COENA (δεῖπνον), the principal meal of the Greeks and Romans,
dinner. (1) GREEK. Three names of meals occur in the Iliad and
Odyssey--_ariston_ (ἄριστον), _deipnon_ (δεῖπνον), _dorpon_ (δόρπον).
The word _ariston_ uniformly means the early, as _dorpon_ does the
late meal; but _deipnon_, on the other hand, is used for either,
apparently without any reference to time. In the Homeric age it
appears to have been usual to sit during mealtimes. Beef, mutton,
and goat’s flesh were the ordinary meats, usually eaten roasted.
Cheese, flour, and occasionally fruits, also formed part of the
Homeric meals. Bread, brought on in baskets, and salt (ἃλς, to
which Homer gives the epithet θεῖος), are mentioned. The Greeks
of a later age usually partook of three meals, called _acratisma_
(ἀκράτισμα), _ariston_, and _deipnon_. The last, which corresponds
to the _dorpon_ of the Homeric poems, was the evening meal or
dinner; the _ariston_ was the luncheon; and the _acratisma_, which
answers to the _ariston_ of Homer, was the early meal or breakfast.
The _acratisma_ was taken immediately after rising in the morning.
It usually consisted of bread, dipped in unmixed wine (ἄκρατος),
whence it derived its name. Next followed the _ariston_ or luncheon;
but the time at which it was taken is uncertain. It is frequently
mentioned in Xenophon’s Anabasis, and appears to have been taken at
different times, as would naturally be the case with soldiers in
active service. We may conclude from many circumstances that this
meal was taken about the middle of the day, and that it answered
to the Roman _prandium_. The _ariston_ was usually a simple meal,
but of course varied according to the habits of individuals. The
principal meal was the _deipnon_. It was usually taken rather late
in the day, frequently not before sunset. The Athenians were a social
people, and were very fond of dining in company. Entertainments
were usually given, both in the heroic ages and later times, when
sacrifices were offered to the gods, either on public or private
occasions; and also on the anniversary of the birthdays of members
of the family, or of illustrious persons, whether living or dead.
When young men wished to dine together they frequently contributed
each a certain sum of money, called _symbole_ (συμβολή), or brought
their own provisions with them. When the first plan was adopted,
they were said ἀπὸ συμβολῶν δειπνεῖν, and one individual was usually
entrusted with the money to procure the provisions, and make all the
necessary preparations. This kind of entertainment, in which each
guest contributed to the expense, is mentioned in Homer under the
name of ἔρανος. An entertainment in which each person brought his own
provisions with him, or at least contributed something to the general
stock, was called a δεῖπνον ἀπὸ σπυρίδος, because the provisions
were brought in baskets.--The most usual kind of entertainments,
however, were those in which a person invited his friends to his own
house. It was expected that they should come dressed with more than
ordinary care, and also have bathed shortly before. As soon as the
guests arrived at the house of their host, their shoes or sandals
were taken off by the slaves and their feet washed. After their feet
had been washed, the guests reclined on the couches. It has already
been remarked that Homer never describes persons as reclining, but
always as sitting at their meals; but at what time the change was
introduced is uncertain. The Dorians of Crete always sat; but the
other Greeks reclined. The Greek women and children, however, like
the Roman, continued to sit at their meals. [ACCUBATIO.] It was usual
for only two persons to recline on each couch. After the guests had
placed themselves on the couches, the slaves brought in water to
wash their hands. The dinner was then served up; whence we read of
τὰς τραπέζας εἰσφέρειν, by which expression we are to understand not
merely the dishes, but the tables themselves, which were small enough
to be moved with ease. In eating, the Greeks had no knives or forks,
but made use of their fingers only, except in eating soups or other
liquids, which they partook of by means of a spoon, called μυστίλη,
μύστρον, or μύστρος. It would exceed the limits of this work to give
an account of the different dishes which were introduced at a Greek
dinner, though their number is far below those which were usually
partaken of at a Roman entertainment. The most common food among
the Greeks was the μάζα, a kind of frumenty or soft cake, which was
prepared in different ways. Wheaten or barley bread was the second
most usual species of food; it was sometimes made at home, but more
usually bought at the market of the ἀρτοπῶλαι or ἀρτοπώλιδες. The
vegetables ordinarily eaten were mallows (μαλάχη), lettuces (θρίδαξ),
cabbages (ῥάφανοι), beans (κύαμοι), lentils (φακαῖ), &c. Pork was
the most favourite animal food, as was the case among the Romans.
It is a curious fact, which Plato has remarked, that we never read
in Homer of the heroes partaking of fish. In later times, however,
fish was one of the most favourite foods of the Greeks. A dinner
given by an opulent Athenian usually consisted of two courses, called
respectively πρῶται τράπεζαι and δεύτεραι τράπεζαι. The first course
embraced the whole of what we consider the dinner, namely, fish,
poultry, meat, &c.; the second, which corresponds to our dessert
and the Roman _bellaria_, consisted of different kinds of fruit,
sweetmeats, confections, &c. When the first course was finished, the
tables were taken away, and water was given to the guests for the
purpose of washing their hands. Crowns made of garlands of flowers
were also then given to them, as well as various kinds of perfumes.
Wine was not drunk till the first course was finished; but as soon as
the guests had washed their hands, unmixed wine was introduced in a
large goblet, of which each drank a little, after pouring out a small
quantity as a libation. This libation was said to be made to the
“good spirit” (ἀγαθοῦ δαίμονος), and was usually accompanied with the
singing of the paean and the playing of flutes. After this libation
mixed wine was brought in, and with their first cup the guests
drank to Διὸς Σωτῆρος. With the libations the _deipnon_ closed; and
at the introduction of the dessert (δεύτεραι τράπεζαι) the πότος,
συμπόσιον or κῶμος commenced, of which an account is given under
SYMPOSIUM.--(2) ROMAN. As the Roman meals are not always clearly
distinguished, it will be convenient to treat of all under the most
important one; and we shall confine ourselves to the description of
the ordinary life of the middle ranks of society in the Augustan age,
noticing incidentally the most remarkable deviations. The meal with
which the Roman sometimes began the day was the _jentaculum_, which
was chiefly taken by children, or sick persons, or the luxurious. An
irregular meal (if we may so express it) was not likely to have any
very regular time: two epigrams of Martial, however, seem to fix the
hour at about three or four o’clock in the morning. Bread formed the
substantial part of this early breakfast, to which cheese, or dried
fruit, as dates and raisins, were sometimes added. Next followed the
_prandium_ or luncheon, with persons of simple habits a frugal meal,
usually taken about twelve or one o’clock. The _coena_, or principal
meal of the day, corresponding to our “dinner,” was usually taken
about three o’clock in the time of Cicero and Augustus, though we
read of some persons not dining till near sunset. A Roman dinner
at the house of a wealthy man usually consisted of three courses.
The first was called _promulsis_, _antecoena_, or _gustatio_, and
was made up of all sorts of stimulants to the appetite. Eggs also
were so indispensable to the first course that they almost gave a
name to it (_ab ovo usque ad mala_). The frugality of Martial only
allowed of lettuce and Sicenian olives; indeed he himself tells us
that the _promulsis_ was a refinement of modern luxury. It would far
exceed our limits to mention all the dishes which formed the second
course of a Roman dinner. Of birds, the Guinea hen (_Afra avis_), the
pheasant (_phasiana_, so called from Phasis, a river of Colchis),
and the thrush, were most in repute; the liver of a capon steeped in
milk, and beccaficos (_ficedulae_) dressed with pepper, were held a
delicacy. The peacock, according to Macrobius, was first introduced
by Hortensius the orator, at an inaugural supper, and acquired such
repute among the Roman gourmands as to be commonly sold for fifty
denarii. Other birds are mentioned, as the duck (_anas_), especially
its head and breast; the woodcock (_attagen_), the turtle, and
flamingo (_phoenicopterus_), the tongue of which, Martial tells us,
particularly commended itself to the delicate palate. Of fish, the
variety was perhaps still greater; the charr (_scarus_), the turbot
(_rhombus_), the sturgeon (_acipenser_), the mullet (_mullus_), were
highly prized, and dressed in the most various fashions. Of solid
meat, pork seems to have been the favourite dish, especially sucking
pig. Boar’s flesh and venison were also in high repute: the former is
described by Juvenal as _animal propter convivia natum_. Condiments
were added to most of these dishes: such were the _muria_, a kind of
pickle made from the tunny fish; the _garum sociorum_, made from the
intestines of the mackerel (_scomber_), so called because brought
from abroad; _alec_, a sort of brine; _faex_, the sediment of wine,
&c. Several kinds of _fungi_ are mentioned, truffles (_boleti_),
mushrooms (_tuberes_), which either made dishes by themselves, or
formed the garniture for larger dishes. It must not be supposed that
the _artistes_ of imperial Rome were at all behind ourselves in the
preparation and arrangements of the table. In a large household, the
functionaries to whom this important duty was entrusted were four,
the butler (_promus_), the cook (_archimagirus_), the arranger of the
dishes (_structor_), and the carver (_carptor_ or _scissor_). Carving
was taught as an art, and performed to the sound of music, with
appropriate gesticulations.
----“minimo sane discrimine refert,
Quo vultu lepores, et quo gallina secetur.”
In the supper of Petronius, a large round tray (_ferculum_,
_repositorium_) is brought in, with the signs of the zodiac figured
all round it, upon each of which the _artiste_ (_structor_) had
placed some appropriate viand, a goose on Aquarius, a pair of scales
with tarts (_scriblitae_) and cheesecakes (_placentae_) in each scale
on Libra, &c. In the middle was placed a hive supported by delicate
herbage. Presently four slaves come forward dancing to the sound of
music, and take away the upper part of the dish; beneath appear all
kinds of dressed meats; a hare with wings to imitate Pegasus, in
the middle; and four figures of Marsyas at the corners, pouring hot
sauce (_garum piperatum_) over the fish, that were swimming in the
Euripus below. So entirely had the Romans lost all shame of luxury,
since the days when Cincius, in supporting the Fannian law, charged
his own age with the enormity of introducing the _porcus Trojanus_, a
sort of pudding stuffed with the flesh of other animals.--The third
course was the _bellaria_ or dessert, to which Horace alludes when
he says of Tigellius _ab ovo usque ad mala citaret_; it consisted
of fruits (which the Romans usually ate uncooked), such as almonds
(_amygdalae_), dried grapes (_uvae passae_), dates (_palmulae_,
_caryotae_, _dactyli_); of sweetmeats and confections, called _edulia
mellita_, _dulciaria_, such as cheesecakes (_cupediae_, _crustula_,
_liba_, _placentae_, _artolagani_), almond cakes (_coptae_),
tarts (_scriblitae_), whence the maker of them was called _pistor
dulciarius_, _placentarius_, _libarius_, &c. We will now suppose
the table spread and the guests assembled, each with his _mappa_ or
napkin, and in his dinner dress, called _coenatoria_ or _cubitoria_,
usually of a bright colour, and variegated with flowers. First they
took off their shoes, for fear of soiling the couch, which was often
inlaid with ivory or tortoise-shell, and covered with cloth of gold.
Next they lay down to eat, the head resting on the left elbow and
supported by cushions. There were usually, but not always, three on
the same couch, the middle place being esteemed the most honourable.
Around the tables stood the servants (_ministri_) clothed in a tunic,
and girt with napkins; some removed the dishes and wiped the tables
with a rough cloth, others gave the guests water for their hands,
or cooled the room with fans. Here stood an eastern youth behind
his master’s couch, ready to answer the noise of the fingers, while
others bore a large platter of different kinds of meat to the guests.
Dinner was set out in a room called _coenatio_ or _diaeta_ (which two
words perhaps conveyed to a Roman ear nearly the same distinction
as our dining-room and parlour). The _coenatio_, in rich men’s
houses, was fitted up with great magnificence. Suetonius mentions a
supper-room in the golden palace of Nero, constructed like a theatre,
with shifting scenes to change with every course. In the midst of
the coenatio were set three couches (_triclinia_), answering in
shape to the square, as the long semicircular couches (_sigmata_) did
to the oval tables. An account of the disposition of the couches,
and of the place which each guest occupied, is given in the article
TRICLINIUM.
[Illustration: A Feast. (Vatican Virgil MS.)]