons. Colonies were
also established for the purpose of providing for veteran soldiers, a
practice which was begun by Sulla, and continued under the emperors;
these coloniae were called militares. The old Roman colonies were in
the nature of garrisons planted in conquered towns, and the colonists
had a portion of the conquered territory (usually a third part)
assigned to them. The inhabitants retained the rest of their lands,
and lived together with the new settlers, who alone composed the
proper colony. The conquered people must at first have been quite
a distinct class from, and inferior to, the colonists. No colonia
was established without a lex, plebiscitum, or senatusconsultum;
a fact which shows that a Roman colony was never a mere body of
adventurers, but had a regular organisation by the parent state.
When a law was passed for founding a colony, persons were appointed
to superintend its formation (_coloniam deducere_). These persons
varied in number, but three was a common number (_triumviri ad
colonos deducendos_). We also read of _duumviri_, _quinqueviri_,
_vigintiviri_ for the same purpose. The law fixed the quantity of
land that was to be distributed, and how much was to be assigned to
each person. No Roman could be sent out as a colonist without his
free consent, and when the colony was not an inviting one, it was
difficult to fill up the number of volunteers. The colonia proceeded
to its place of destination in the form of an army (_sub vexillo_),
which is indicated on the coins of some coloniae. An urbs, if one
did not already exist, was a necessary part of a new colony, and
its limits were marked out by a plough, which is also indicated on
ancient coins. The colonia had also a territory, which, whether
marked out by the plough or not, was at least marked out by metes
and bounds. Thus the urbs and territory of the colonia respectively
corresponded to the urbs Roma and its territory. Religious ceremonies
always accompanied the foundation of the colony, and the anniversary
was afterwards observed. It is stated that a colony could not be
sent out to the same place to which a colony had already been
sent in due form (_auspicato deducta_). This merely means, that
so long as the colony maintained its existence, there could be no
new colony in the same place; a doctrine that would hardly need
proof, for a new colony implied a new assignment of lands; but new
settlers (_novi adscripti_) might be sent to occupy colonial lands
not already assigned. Indeed it was not unusual for a colony to
receive additions, and a colony might be re-established, if it seemed
necessary, from any cause. The commissioners appointed to conduct the
colony had apparently a profitable office, and the establishment of a
new settlement gave employment to numerous functionaries, among whom
Cicero enumerates--_apparitores_, _scribae_, _librarii_, _praecones_,
_architecti_. The foundation of a colony might then, in many cases,
not only be a mere party measure, carried for the purpose of gaining
popularity, but it would give those in power an opportunity of
providing places for many of their friends.--The colonies founded by
the Romans were divided into two great classes of colonies of Roman
citizens and Latin colonies; names which had no reference to the
persons who formed the colonies, but merely indicated their political
rights with respect to Rome as members of the colony. The members of
a Roman colony (_colonia civium Romanorum_) preserved all the rights
of Roman citizens. The members of a Latin colony (_colonia Latina_)
ceased to have the full rights of Roman citizens. Probably some of
the old Latin colonies were established by the Romans in conjunction
with other Latin states. After the conquest of Latium, the Romans
established colonies, called Latin colonies, in various parts of
Italy. Roman citizens, who chose to join such colonies, gave up their
civic rights for the more solid advantage of a grant of land, and
became LATINI. [CIVITAS.] Such colonies were subject to, and part of,
the Roman state; but they did not possess the Roman franchise, and
had no political bond among themselves.--The lex Julia, passed B.C.
90, gave the Roman franchise to the members of the Latin colonies and
the Socii; and such Latin colonies and states of the Socii were then
called _municipia_, and became complete members of the Roman state.
Thus there was then really no difference between these municipia and
the Roman coloniae, except in their historical origin: the members of
both were Roman citizens, and the Roman law prevailed in both.--In
the colonies, as at Rome, the popular assembly had originally the
sovereign power; they chose the magistrates, and could even make
laws. When the popular assemblies became a mere form in Rome, and the
elections were transferred by Tiberius to the senate, the same thing
happened in the colonies, whose senates then possessed whatever power
had once belonged to the community. The common name of this senate
was _ordo decurionum_; in later times, simply _ordo_ and _curia_; the
members of it were _decuriones_ or _curiales_. Thus, in the later
ages, _curia_ is opposed to _senatus_, the former being the senate of
a colony, and the latter the senate of Rome. But the terms senatus
and senator were also applied to the senate and members of the
senate of a colony. After the decline of the popular assemblies, the
senate had the whole internal administration of a city, conjointly
with the magistratus; but only a decurio could be a magistratus, and
the choice was made by the decuriones. The highest magistratus of
a colonia were the _duumviri_ or _quattuorviri_, so called, as the
members might vary, whose functions may be compared with those of the
consulate at Rome before the establishment of the praetorship. The
name _duumviri_ seems to have been the most common. Their principal
duties were the administration of justice, and accordingly we find
on inscriptions “Duumviri J. D.” (_juri dicundo_), “Quattuorviri
J. D.” The name consul also occurs in inscriptions to denote this
chief magistracy; and even dictator and praetor occur under the
empire and under the republic. The office of the duumviri lasted a
year.--In some Italian towns there was a _praefectus juri dicundo_;
he was in the place of, and not co-existent with, the duumviri. The
duumviri were, as we have seen, originally chosen by the people;
but the praefectus was appointed annually in Rome, and sent to the
town called a _praefectura_, which might be either a municipium or a
colonia, for it was only in the matter of the praefectus that a town
called a praefectura differed from other Italian towns. Arpinum is
called both a municipium and a praefectura; and Cicero, a native of
this place, obtained the highest honours that Rome could confer.--The
_censor_, _curator_, or _quinquennalis_, all which names denote the
same functionary, was also a municipal magistrate, and corresponded
to the censor at Rome, and in some cases, perhaps, to the quaestor
also. Censors are mentioned in Livy as magistrates of the twelve
Latin colonies. The quinquennales were sometimes duumviri, sometimes
quattuorviri; but they are always carefully distinguished from the
duumviri and quattuorviri J. D.; and their functions were those of
censors. They held their office for one year, and during the four
intermediate years the functions were not exercised. The office of
censor or quinquennalis was higher in rank than that of the duumviri
J. D., and it could only be filled by those who had discharged the
other offices of the municipality.
CŎLOSSUS (κολοσσός) is used both by the Greeks and Romans to signify
a statue larger than life; but as such statues were very common, the
word was more frequently applied to designate figures of gigantic
dimensions. Such figures were first executed in Egypt, and were
afterwards made by the Greeks and Romans. Among the colossal statues
of Greece, the most celebrated was the bronze _colossus_ at Rhodes,
dedicated to the sun, the height of which was about 90 feet.
[Illustration: Colum. (Museo Borbonico, vol. viii. pl. 14.)]
CŌLUM (ἠθμός), a strainer or colander, was used for straining
wine, milk, olive-oil, and other liquids. Those that were used as
articles of luxury for straining wine were frequently made of some
metal, such as bronze or silver. Occasionally a piece of linen cloth
(σάκκος, _saccus_) was placed over the τρύγοιπος or _colum_, and the
wine (σακκίας, _saccatus_) filtered through. The use of the _saccus_
was considered objectionable for all delicate wines, since it was
believed to injure, if not entirely to destroy their flavour, and
in every instance to diminish the strength of the liquor. For this
reason it was employed by the dissipated in order that they might be
able to swallow a greater quantity without becoming intoxicated. The
double purpose of cooling and weakening was effectually accomplished
by placing ice or snow in the filter, which under such circumstances
became a _colum nivarium_, or _saccus nivarius_. The preceding
woodcut shows the plan and profile of a silver colum.
CŎLUMBĀRĬUM, a dovecot or pigeon-house, also signified a sepulchral
chamber formed to receive the ashes of the lower orders, or
dependants of great families; and in the plural, the niches in which
the cinerary urns (_ollae_) were deposited.
[Illustration: Ancient Columns.]
CŎLUMNA (κίων, στύλος), a pillar or column. The use of the trunks
of trees placed upright for supporting buildings, unquestionably
led to the adoption of similar supports wrought in stone. As the
tree required to be based upon a flat square stone, and to have
a stone or tile of similar form fixed on its summit to preserve
it from decay, so the column was made with a square base, and was
covered with an _abacus_. [ABACUS.] Hence the principal parts of
which every column consists are three, the base (_basis_), the shaft
(_scapus_), and the capital (_capitulum_). In the Doric, which
is the oldest style of Greek architecture, we must consider all
the columns in the same row as having one common base (_podium_),
whereas in the Ionic and Corinthian each column has a separate base,
called _spira_. The capitals of these two latter orders show, on
comparison with the Doric, a much richer style of ornament; and
the character of lightness and elegance is further obtained in
them by their more slender shaft, its height being much greater in
proportion to its thickness. Of all these circumstances some idea
may be formed by the inspection of the three accompanying specimens
of pillars. The first on the left hand is Doric, the second Ionic,
and the third Corinthian. In all the orders the shaft tapers from
the bottom towards the top. The shaft was, however, made with a
slight swelling in the middle, which was called the _entasis_. It
was, moreover, almost universally channelled or fluted. Columns
were used in the interior of buildings, to sustain the beams which
supported the ceiling. Rows of columns were often employed within
a building, to enclose a space open to the sky. Beams supporting
ceilings passed from above the columns to the adjoining walls, so
as to form covered passages or ambulatories (στοαί). Such a circuit
of columns was called a _peristyle_ (περίστυλον), and the Roman
_atrium_ was built upon this plan. The largest and most splendid
temples enclosed an open space like an atrium, which was accomplished
by placing one peristyle upon another. In such cases, the lower
rows of columns being Doric, the upper were sometimes Ionic or
Corinthian, the lighter being properly based upon the heavier. A
temple so constructed was called _hypaethral_ (ὕπαιθρος). But it was
on the exterior of public buildings, and especially of temples, that
columns were displayed in the most beautiful combinations, either
surrounding the building entirely, or arranged in porticoes on one
or more of its fronts. [TEMPLUM.] Their original and proper use was,
of course, to support the roof of the building; and, amidst all the
elaborations of architectural design, this object was still kept in
view. On the summit of the row of columns rests the _architrave_,
i.e. _chief beam_ (ἐπιστύλιον, _epistylium_): above this is the
_frieze_ (ζωοφόρος, ζωφόρος, _zophorus_), in which the most ancient
order, namely the Doric, shows, in its triglyphs, what were
originally the ends of the cross-beams: in the other orders these
ends are generally concealed, and the frieze forms a flat surface,
which is frequently ornamented by figures in relief, whence its Greek
name. Above the frieze projects the cornice (κορωνίς, _coronis_ or
_corona_), forming a handsome finish to the entablature (for so these
three members taken together are called), and also, on the sides of
the building, serving to unite the ends of the rafters of the roof.
The triangular gable-end of the roof, above the entablature, is
called the _pediment_. [FASTIGIUM.]--Columns in long rows were used
in aquaeducts, and single pillars were fixed in harbours for mooring
ships.--Single columns were also erected to commemorate persons or
events. Among these, some of the most remarkable were the _columnae
rostratae_, called by that name because three ship-beaks proceeded
from each side of them, designed to record successful engagements at
sea. The most important and celebrated of those which yet remain,
is one erected in honour of the consul C. Duillius, on occasion of
his victory over the Carthaginian fleet, B.C. 261. Columns were also
employed to commemorate the dead. The column on the right hand in the
last woodcut exhibits that which the senate erected to the honour of
the Emperor Trajan. Similar columns were erected to the memory of
many of the Roman emperors.
[Illustration: Columna Rostrata. Columna Trajana.]
CŎLUMNĀRĬUM, a tax imposed in the time of Julius Caesar upon the
pillars that supported a house. The _Ostiarium_ was a similar tax.
[OSTIARIUM.] The _columnarium_, levied by Metellus Scipio in Syria in
B.C. 49-48, was a tax of a similar kind, but was simply an illegal
means of extorting money from the provincials.