CAUPŌNA. (1) An inn, where travellers obtained food and lodging; in
which sense it answered to the Greek words πανδοκεῖον, καταγώγιον,
and κατάλυσις. Inns for the accommodation of persons of all classes
existed among the Greeks and Romans, although they were not equal
either in size or convenience to similar places in modern times.
An inn was also called _taberna_ and _taberna diversoria_, or
simply _diversorium_ or _deversorium_.--(2) A shop, where wine
and ready-dressed meat were sold, thus corresponding to the Greek
καπηλεῖον. The person who kept a caupona was called _caupo_. In
Greek κάπηλος signifies in general a retail trader, who sold goods
in small quantities; but the word is more particularly applied to
a person who sold ready-dressed provisions, and especially wine in
small quantities. In these καπηλεῖα only persons of the very lowest
class were accustomed to eat and drink. In Rome itself there were, no
doubt, inns to accommodate strangers; but these were probably only
frequented by the lower classes, since all persons in respectable
society could easily find accommodation in the houses of their
friends. There were, however, in all parts of the city, numerous
houses where wine and ready-dressed provisions were sold. The houses
where persons were allowed to eat and drink were usually called
_popinae_ and not _cauponae_; and the keepers of them, _popae_. They
were principally frequented by slaves and the lower classes, and
were consequently only furnished with stools to sit upon instead of
couches. The _Thermopolia_, where the _calida_ or warm wine and water
was sold, appear to have been the same as the _popinae_. Many of
these popinae were little better than the _lupanaria_ or brothels;
whence Horace calls them _immundas popinas_. The _ganeae_, which are
sometimes mentioned in connection with the _popinae_, were brothels,
whence they are often classed with the _lustra_. Under the emperors
many attempts were made to regulate the popinae, but apparently
with little success. All persons who kept inns or houses of public
entertainment of any kind were held in low estimation both among
the Greeks and Romans. They appear to have fully deserved the bad
reputation which they possessed, for they were accustomed to cheat
their customers by false weights and measures, and by all the means
in their power.
CAUSĬA (καυσία), a hat with a broad brim, which was made of felt, and
worn by the Macedonian kings. Its form is seen in the annexed figure.
The Romans adopted it from the Macedonians.
[Illustration: Causia, Hat. (From a Painting on a Vase.)]
CAUTĬO, CĂVĒRE. These words are of frequent occurrence, and have a
great variety of significations, according to the matter to which
they refer. Their general signification is that of security given by
one person to another, or security which one person obtains by the
advice or assistance of another. The _cautio_ was most frequently a
writing, which expressed the object of the parties to it; accordingly
the word cautio came to signify both the instrument (_chirographum_
or _instrumentum_) and the object which it was the purpose of the
instrument to secure. Cicero uses the expression _cautio chirographi
mei_. The phrase _cavere aliquid alicui_ expressed the fact of one
person giving security to another as to some particular thing or act.
The word _cautio_ was also applied to the release which a debtor
obtained from his creditor on satisfying his demand; in this sense
cautio is equivalent to a modern receipt; it is the debtor’s security
against the same demand being made a second time. Thus _cavere ab
aliquo_ signifies to obtain this kind of security. _Cavere_ is also
applied to express the professional advice and assistance of a lawyer
to his client for his conduct in any legal matter. _Cavere_ and its
derivatives are also used to express the provisions of a law, by
which any thing is forbidden or ordered, as in the phrase, _Cautum
est lege_, &c. It is also used to express the words in a will, by
which a testator declares his wish that certain things should be done
after his death.
CĔADAS or CAEADAS (κεάδας or καιάδας), a deep cavern or chasm, like
the Barathron at Athens, into which the Spartans were accustomed to
thrust persons condemned to death.
CĔLĔRES, are said by Livy to have been three hundred horsemen,
who formed the body-guard of Romulus both in peace and war. There
can, however, be little doubt that these Celeres were not simply
the body-guard of the king, but were the same as the equites,
or horsemen, a fact which is expressly stated by some writers.
[EQUITES.] The etymology of Celeres is variously given. Some writers
derived it from their leader Celer, who was said to have slain Remus,
but most writers connected it with the Greek κέλης, in reference to
the quickness of their service. The Celeres were under the command
of a _Tribunus Celerum_, who stood in the same relation to the king
as the magister equitum did in a subsequent period to the dictator.
He occupied the second place in the state, and in the absence of the
king had the right of convoking the comitia. Whether he was appointed
by the king, or elected by the comitia, has been questioned, but the
former is the more probable.
CELLA, in its primary sense, means a store-room of any kind. Of these
there were various descriptions, which took their distinguishing
denominations from the articles they contained, as, for instance,
the _cella penuaria_ or _penaria_, the _cella olearia_ and _cella
vinaria_. The slave to whom the charge of these stores was intrusted,
was called _cellarius_, or _promus_, or _condus_, “quia _promit_ quod
_conditum est_,” and sometimes _promus condus_ and _procurator peni_.
This answers to our butler and housekeeper. Any number of small rooms
clustered together like the cells of a honeycomb were also termed
_cellae_; hence the dormitories of slaves and menials are called
_cellae_, and _cellae familiaricae_, in distinction to a bed-chamber,
which was _cubiculum_. Thus a sleeping-room at a public-house is
also termed _cella_. _Cella ostiarii_, or _janitoris_, is the
porter’s lodge. In the baths the _cella caldaria_, _tepidaria_, and
_frigidaria_, were those which contained respectively the warm,
tepid, and cold bath. [BALNEAE.] The interior of a temple, that is
the part included within the outside shell (σηκός), was also called
_cella_. There was sometimes more than one _cella_ within the same
peristyle or under the same roof, in which case each cell took
the name of the deity whose statue it contained, as _cella_ Jovis,
_cella_ Junonis, _cella_ Minervae, as in the temple of Jupiter on the
Capitoline.
CĔNOTĂPHĬUM, a cenotaph (κενός and τάφος), was an empty or honorary
tomb, erected as a memorial of a person whose body was buried
elsewhere, or not found for burial at all.
CENSOR (τιμητής), the name of two magistrates of high rank in the
Roman republic. Their office was called _Censura_ (τιμητεία or
τιμητία). The _Census_, which was a register of Roman citizens and
of their property, was first established by Servius Tullius, the
fifth king of Rome. After the expulsion of the kings it was taken
by the consuls; and special magistrates were not appointed for the
purpose of taking it till the year B.C. 443. The reason of this
alteration was owing to the appointment in the preceding year of
tribuni militum with consular power in place of the consuls; and
as these tribunes might be plebeians, the patricians deprived the
consuls, and consequently their representatives, the tribunes, of
the right of taking the census, and entrusted it to two magistrates,
called _Censores_, who were to be chosen exclusively from the
patricians. The magistracy continued to be a patrician one till B.C.
351, when C. Marcius Rutilus was the first plebeian censor. Twelve
years afterwards, B.C. 339, it was provided by one of the Publilian
laws, that one of the censors must necessarily be a plebeian, but it
was not till B.C. 280 that a plebeian censor performed the solemn
purification of the people (_lustrum condidit_). In B.C. 131 the two
censors were for the first time plebeians.--The censors were elected
in the comitia centuriata held under the presidency of a consul. As
a general principle, the only persons eligible to the office were
those who had previously been consuls; but a few exceptions occur.
At first there was no law to prevent a person being censor a second
time; but the only person, who was twice elected to the office, was
C. Marcius Rutilus in B.C. 265; and he brought forward a law in this
year, enacting that no one should be chosen censor a second time, and
received in consequence the surname of Censorinus.--The censorship
is distinguished from all other Roman magistracies by the length of
time during which it was held. The censors were originally chosen
for a whole lustrum, that is, a period of five years; but their
office was limited to eighteen months, as early as ten years after
its institution (B.C. 433), by a law of the dictator Mam. Aemilius
Mamercinus. The censors also held a very peculiar position with
respect to rank and dignity. No imperium was bestowed upon them,
and accordingly they had no lictors. The _jus censurae_ was granted
to them by a _lex centuriata_, and not by the curiae, and in that
respect they were inferior in power to the consuls and praetors. But
notwithstanding this, the censorship was regarded as the highest
dignity in the state, with the exception of the dictatorship; it was
a _sanctus magistratus_, to which the deepest reverence was due.
They possessed of course the sella curulis. The funeral of a censor
was always conducted with great pomp and splendour, and hence a
_funus censorium_ was voted even to the emperors.--The censorship
continued in existence for 421 years, namely, from B.C. 443 to
B.C. 22; but during this period many lustra passed by without any
censor being chosen at all. Its power was limited by one of the
laws of the tribune Clodius (B.C. 58). After the year B.C. 22 the
emperors discharged the duties of the censorship under the name of
_Praefectura Morum_.--The duties of the censors may be divided into
three classes, all of which were however closely connected with
one another: I. _The Census_, or register of the citizens and of
their property, in which were included the _lectio senatus_, and
the _recognitio equitum_; II. _The Regimen Morum_; and III. _The
administration of the finances of the state_, under which were
classed the superintendence of the public buildings and the erection
of all new public works.--I. The CENSUS, the first and principal
duty of the censors, for which the proper expression is _censum
agere_, was always held in the Campus Martius, and from the year
B.C. 435 in a special building called _Villa Publica_. After the
auspicia had been taken, the citizens were summoned by a public crier
(_praeco_) to appear before the censors. Each tribe was called up
separately, and every paterfamilias had to appear in person before
the censors, who were seated in their curule chairs. The census was
conducted _ad arbitrium censoris_; but the censors laid down certain
rules, sometimes called _leges censui censendo_, in which mention
was made of the different kinds of property subject to the census,
and in what way their value was to be estimated. According to these
laws each citizen had to give an account of himself, of his family,
and of his property upon oath, _ex animi sententia_. First he had
to give his full name (_praenomen_, _nomen_, and _cognomen_) and
that of his father, or if he were a freedman that of his patron,
and he was likewise obliged to state his age. He was then asked,
_Tu, ex animi tui sententia, uxorem habes?_ and if married he had
to give the name of his wife, and likewise the number, names, and
ages of his children, if any. Single women (_viduae_) and orphans
(_orbi orbaeque_) were represented by their tutores; their names
were entered in separate lists, and they were not included in the
sum total of capita. After a citizen had stated his name, age,
family, &c., he then had to give an account of all his property,
so far as it was subject to the census. In making this statement
he was said _censere_ or _censeri_, as a deponent, “to value or
estimate himself,” or as a passive “to be valued or estimated:”
the censor, who received the statement, was also said _censere_,
as well as _accipere censum_. Only such things were liable to the
census (_censui censendo_) as were property _ex jure Quiritium_. Land
formed the most important article in the census; next came slaves and
cattle. The censors also possessed the right of calling for a return
of such objects as had not usually been given in, such as clothing,
jewels, and carriages. We can hardly doubt that the censors possessed
the power of setting a higher valuation on the property than the
citizens themselves had put. The tax (_tributum_) was usually one
per thousand upon the property entered in the books of the censors;
but on one occasion the censors, as a punishment, compelled a person
to pay eight per thousand (_octuplicato censu_, Liv. iv. 24). A
person who voluntarily absented himself from the census, and thus
became _incensus_, was subject to the severest punishment. It is
probable that service in the army was a valid excuse for absence.
After the censors had received the names of all the citizens with the
amount of their property, they then had to make out the lists of the
tribes, and also of the classes and centuries; for by the legislation
of Servius Tullius the position of each citizen in the state was
determined by the amount of his property. [COMITIA CENTURIATA.]
These lists formed a most important part of the _Tabulae Censoriae_,
under which name were included all the documents connected in any
way with the discharge of the censors’ duties. These lists, as far
at least as they were connected with the finances of the state,
were deposited in the aerarium, which was the temple of Saturn; but
the regular depository for all the archives of the censors was in
earlier times the Atrium Libertatis, near the Villa publica, and
in later times the temple of the Nymphs. The censors had also to
make out the lists of the senators for the ensuing lustrum, or till
new censors were appointed; striking out the names of such as they
considered unworthy, and making additions to the body from those who
were qualified. [SENATUS.] In the same manner they held a review of
the equites equo publico, and added and removed names as they judged
proper. [EQUITES.] After the lists had been completed, the number of
citizens was counted up, and the sum total announced; and accordingly
we find that, in the account of a census, the number of citizens is
likewise usually given. They are in such cases spoken of as _capita_,
sometimes with the addition of the word _civium_, and sometimes not;
and hence to be registered in the census was the same thing as _caput
habere_. [CAPUT.]--II. REGIMEN MORUM. This was the most important
branch of the censors’ duties, and the one which caused their office
to be the most revered and the most dreaded in the Roman state. It
naturally grew out of the right which they possessed of excluding
unworthy persons from the lists of citizens. They were constituted
the conservators of public and private virtue and morality; they
were not simply to prevent crime or particular acts of immorality,
but their great object was to maintain the old Roman character and
habits, the _mos majorum_. The proper expression for this branch of
their power was _regimen morum_, which was called in the times of
the empire _cura_ or _praefectura morum_. The punishment inflicted
by the censors in the exercise of this branch of their duties was
called _Nota_ or _Notatio_, or _Animadversio Censoria_. In inflicting
it they were guided only by their conscientious convictions of
duty; they had to take an oath that they would act neither through
partiality nor favour; and in addition to this, they were bound in
every case to state in their lists, opposite the name of the guilty
citizen, the cause of the punishment inflicted on him,--_Subscriptio
censoria_. The consequence of such a nota was only _ignominia_ and
not infamia [INFAMIA], and the censorial verdict was not a _judicium_
or res _judicata_, for its effects were not lasting, but might be
removed by the following censors, or by a lex. A nota censoria was
moreover not valid, unless both censors agreed. The ignominia was
thus only a transitory capitis deminutio, which does not appear even
to have deprived a magistrate of his office, and certainly did not
disqualify persons labouring under it for obtaining a magistracy,
for being appointed as judices by the praetor, or for serving in the
Roman armies. This superintendence of the conduct of Roman citizens
extended so far, that it embraced the whole of the public and private
life of the citizens. Thus we have instances of their censuring
or punishing persons for not marrying, for breaking a promise of
marriage, for divorce, for bad conduct during marriage, for improper
education of children, for living in an extravagant and luxurious
manner, and for many other irregularities in private life. Their
influence was still more powerful in matters connected with the
public life of the citizens. Thus we find them censuring or punishing
magistrates who were forgetful of the dignity of their office or
guilty of bribery, as well as persons who were guilty of improper
conduct towards magistrates, of perjury, and of neglect of their
duties both in civil and military life. The punishments inflicted
by the censors are generally divided into four classes:--1. _Motio_
or _ejectio e senatu_, or the exclusion of a man from the number of
senators. This punishment might either be a simple exclusion from the
list of senators, or the person might at the same time be excluded
from the tribes and degraded to the rank of an aerarian. The censors
in their new lists omitted the names of such senators as they wished
to exclude, and in reading these new lists in public, passed over
the names of those who were no longer to be senators. Hence the
expression _praeteriti senatores_ is equivalent to _e senatu ejecti_.
2. The _ademptio equi_, or the taking away the equus publicus from
an eques. This punishment might likewise be simple, or combined
with the exclusion from the tribes and the degradation to the rank
of an aerarian. [EQUITES.] 3. The _motio e tribu_, or the exclusion
of a person from his tribe. If the further degradation to the rank
of an aerarian was combined with the motio e tribu, it was always
expressly stated. 4. The fourth punishment was called _referre in
aerarios_ or _facere aliquem aerarium_, and might be inflicted on any
person who was thought by the censors to deserve it. [AERARII.]--III.
THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE FINANCES OF THE STATE, was another part
of the censors’ office. In the first place the _tributum_, or
property-tax, had to be paid by each citizen according to the amount
of his property registered in the census, and, accordingly, the
regulation of this tax naturally fell under the jurisdiction of the
censors. [TRIBUTUM.] They also had the superintendence of all the
other revenues of the state, the _vectigalia_, such as the tithes
paid for the public lands, the salt-works, the mines, the customs,
&c. [VECTIGALIA.] All these branches of the revenue the censors
were accustomed to let out to the highest bidder for the space of a
lustrum or five years. The act of letting was called _venditio_ or
_locatio_, and seems to have taken place in the month of March. The
censors also possessed the right, though probably not without the
concurrence of the senate, of imposing new vectigalia, and even of
selling the land belonging to the state. The censors, however, did
not receive the revenues of the state. All the public money was paid
into the aerarium, which was entirely under the jurisdiction of the
senate; and all disbursements were made by order of this body, which
employed the quaestors as its officers. [AERARIUM; SENATUS.]--In one
important department the censors were entrusted with the expenditure
of the public money; though the actual payments were no doubt made
by the quaestors. The censors had the general superintendence of
all the public buildings and works (_opera publica_); and to meet
the expenses connected with this part of their duties, the senate
voted them a certain sum of money or certain revenues, to which
they were restricted, but which they might at the same time employ
according to their discretion. They had to see that the temples and
all other public buildings were in a good state of repair (_aedes
sacras tueri_ and _sarta tecta exigere_), that no public places
were encroached upon by the occupation of private persons (_loca
tueri_), and that the aquaeducts, roads, drains, &c. were properly
attended to. The repairs of the public works and the keeping of them
in proper condition were let out by the censors by public auction to
the lowest bidder. The persons who undertook the contract were called
_conductores_, _mancipes_, _redemptores_, _susceptores_, &c.; and the
duties they had to discharge were specified in the _Leges Censoriae_.
The censors had also to superintend the expenses connected with the
worship of the gods. In these respects it is not easy to define
with accuracy the respective duties of the censors and aediles:
but it may be remarked in general that the superintendence of the
aediles had more of a police character, while that of the censors had
reference to all financial matters.--After the censors had performed
their various duties and taken the census, the _lustrum_ or solemn
purification of the people followed. When the censors entered upon
their office, they drew lots to see which of them should perform this
purification (_lustrum facere_ or _condere_), but both censors were
obliged of course to be present at the ceremony. [LUSTRUM.]--In the
Roman and Latin colonies and in the municipia there were censors,
who likewise bore the name of _quinquennales_. They are spoken of
under COLONIA. A census was sometimes taken in the provinces, even
under the republic; but there seems to have been no general census
taken in the provinces till the time of Augustus. At Rome the census
still continued to be taken under the empire, but the old ceremonies
connected with it were no longer continued, and the ceremony of the
lustration was not performed after the time of Vespasian.--The word
_census_, besides the meaning of “valuation” of a person’s estate,
has other significations, which must be briefly mentioned: 1. It
signified the amount of a person’s property, and hence we read of
_census senatorius_, the estate of a senator; _census equestris_, the
estate of an eques. 2. The lists of the censors. 3. The tax which
depended upon the valuation in the census.
CENSUS.--(1) GREEK.--The Greek term for a man’s property as
ascertained by the census, as well as for the act of ascertaining
it, is τίμημα. The only Greek state concerning whose arrangement
of the census we have any satisfactory information, is Athens.
Previous to the time of Solon no census had been instituted at
Athens. According to his census, all citizens were divided into four
classes: 1. _Pentacosiomedimni_ (Πεντακοσιομέδιμνοι), or persons
possessing landed property which yielded an annual income of at least
500 medimni of dry or liquid produce. 2. _Hippeis_ (Ἱππεῖς), i.e.
knights or persons able to keep a war-horse, were those whose lands
yielded an annual produce of at least 300 medimni, whence they are
also called τριακοσιομέδιμνοι. 3. _Zeugitae_ (Ζευγῖται), i.e. persons
able to keep a yoke of oxen (ζεῦγος), were those whose annual income
consisted of at least 150 medimni. 4. The _Thetes_ (Θῆτες) contained
all the rest of the free population, whose income was below that of
the Zeugitae. The constitution of Athens, so long as it was based
upon these classes, was a timocracy (τιμοκρατία, or ἀπὸ τιμημάτων
πολιτεία). The highest magistracy at Athens, or the archonship,
was at first accessible only to persons of the first class,
until Aristides threw all the state offices open to all classes
indiscriminately. The maintenance of the republic mainly devolved
upon the first three classes, the last being exempted from all taxes.
As the land in the legislation of Solon was regarded as the capital
which yielded an annual income, he regulated his system of taxation
by the value of the land, which was treated as the taxable capital.
Lists of this taxable property (ἀπογραφαί) were kept at first by
the naucrari, who also had to conduct the census, and afterwards
by the demarchi.--As property is a fluctuating thing, the census
was repeated from time to time, but the periods differed in the
various parts of Greece, for in some a census was held every year,
and in others every two or four years. At Athens every person had to
state the amount of his property, and if there was any doubt about
his honesty, it seems that a counter-valuation (ἀντιτίμησις) might
be made. This system of taxation according to classes, and based
upon the possession of productive estates, underwent a considerable
change in the time of the Peloponnesian war, though the divisions
into classes themselves continued to be observed for a considerable
time after. As the wants of the republic increased, and as many
citizens were possessed of large property, without being landed
proprietors, the original land-tax was changed into a property-tax.
This property-tax was called εἰσφορά, concerning which see EISPHORA.
Compare LEITURGIAE; and for the taxes paid by resident aliens,
METOICI.--(2) ROMAN. [CENSOR.]
CENTESĬMA, namely _pars_, or the hundredth part, also called
_vectigal rerum venalium_, or _centesima rerum venalium_, was a tax
of one per cent. levied at Rome and in Italy upon all goods that were
exposed for public sale at auctions. It was collected by persons
called _coactores_. This tax was perhaps introduced after the civil
war between Marius and Sulla. Its produce was assigned by Augustus
to the _aerarium militare_. Tiberius reduced the tax to one half
per cent. (_ducentesima_), after he had changed Cappadocia into
a province, and had thereby increased the revenue of the empire.
Caligula in the beginning of his reign abolished the tax altogether
for Italy.
CENTUMVĬRI, were judices, who resembled other judices in this
respect, that they decided cases under the authority of a
magistratus; but they differed from other judices in being a definite
body or collegium. This collegium seems to have been divided into
four parts, each of which sometimes sat by itself. The origin of
the court is unknown. According to an ancient writer, three were
chosen out of each tribe, and consequently the whole number out of
the 35 tribes would be 105, who, in round numbers, were called the
hundred men. If the centumviri were chosen from the tribes, this
seems a strong presumption in favour of the high antiquity of the
court. It was the practice to set up a spear in the place where
the centumviri were sitting, and accordingly the word _hasta_, or
_hasta centumviralis_, is sometimes used as equivalent to the words
_judicium centumvirale_. The praetor presided in this court. The
jurisdiction of the centumviri was chiefly confined to civil matters,
but it appears that crimina sometimes came under their cognizance.
The younger Pliny, who practised in this court, makes frequent
allusions to it in his letters.