[Illustration: Arae, Altars.]
ĀRA (βωμός, θυτήριον), an altar. _Ara_ was a general term denoting
any structure elevated above the ground, and used to receive upon
it offerings made to the gods. _Altare_, probably contracted from
_alta ara_, was properly restricted to the larger, higher, and
more expensive structures. Four specimens of ancient altars are
given below; the two in the former woodcut are square, and those
in the latter round, which is the less common form. At the top of
three of the above altars we see the hole intended to receive the
fire (ἐσχαρίς, ἐσχάρα): the fourth was probably intended for the
offering of fruits or other gifts, which were presented to the gods
without fire. When the altars were prepared for sacrifice, they were
commonly decorated with garlands or festoons. These were composed
of certain kinds of leaves and flowers, which were considered
consecrated to such uses, and were called _verbenae_. The altars
constructed with most labour and skill belonged to temples; and they
were erected either before the temple or within the cella of the
temple, and principally before the statue of the divinity to whom
it was dedicated. The altars in the area before the temple were
altars of burnt-offerings, at which animal sacrifices (_victimae_,
σφάγια, ἱερεῖα) were presented: only incense was burnt, or cakes and
bloodless sacrifices offered on the altars within the building.
[Illustration: Arae, Altars.]
ĂRĀTRUM (ἄροτρον), a plough. Among the Greeks and Romans the three
most essential parts of the plough were,--the plough-tail (γύης,
_buris_, _bura_), the share-beam (ἔλυμα, _dens_, _dentale_), that
is, the piece of wood to which the share is fixed, and the pole
(ῥυμός], ἱστοβοεύς, _temo_). In the time and country of Virgil
it was the custom to force a tree into the crooked form of the
_buris_, or plough-tail. The upper end of the _buris_ being held by
the ploughman, the lower part, below its junction with the pole,
was used to hold the _dentale_ or share-beam, which was either
sheathed with metal, or driven bare into the ground, according to
circumstances. The term _vomer_ was sometimes applied to the end of
the _dentale_. To these three parts, the two following are added in
the description of the plough by Virgil:--1. The _earth-boards_, or
_mould-boards_ (_aures_), rising on each side, bending outwardly in
such a manner as to throw on either hand the soil which had been
previously loosened and raised by the share, and adjusted to the
share-beam (_dentale_), which was made double for the purpose of
receiving them. 2. The _handle_ (_stiva_). Virgil describes this
part as used to turn the plough at the end of the furrow; and it is
defined by an ancient commentator on Virgil as the “handle by which
the plough is directed.” It is probable that as the _dentalia_,
the two share-beams, were in the form of the Greek letter Λ, which
Virgil describes by _duplici dorso_, the _buris_ was fastened to the
left share-beam and the _stiva_ to the right, so that the plough of
Virgil was more like the modern Lancashire plough, which is commonly
held behind with both hands. Sometimes, however, the _stiva_ was
used alone and instead of the _buris_ or tail. In place of _stiva_
the term _capulus_ is sometimes employed. The only other part of the
plough requiring notice is the coulter (_culter_), which was used by
the Romans as it is with us. It was inserted into the pole so as to
depend vertically before the share, cutting through the roots which
came in its way, and thus preparing for the more complete overturning
of the soil by the share. Two small wheels were also added to some
ploughs. The plough, as described by Virgil, corresponds in all
essential particulars with the plough now used about Mantua and
Venice. The Greeks and Romans usually ploughed their land three
times for each crop. The first ploughing was called _proscindere_,
or _novare_ (νεοῦσθαι, νεάζεσθαι); the second _offringere_, or
_iterare_; and the third, _lirare_, or _tertiare_. The field which
underwent the “proscissio” was called _vervactum_ or _novale_
(νεός), and in this process the coulter was employed, because the
fresh surface was entangled with numberless roots which required
to be divided before the soil could be turned up by the share. The
term “_offringere_” from _ob_ and _frangere_, was applied to the
second ploughing; because the long parallel clods already turned
up were broken and cut across, by drawing the plough through them
at right angles to its former direction. The field which underwent
this process was called _ager iteratus_. After the second ploughing
the sower cast his seed. Also the clods were often, though not
always, broken still further by a wooden mallet, or by harrowing
(_occatio_). The Roman ploughman then, for the first time, attached
the earth-boards to his share. The effect of this adjustment was
to divide the level surface of the “ager _iteratus_” into ridges.
These were called _porcae_, and also _lirae_, whence came the verb
_lirare_, to make ridges, and also _delirare_, to decline from the
straight line. The earth-boards, by throwing the earth to each side
in the manner already explained, both covered the newly-scattered
seed, and formed between the ridges furrows (αὔλακες, _sulci_) for
carrying off the water. In this state the field was called _seges_
and τρίπολος. When the ancients ploughed three times only, it was
done in the spring, summer, and autumn of the same year. But in
order to obtain a still heavier crop, both the Greeks and the Romans
ploughed four times, the proscissio being performed in the latter
part of the preceding year, so that between one crop and another two
whole years intervened.
[Illustration: Aratrum, Plough (now used at Mantua).
1. Buris.
2. Temo.
3. Dentale.
4. Culter.
5. Vomer.
6 6. Aures.]