ORGANIZATIONS
Since 1850, the Indian’s belief in the hereafter has undergone a very
marked change. It is extremely difficult to find individuals, among most
of our tribes, who can give us any clear conception of the Indian’s
religious belief. The Navaho preserve much of their original religion,
for the reason that these Indians have been remote from contact with the
Whites. As has been stated in this book, the greater part of the 28,000
Navaho do not speak English and continue in the faith of their fathers.
There are also scattered tribes or bands of other Indians who keep up,
to a greater or less degree, their religious belief, have confidence in
their shamans, and resort to the white men’s ministers and doctors only
under compulsion. But while this is true, the vast bulk of our Indians
today have adopted the God of our Bible, and recognize his opposite, the
evil spirit. If one takes the pains to read a number of the reports of
competent ethnologists who have studied the religious activities of
various tribes recently, one is impressed with the complications
presented. In fact, it is no reflection on these able and competent
workers and observers to state that it is extremely difficult (if not
impossible) to cover the Indian’s religious belief in one blanket
paragraph or statement. Beliefs vary among different tribes, and we must
go far back of the year 1850 would we find primitive American religion,
practiced in its purity. We cannot now affirm that the religious life of
all tribes is the same; that the deities and spirits are alike.
Generally throughout the United States the tradition of the Thunder Bird
obtains, and it typifies the supernatural. In the desert areas, water is
more precious than soil, or any other necessity. It is therefore quite
natural that the Earth Mother and Water Spirit enter very largely into
the religion of that region. Some of the older Sioux, even in recent
times, believed in spirits, or ghosts, and any Sioux man or woman having
heard the calling of the ghosts at night, prepared himself (or herself)
to join his ancestors in the spirit world. Major McLaughlin presents one
or two instances in his book[51] where Indians have actually given up,
taken to their beds and died, firm in the belief that the ghosts were
calling.
Doctor Eastman in his remarkable book, “The Soul of the Indian,” defines
that indefinite thing, the belief in the supernatural, in a beautiful
and striking manner.
The whole subject of religion among Indian tribes comprehends mythology,
shamanism, totemism, and the taboo. There is so great variance among the
different linguistic stocks as to belief in the supernatural, religious
rites and incantations, that one must study extensively did one desire
to obtain any clear conception of ancient Indian religion. In fact, the
subject is so beset by uncertainties that we may well omit a
consideration of it from this volume. Pure Indian religion—generally
speaking—does not exist in the transition period of today.
We may defer to scientific workers the conflicting beliefs among Indians
of the present. The labors of the missionaries, both Catholic and
Protestant, have instilled into the minds of the Indians the teaching of
our Scriptures. Missionary labors, having continued for more than two
centuries, (and three centuries in some parts of the country) have had
their effect, and as I stated above, the Indian today believes as do
ourselves. As I pointed out in referring to Miss Densmore’s excellent
study of Ojibwa music (_page 20_) all the investigators invariably seek
out the older Indians and glean from them such fragments as remain of
the Indians’ former faith. We never hear of ethnologists talking to
educated Indians, and recording their opinions.
Among the Navaho, the taboo is more strongly pronounced than, possibly,
among other tribes. The totem and the phratry doubtless had their origin
in certain religious beliefs. But these are not observed today, to any
appreciable extent outside of the Navaho and the scattered bands
referred to. We must consider, in studying the Indian of the transition
period, not the exceptions, but that which predominates. This has been
my aim. Many of the lesser important customs and taboo (bordering upon
the religious side of the Indians’ nature) obtain. As an illustration,
the taboo against the mother-in-law is still in effect in many places.
Also, certain rites are performed when a death occurs. Such are clearly
survivals of more primitive beliefs.
In a general review of the Indians’ religion it must be admitted that
while our missionaries and teachers have converted thousands of Indians
and these are today faithful members of churches and missions, it is
doubtful if the bulk of our 330,000 red brothers has been improved
spiritually by contact with the white people. I have presented
sufficient number of specific instances in this book to prove that where
they meet one missionary, priest or teacher, they come in contact with a
dozen white persons ranking spiritually and morally far below American
standards.
Along with the Indian’s religion, he possessed a high sense of honor, or
responsibility, and integrity. Judge Thomas, long a resident of
Oklahoma, informed me of cases wherein Indians under sentence of death,
were permitted by the authorities to visit distant villages for a few
days. There are a number of such instances on record. The Indians
invariably returned and were executed according to law. This occurred
many years ago. If any modern Indian, or white man under sentence of
death, was released by the authorities, it is doubtful if he would
consider himself bound to keep his word.
Because the Indian was cruel to his enemies, it does not necessarily
follow that he was bad. Among every band there were bad and wild young
men who could not be restrained. This has been admitted in the testimony
of Red Cloud, Spotted Tail, and many other prominent Indians. Red Cloud,
from the Indian point of view, considered it no more cruel to kill his
enemies than for us to compel people to work as slaves. He heard we made
women and children labor from daylight to dark. This, as well as our
long hours for mill-hands and laborers, he considered cruelty. He
indicated this in a conversation with me many years ago. One of the
prominent Southwestern Indians, when asked by Colonel Dodge, “Why are
you Indians so cruel?” cited many things of common occurrence among
white people which were considered perfectly proper by them, but which
the Indians would not tolerate. It all depends on one’s point of view.
In condemning Indians for cruelties, we must remember that the
patriarchs of the Old Testament, in the name of religion, destroyed more
innocent persons in a few of their wars than have the Indians in all of
their wars.
I do not agree with the widespread belief that through our general
education of Indians, we have raised their moral and religious tone. We
have improved some thousands, but the greater number of Indians,
observing from the treatment accorded them that we do not practice what
we preach, have less realization of their responsibilities and exhibit
less integrity than formerly. A letter addressed to the average Indian
trader who has done business with Indians more than twenty years, will
bring a reply to the effect that their business obligations were more
faithfully kept in the past than at present.
As to missionary endeavor among the Indians during the past sixty years,
I find that there are upwards of fifty Protestant denominations who
maintain mission stations in various parts of the Indian country. These
include every denomination, but those most prominent are the
Presbyterians, Baptists, Friends, Congregationalists, Methodists,
Episcopalians, Moravians, Lutherans. In addition there are the Home
Missionary Associations (interdenominational) and the National Indian
Association. It is impracticable to present details of their work. The
National Indian Association is one of the strongest of these bodies, and
was organized thirty-five years ago. It has fifty-two stations scattered
throughout the West, and some idea of its good work may be had by the
illustration presented of the Good Samaritan hospital maintained at
Indian Wells, Arizona. (_page 275_).
The educational and humanitarian work of the Association has been the
helping to right political wrongs; gathering of Indian children into
schools; stimulating and preparing capable Indians for wise leadership
among their people; loans of money to Indians to enable them to build
homes or to carry on business. The Association has done a large and
influential educational work, and through its Home Building and Loan
Department has enabled Indians to build homes which have become
civilizing centers of family life. It has also made loans to Indians for
the purchase of implements of labor or for stock needed to begin some
useful and paying industry. By such methods the Association seeks to put
the Indian in a position to earn his own living and to become
self-supporting and self-reliant. It has maintained library, temperance,
hospital, and other departments; trained Indian young women as nurses,
and assisted Indian young men and women to obtain training as physicians
and teachers, some of whom have long been working to help their own
people. The Cambridge (Mass.) branch of this organization is especially
active and has contributed generously. The work of the missions
maintained by the Congregationalists, Episcopalians, Baptists,
Methodists, etc., comprehends general religious education and charitable
work among the Indians.
Rev. Thomas C. Moffett, Chairman of the committee on Indian work of the
“home missions council”, has just published an interesting book
entitled, “The American Indian on the New Trail.” This presents an
excellent review of missionary labors among Indians, including much of a
statistical character. The review is broad, and covers the entire United
States.
The Bureau of Catholic Missions, Washington, has in charge the many
missions maintained by the Catholics. I have visited a number of these
in various parts of the West, along with the Protestant missions, and
find most of them well equipped and doing splendid work.
The California Indian Association has concerned itself more with the
securing of homes for dispossessed Indians. In Chapter XXXI, dealing
with California conditions, the secretary, Mr. C. E. Kelsey, has
commented on the work of the association.
The Indian Rights Association is the most famous of all the benevolent
organizations. Organized in 1882, its work has grown and expanded until
at the present time its activities cover most of the reservations of the
United States. It has frequently been in sharp conflict with the Indian
Office, but at the present time the relations between Commissioner Sells
and his able assistants and this and other organizations, are most
friendly and helpful. The pamphlet, covering the activities of the
organization, the number of steals of land it has prevented, the reforms
instituted, dishonest employees forced out of the Service and all other
recommendations, covers some hundred or more instances and places.
Its corresponding secretary, Mr. Mathew K. Sniffen, returned from Alaska
in September of this year, after having spent three months investigating
the most deplorable condition of the Alaska Indians.
The Indian Industries League of Boston was organized in 1901 and has
done much to encourage arts and industries among certain Indian tribes.
It does not attempt to do missionary work, although it has educated a
number of Indians. In recent years the League has held fairs and
disposed of large quantities of blankets, baskets, bead work, etc., thus
aiding many old Indian women in New Mexico, California, Washington and
elsewhere.
I have always been a believer in the work of these organizations, and I
have no criticism, but rather a suggestion to offer. The missionary and
other organizations had a great opportunity for good during the Messiah
craze, and with one accord they let it pass. At the Lake Mohonk
Conference this year, a minister from South Dakota spoke of the evil
effects of the Messiah craze. In Chapters IX-XI I have described it.
There were no evil effects until the troops and Sitting Bull dominated.
Had the missionaries seized upon the religious mania when it began, they
might have turned it to good account. It was, at first, a purely
religious ceremony of high and noble type.
Among the Indians of Oklahoma there is great religious activity. Last
year I met many native preachers, and heard of numerous meetings at
various campgrounds. I was surprised at the extent of these, and the
number of Indians attending such gatherings. The meetings may be a
trifle sentimental, but the intentions of the worshippers are excellent.
Here is presented a great field for missionary labors, and if the good
people would take full advantage of it, a lasting impression and the
furtherance of religious activity would ensue.
The modern missionary spirit among most of the workers in the field has
changed in recent years. There is more medical activity, more endeavor
to stimulate interest in fairs, school exhibitions, etc. Thus the
Indians are brought nearer the real life and spirit of the missions,
than in the older days where on stated intervals they were assembled for
worship. Aside from mere biblical instruction little was done for them.
This was all right and proper, but the Indian needed more.
The most potent influence in shaping public opinion, with reference to
Indian affairs the past thirty years, has been the annual Conference of
Friends of the Indian and Other Dependent Peoples held each year at Lake
Mohonk. This was begun in 1882 by Honorable Albert K. Smiley. Since Mr.
Smiley’s death, the conferences are continued by Honorable Daniel
Smiley.
At these conferences are assembled men and women from the United States,
Europe and Canada interested in Indian affairs, the Philippines, etc.
The conference consists of addresses by persons familiar with Indian
topics, which are followed by general discussion. For two or three years
the conference seemed to its friends to be somewhat dominated by the
Indian Office, but a few years ago it became again a real open
parliament. Conflicting views are often expressed, and both the dark and
the bright sides of our Indian picture are presented. The conference
last year was devoted almost exclusively to a discussion of Oklahoma
affairs.
An annual report is published and circulated throughout the world. The
meetings have been productive of a great deal of good. Those who attend
are invited as the personal guests of Mr. and Mrs. Smiley and enjoy the
privileges of their magnificent estate in the heart of the Catskills,
while attending the conference.
The Society of American Indians was organized at Ohio State University
in 1911. It came into being in response to a feeling on the part of the
educated Indians of the country that the “Indian problem” could best be
solved through an awakening of the race itself, through its leaders, in
cooperation with white friends.
The organization of the society is due to the efforts of Prof. F. A.
McKenzie of Ohio State University. The founders of the Society were such
men and women as Dr. Charles A. Eastman (Sioux), Dr. Carlos Montezuma
(Apache), Rev. Sherman Coolidge (Arapaho), Laura Cornelius (Oneida),
Henry Standing Bear (Sioux), Charles E. Dagenett (Peoria), Rosa B.
LaFlesche (Chippewa), Arthur C. Parker (Seneca), Thomas L. Sloan
(Omaha), Emma D. Goulette (Potawatomie), Marie L. Baldwin (Chippewa),
Henry Roe-Cloud (Winnebago), and Hiram Chase (Omaha).
The high stand taken by the Society and its elimination of all selfish
motives led to an unqualified endorsement of its objects by the most
earnest friends of the Indian in this country and in Europe.
The Society though only four years old has a membership of about 1500.
Hundreds of the most progressive Indians in the country are members and
almost all trades and professions are represented. More than 500
citizens of the white race, including both men and women, are associate
members of the Society. Most of them have for years demonstrated their
earnest and unselfish interest in the welfare of the Indian and have now
united their interests with the Indian.
The Society is not connected with any other organization. It is governed
entirely by its own membership and has no connection with the Indian
Bureau or the Government. Indians and their friends of every shade of
opinion are members.
The Society of American Indians seeks to bring about better conditions
so that the Indian may develop normally as an American people in
America. The Society has asserted that it believes that the full
response to the duties of life is more important than constant demands
for rights; for with the performance of duties, rights will come as a
matter of course. The Society thus seeks to urge the Indian to avail
himself of every opportunity to learn the ways of “civilized” life, in
order that he may become able to compete and cooperate successfully with
other men. The members believe _Indian progress depends upon awakening
the abilities of every individual Indian to the realization of personal
responsibility, for self, for race and for country, and the duty of
responding to the call to activity_. When the nation remedies the laws
now hindering Indian progress, work, thrift, education and clean morals
will then secure for the Indian all the rights that may be given a man
and a citizen.
The Society is not an organization devoted to complaining. Its aim is to
suggest and bring about better conditions wherein the old evils cannot
exist. The Society does not seek to continually fight over local
matters; it does seek to abolish the cause of the misery and the
disability of the race. It strikes at the root of evil, yet it does not
ignore the individual case of injustice. Nearly one hundred applications
each month come from Indians asking legal information.
The annual platform adopted by the Denver Conference and reaffirmed at
the Wisconsin University Conference in 1914 demands: First, the passage
of the Carter Code Bill, by which a commission will draft a codified
law, recommend new legislation and the abolition of laws no longer
operative; and the establishment of the definite status of every tribe,
band or group of Indians in the United States. The Indian cannot
progress until he knows his legal status and how he may advance from a
lower to a higher civic status; Second, the Society demands the passage
of the amended Stephens Bill, through which the Indians may place their
claims directly in the Court of Claims without specific permission of
Congress in each instance. Indian progress will be retarded as long as
real or fancied claims against the Government are unsettled; Third, the
Society asks that the tribal funds be apportioned to each individual’s
personal account, so that each Indian may know exactly what the nation
holds in trust for him. Individual effort and progress will come with an
awakened interest in personal resources and personal property, as
opposed to bulk holdings; Fourth, better educational advantages and
better sanitary protection are demanded. An ignorant and a sick race
cannot be an efficient, useful race. Wisdom, health and thrift will
bring to the red man the greater rights he craves.
The Society publishes a _Quarterly Journal_ of unique interest. It
contains contributions from the pens of Indians who have the true
welfare of the race at heart, and from friends of the red man who have a
constructive message. All shades of thought are given. The discussion is
open, free and earnest. The editorial board consists of five Indians who
are university graduates. The editor-general is connected officially
with the University of the State of New York. The _Quarterly Journal_ is
a high-grade publication, and is an epoch-making departure in the
history of the race.
There are three general classes of membership, Active, Associate, and
Junior. Active members are persons of Indian blood; Associates are
persons not Indians; Juniors are persons less than twenty-one years of
age.
Each year a national conference is held at some convenient point, and in
connection with some great university. Four successful conferences have
been held. Each has been of great importance to the Indian race and has
assisted materially in bringing the Indian problem to a point where it
is nearer solution.
The old-time, non-English-speaking Indian was reverent towards the
“unknown” or mystery. He did not blaspheme. “Why do the white men ask
the Great Spirit to curse them so often?” This was uttered by a pagan,
White Head, a Cheyenne chief, in the presence of Col. Carrington at Fort
Phil Kearney in 1866.
There were a vast number of good traits in the old Indian and we must
not overlook them. Mr. Wright (_page 314_) has referred to theft. They
stole from other tribes—that was proper—but not from each other.
Frankness was a trait everywhere apparent, and Indians spoke their minds
freely. Deceit was for the enemy—deceit as to trail, purpose, trade and
so forth. Among themselves (in the tribe) there was no such thing as
trickery. Exaggerations were indulged in by story-tellers, of course.
But such deceit as white people practice upon each other was unknown in
the olden days.
All the writers, past and present, agree that the bulk of our Indians
were governed by certain moral codes. There never was a real degenerate
among Indians, until white people came among them. In all our efforts to
uplift the Indian during the present crucial transition period, we
should encourage those good qualities (even though they be tinged with
superstition). We should build upon the natural foundation of Indian
character. If we utterly destroy the past, we cannot save the Indian.
I am no idealist. I am quite aware that there are good Indians and bad
Indians, as there are good white people and bad white people; but I
contend that if there is a general breaking down of the Indian
character—which may or may not be true—it is due to us and not to the
Indian.
As to his sense of honor, and his morality, Leupp presents the
following:—
“Has the Indian a basic sense of moral responsibility sufficiently
robust to be capable of high religious development? Let me tell you a
true story. A number of years ago a group of twenty Indians who had been
in controversy with the authorities in Washington entered into a solemn
pact not to accept certain money which the Government was preparing to
distribute among their tribe in three or four successive payments,
because they believed that that would be a surrender of the principle
for which they had been contending. Later the questions at issue were
cleared up by a judicial decision which left the Indians’ protest not a
leg to stand on. Nineteen of the twenty, including a candidate for the
chiefship who had led the party into their attempt at resistance, bowed
to the inevitable, took the money offered them at the next payment, and
applied for the instalments then in arrears. The twentieth man, whose
English name was Bill, stood out alone in his refusal to touch anything,
but refused to tell why. Soon afterward I visited the reservation on
business, and he sought me privately and opened his heart. He was poor,
and his family were actually in need of some things the money would buy;
so I tried to make him feel more comfortable by assuring him that the
withdrawal of the others from their mutual agreement left him free to do
as he wished.
“‘No,’ he declared; adding, in a phraseology which I shall not try to
imitate, ‘we are all bound by a vow. I swore that I would not take my
share of that money, and I must not. The others may change if they
choose, but they cannot release me from my oath.’
“‘That is honorable, certainly,’ I answered; ‘but if you feel so
strongly about it, why did you come to me for advice?’
“‘There is something you can tell me, and I am afraid to trust the
others. I vowed for myself and not for my family, though they have not
drawn their shares either. Now, can they get their money even if I don’t
touch mine?’
“I said that I could get it for them.
“‘What becomes of my money if I don’t take it?’
“‘It will accumulate in the Treasury, and be paid to your heirs after
your death.’
“‘You have made my heart glad,’ exclaimed Bill, laying his hand
affectionately on my shoulder while his face beamed with satisfaction.
‘That is the way I would have it. I felt right in standing out, but I
did not want my wife and children to suffer if I were wrong.’
“A cynic might find the moral of this story to be that only one Indian
in twenty is high-minded enough to hold his ground against such
temptation. But it would be fairer to temper that judgment with the
inquiry, how the proportions would have arranged themselves in a like
number of any other race?”[52]
Two years ago, when the Board of United States Indian Commissioners met
in Washington, the representatives of practically all the missionary
organizations appeared and a full and frank discussion ensued. It is no
exaggeration to state that all of these persons representing varied
interests (and twenty years ago these very people might have been
considered rivals) left with a resolve to carry on their work with due
regard for the rights of others. It is quite clear that if the Catholics
have a successful mission on Reservation A, and the Presbyterians on
Reservation B, that the good work should continue, and those in charge
of mission A should not seek to establish a post on Reservation B,
unless it is perfectly clear that Mission B is unable to care for more
than a portion of the Indians. That where different denominations are
located on the larger reservations, they should all work in harmony,
looking toward the great purpose for which such worthy organizations
exist.
It is true that the Indians in former years did not understand our
religion, and that confusion existed in the minds of the untutored
aborigines in the past for the very reason that representatives of
different sects worked at cross-purposes. This is said in no disrespect
whatsoever, it is merely a statement of facts. Mr. Leupp presents an
illuminating illustration on this subject.
“Indians are always greatly puzzled by the differences between the
sects, and the appearance of hostility so often assumed by one toward
another. It has little effect to assure them that all the sects are but
parts of one religious body, worshipping the same deity. Doctrinal
subtleties are of course beyond the reach of the ordinary Indian’s mind,
but in matters of discipline he discovers what seem to him serious
incongruities. An old chief once expressed to me his deep concern
because a missionary had warned his children that they would be punished
after death if they broke the Sabbath with their accustomed games, yet
he had seen with his own eyes a missionary playing tennis on Sunday.
Another raised in my presence, with a sly suggestion of satire in his
tone, the question of marriage. One missionary, he told us—referring to
a visit from a Mormon apostle several years before—had four wives, and
said it was good in the sight of the white man’s God; the missionary who
preached at the agency school had only one wife, and said that that was
all right, but it would be wicked for him to marry any more; but the
priest who came once in a while to bless the children had no wife at
all, and said that the white man’s God would be displeased with him if
he took even one.”[53]
The powerful missionary organizations, comprising as they do, hundreds
of earnest workers, will accomplish much more for “Indian uplift” if
they devote their energies to “pagan Whites” as well as to the pagan
Indians. The worst people I have met had white, and not red skins. These
men swarm about all Indian communities. Enough evidence against their
character has been brought before the benevolent organizations and
Washington, to convince the most skeptical. Suppose the Indians of a
certain region were found to be swindling each other, importing whiskey,
gambling, stealing and committing all sorts of crimes. Immediately half
a dozen organizations would raise funds and send their best workers to
“lead the pagans from darkness into light.” It has been clearly shown
that the worst elements of our white race are responsible for the
deplorable condition of thousands of Indians. Yet, I fail to observe any
concerted effort to check this evil at its source. No one seems to
realize that the “pagan White” is vastly more in need of reformation
than his red brother. We have tried to save the Indian—meanwhile
permitting whiskey and graft, immorality and greed, to continue
virtually unchecked. We tell him to be upright, yet we surround him by
examples of civilization, the antithesis of that which we preach. No
wonder the Indian loses faith in us and our culture. Some wealthy man or
woman will do the Indian a great and good service by liberally endowing
a score of missions to labor among the “pagan Whites”, living near (or
in) Indian communities.
[Illustration:
NAVAHO WOMAN WEAVING A BLANKET
From “Indian Blankets and their Makers,” by G. W. James.
]
-----
Footnote 51:
My Friend the Indian, pages 80, 242, 245.
Footnote 52:
The Indian and His Problem, page 303.
Footnote 53:
Page 296.