[Illustration: Ground Plan of the Circus.]
CIRCUS. When Tarquinius Priscus had taken the town of Apiolae from
the Latins, he commemorated his success by an exhibition of races
and pugilistic contests in the Murcian valley, between the Palatine
and Aventine hills, around which a number of temporary platforms
were erected by the patres and equites, called _spectacula_,
_fori_, or _foruli_, from their resemblance to the deck of a ship;
each one raising a stage for himself, upon which he stood to view
the games. This course, with its surrounding scaffoldings, was
termed circus; either because the spectators stood round to see
the shows, or because the procession and races went round in a
circuit. Previously, however, to the death of Tarquin, a permanent
building was constructed for the purpose, with regular tiers of
seats in the form of a theatre. To this the name of Circus Maximus
was subsequently given, as a distinction from the Flaminian and
other similar buildings, which it surpassed in extent and splendour;
and hence it is often spoken of as _the_ Circus, without any
distinguishing epithet. Of the Circus Maximus scarcely a vestige now
remains; but this loss is fortunately supplied by the remains of a
small circus on the Via Appia, the ground-plan of which is in a state
of considerable preservation: it is represented in the annexed cut,
and may be taken as a model of all others. Around the double lines
(A, A) were arranged the seats (_gradus_, _sedilia_, _subsellia_), as
in a theatre, termed collectively the _cavea_; the lowest of which
were separated from the ground by a _podium_, and the whole divided
longitudinally by _praecinctiones_, and diagonally into _cunei_, with
their _vomitoria_ attached to each. [AMPHITHEATRUM.] Towards the
extremity of the upper branch of the _cavea_, the general outline
is broken by an outwork (B), which was probably the _pulvinar_, or
station for the emperor, as it is placed in the best situation for
seeing both the commencement and end of the course, and in the most
prominent part of the circus. In the opposite branch is observed
another interruption to the uniform line of seats (C), betokening
also, from its construction, a place of distinction; which might have
been assigned to the person at whose expense the games were given
(_editor spectaculorum_). In the centre of the area was a low wall
(D) running lengthways down the course, which, from its resemblance
to the position of the dorsal bone in the human frame, was termed
_spina_. At each extremity of the spina were placed, upon a base (E,
E), three wooden cylinders, of a conical shape, like cypress trees,
which were called _metae_--the goals. Their situation is distinctly
seen in the cut on p. 89. The most remarkable objects upon the
_spina_ were two columns (F) supporting seven conical balls, which,
from their resemblance to eggs, were called _ova_. Their use was to
enable the spectators to count the number of rounds which had been
run; and they were seven in number, because seven was the number of
the circuits made in each race. As each round was run, one of the
_ova_ was either put up or taken down. An egg was adopted for this
purpose, in honour of Castor and Pollux. At the other extremity of
the spina were two similar columns (G), sustaining dolphins, termed
_delphinae_, or _delphinarum columnae_, which do not appear to have
been intended to be removed, but only placed there as corresponding
ornaments to the _ova_; and the figure of the dolphin was selected in
honour of Neptune. These figures are also seen in the cut on p. 89.
At the extremity of the circus in which the two horns of the _cavea_
terminate, were placed the stalls for the horses and chariots (H,
H), commonly called _carceres_, but more anciently the whole line of
building at this end of the circus was termed _oppidum_: hence in the
circus, of which the plan is given above, we find two towers (I, I)
at each end of the _carceres_. The number of _carceres_ is supposed
to have been usually twelve, as in this plan.
[Illustration: Carceres opening of the Gates. (From a marble at
Velletri.)]
[Illustration: Carceres, with Gates open. (Marble in British Museum.)]
They were vaults, closed in front by gates of open wood-work
(_cancelli_), which were opened simultaneously upon the signal
being given, by removing a rope attached to pilasters of the kind
called _Hermae_, placed for that purpose between each stall, upon
which the gates were immediately thrown open by a number of men, as
represented in the preceding woodcut. The cut below represents a set
of four _carceres_, with their _Hermae_, and _cancelli_ open, as
left after the chariots had started; in which the gates are made to
open inwards. The preceding account and woodcuts will be sufficient
to explain the meaning of the various words by which the _carceres_
were designated in poetical language, namely, _claustra_, _crypta_,
_fauces_, _ostia_, _fores carceris_, _repagula_, _limina equorum_.
There were five entrances to the circus; one (L) in the centre of
the carceres, called _porta pompae_, because it was the one through
which the Circensian procession entered, and the others at M, M, N,
and O. At the entrance of the course, exactly in the direction of the
line (J, K), were two small pedestals (_hermuli_) on each side of
the _podium_, to which was attached a chalked rope (_alba linea_),
for the purpose of making the start fair, precisely as is practised
at Rome for the horse-races during Carnival. Thus, when the doors
of the _carceres_ were thrown open, if any of the horses rushed out
before the others, they were brought up by this rope until the whole
were fairly abreast, when it was loosened from one side, and all
poured into the course at once. This line was also called _calx_,
and _creta_. The _metae_ served only to regulate the turnings of
the course, the _alba linea_ answered to the starting and winning
post of modern days.--From this description the Circus Maximus
differed little, except in size and magnificence of embellishment.
The numbers which the Circus Maximus was capable of containing are
computed at 150,000 by Dionysius, 260,000 by Pliny, and 385,000 by
P. Victor, all of which are probably correct, but have reference
to different periods of its history. Its length, in the time of
Julius Caesar, was three stadia, the width one, and the depth of
the buildings occupied half a stadium. When the Circus Maximus was
permanently formed by Tarquinius Priscus, each of the thirty curiae
had a particular place assigned to it; but as no provision was made
for the plebeians in this circus, it is supposed that the Circus
Flaminius was designed for the games of the commonalty, who in early
times chose their tribunes there, on the Flaminian field. However,
in the latter days of the republic, these invidious distinctions
were lost, and all classes sat promiscuously in the circus. The
seats were then marked off at intervals by a line or groove drawn
across them (_linea_), so that the space included between two lines
afforded sitting room for a certain number of spectators. Under the
empire, however, the senators and equites were separated from the
common people. The seat of the emperor (_pulvinar or cubiculum_)
was most likely in the same situation in the Circus Maximus as in
the one above described.--The Circensian games (_Ludi Circenses_)
were first instituted by Romulus, according to the legends, when he
wished to attract the Sabine population to Rome, for the purpose of
furnishing his own people with wives, and were celebrated in honour
of the god Consus, or Neptunus Equestris, from whom they were styled
_Consuales_. But after the construction of the Circus Maximus they
were called indiscriminately _Circenses_, _Romani_, or _Magni_. They
embraced six kinds of games:--I. CURSUS; II. LUDUS TROJAE; III. PUGNA
EQUESTRIS; IV. CERTAMEN GYMNICUM; V. VENATIO; VI. NAUMACHIA. The two
last were not peculiar to the circus, but were exhibited also in
the amphitheatre, or in buildings appropriated for them. The games
commenced with a grand procession (_Pompa Circensis_), in which all
those who were about to exhibit in the circus, as well as persons of
distinction, bore a part. The statues of the gods formed the most
conspicuous feature in the show, which were paraded upon wooden
platforms, called _fercula_ and _thensae_. The former were borne
upon the shoulders, as the statues of saints are carried in modern
processions; the latter were drawn along upon wheels.--I. CURSUS,
the races. The carriage usually employed in the circus was drawn
by two or four horses (_bigae_, _quadrigae_). [CURRUS.] The usual
number of chariots which started for each race was four. The drivers
(_aurigae_, _agitatores_) were also divided into four companies, each
distinguished by a different colour, to represent the four seasons of
the year, and called a _factio_: thus _factio prasina_, the green,
represented the spring; _factio russata_, red, the summer; _factio
veneta_, azure, the autumn; and _factio alba_ or _albata_, white,
the winter. Originally there were but two factions, _albata_ and
_russata_, and consequently only two chariots started at each race.
The driver stood in his car within the reins, which went round his
back. This enabled him to throw all his weight against the horses,
by leaning backwards; but it greatly enhanced his danger in case
of an upset. To avoid this peril, a sort of knife or bill-hook was
carried at the waist, for the purpose of cutting the reins in a case
of emergency. When all was ready, the doors of the carceres were
flung open, and the chariots were formed abreast of the _alba linea_
by men called _moratores_ from their duty; the signal for the start
was then given by the person who presided at the games, sometimes by
sound of trumpet, or more usually by letting fall a napkin; whence
the Circensian games are called _spectacula mappae_. The _alba linea_
was then cast off, and the race commenced, the extent of which was
seven times round the _spina_, keeping it always on the left. A
course of seven circuits was termed _unus missus_, and twenty-five
was the number of races run in each day, the last of which was called
_missus aerarius_, because in early times the expense of it was
defrayed by a collection of money (_aes_) made amongst the people.
The victor descended from his car at the conclusion of the race, and
ascended the _spina_, where he received his reward (_bravium_, from
the Greek βραβεῖον), which consisted in a considerable sum of money.
[Illustration: Chariot Race in the Circus. (Florentine Gem.)]
The horse-racing followed the same rules as the chariots. The
enthusiasm of the Romans for these races exceeded all bounds. Lists
of the horses (_libella_), with their names and colours, and those
of the drivers, were handed about, and heavy bets made upon each
faction; and sometimes the contests between two parties broke out
into open violence and bloody quarrels, until at last the disputes
which originated in the circus had nearly lost the Emperor Justinian
his crown.--II. LUDUS TROJAE, a sort of sham-fight, said to have been
invented by Aeneas, performed by young men of rank on horseback,
and often exhibited by the emperors.--III. PUGNA EQUESTRIS ET
PEDESTRIS, a representation of a battle, upon which occasions a camp
was formed in the circus.--IV. CERTAMEN GYMNICUM. See ATHLETAE, and
the references to the articles there given.--V. [VENATIO.]--VI.
[NAUMACHIA.]
[Illustration: Cisium. (From monument at Igel, near Treves.)]
CĬSĬUM, a light open carriage with two wheels, adapted to carry two
persons rapidly from place to place. The cisia were quickly drawn
by mules. Cicero mentions the case of a messenger who travelled 56
miles in 10 hours in such vehicles, which were kept for hire at the
stations along the great roads; a proof that the ancients considered
six Roman miles per hour as an extraordinary speed.
[Illustration: Cista. (From a Painting on a Vase.)]
[Illustration]
CISTA (κίστη). (1) A small box or chest, in which anything might
be placed, but more particularly applied to the small boxes which
were carried in procession in the festivals of Demeter and Dionysus.
These boxes, which were always kept closed in the public processions,
contained sacred things connected with the worship of these deities.
In the representations of Dionysiac processions on ancient vases
women carrying cistae are frequently introduced.--(2) The ballot-box,
into which those who voted in the comitia and in the courts of
justice cast their tabellae. It is represented in the annexed cut,
and should not be confounded with the _situla_ or _sitella_, into
which sortes or lots were thrown. [SITULA.]
CISTŎPHŎRUS (κιστοφόρος), a silver coin, which is supposed to belong
to Rhodes, and which was in general circulation in Asia Minor at the
time of the conquest of that country by the Romans. It took its name
from the device upon it, which was either the sacred chest (_cista_)
of Bacchus, or more probably a flower called κιστός. Its value is
extremely uncertain: some writers suppose it to have been worth in
our money about 7¼_d._