SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION----BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY.
POTTERY
OF THE
ANCIENT PUEBLOS.
BY
WILLIAM H. HOLMES.
CONTENTS.
Page.
Introductory 265
Pueblo art 266
Distribution 266
Character 266
Treatment 266
The ceramic art 267
Age 267
Material 267
Tempering 267
Construction 268
Surface finish 268
Firing 268
Glaze 268
Hardness 269
Color 269
Form 269
Origin of forms 269
Handles 271
Ornament 271
Origin of ornament 272
Use 272
Classification 272
Coil-made ware 273
Coiling 273
Coiling of the Pueblos 273
Coiling of other peoples 275
Origin of the coil 277
The coil in ornamentation 278
Other varieties of ornament 282
Material 283
Color, etc. 283
Form 283
Use 283
Illustrations of vessels 284
District of the Rio San Juan 284
District of the Rio Virgen 287
District of the Little Colorado 292
Pecos and the Rio Grande 298
District of the Rio Gila 299
Imitation coiled ware 299
Plain ware 299
Painted ware 302
Preliminary remarks 302
Color of designs 302
Execution 302
Stages of ornament 303
Classification of ware 304
White ware 305
Classification by forms 306
Bowls 306
Ollas 306
Bottles 306
Handled vessels 306
Eccentric and life forms 307
Illustrations 307
District of the Rio Virgen 307
Bowls 308
Ollas 314
Handled vessels 314
District of the Rio San Juan 315
Bowls 316
Handled cups 318
Ollas 318
Handled vases 319
District of the Colorado Chiquito 321
Bowls 322
Ollas 335
Bottles 343
Handled vessels 346
Eccentric and life forms 353
Concluding remarks 358
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Fig. 210.--Origin of forms 270
211.--Origin of forms 270
212.--Origin of forms 270
213.--Origin of forms 270
214.--Origin of forms 270
215.--Origin of handles 271
216.--Origin of handles 271
217.--Beginning of the coil 274
218.--Section of coil-made vessel 274
219.--Ordinary superposition of coils 277
220.--Coiled and plain surface 278
221.--Rib-like coil 279
222.--Rib-like coil 279
223.--Indented pattern 280
224.--Thumb-nail indentation 280
225.--Wave-like indentation 281
226.--Wave-like indentation 281
227.--Impressions of finger tips 281
228.--Implement indentations 281
229.--Nail markings 282
230.--Incised lines 282
231.--Incised pattern 282
232.--Applied fillet 283
233.--Examples of relief ornaments 283
234.--Examples of relief ornaments 283
235.--Examples of relief ornaments 283
236.--Examples of relief ornaments 283
237.--Examples of relief ornaments 283
238.--Examples of relief ornaments 283
239.--Vase from a cliff house, Mancos Cañon 285
240.--Vase from Epsom Creek 287
241.--Vase from tumulus at Saint George 288
242.--Vase from tumulus at Saint George 289
243.--Vase from tumulus at Saint George 290
244.--Bowl from tumulus at Saint George 291
245.--Vase from Parowan, Utah 291
246.--Cup from central Utah 292
247.--Vase from Zuñi 293
248.--Vase from Zuñi 294
249.--Mug from Tusayan 294
250.--Vase from Tusayan 295
251.--Vase from Tusayan 296
252.--Vessel from Tusayan 296
253.--Vase from Tusayan 297
254.--Bowl from Cibola 297
255.--Bottle from tumulus at Saint George 300
256.--Vase from tumulus at Saint George 301
257.--Vase from tumulus at Saint George 301
258.--Bowl from tumulus at Saint George 308
259.--Bowl from tumulus at Saint George 309
260.--Bowl from tumulus at Saint George 309
261.--Painted design 310
262.--Bowl from Kanab, Utah 310
263.--Painted design 311
264.--Bowl from Kanab, Utah 311
265.--Painted design 311
266.--Bowl from tumulus at Saint George 312
267.--Painted design 312
268.--Bowl from Tusayan 312
269.--Bowl from tumulus at Saint George 313
270.--Bowl from tumulus at Saint George 313
271.--Pitcher from tumulus at Saint George 314
272.--Bowl from Montezuma Cañon 316
273.--Bowl from San Juan Valley 316
274.--Bowl from San Juan Valley 317
275.--Bowl from San Juan Valley 317
276.--Painted design 318
277.--Handled cup from Montezuma Cañon 318
278.--Handled cup from Montezuma Cañon 318
279.--Vase from San Juan Valley 318
280.--Vase from San Juan Valley 319
281.--Vase lid from San Juan Valley 319
282.--Vase lid from San Juan Valley 319
283.--Handled bottle from San Juan Valley 319
284.--Handled bottle from San Juan Valley 320
285.--Handled mug from San Juan Valley 320
286.--Handled mug from San Juan Valley 320
287.--Handled mug from San Juan Valley 320
288.--Handled mug from southern Utah 320
289.--Bowl from Tusayan 322
290.--Bowl from Tusayan 323
291.--Painted design 323
292.--Bowl from Tusayan 324
293.--Painted design 325
294.--Handled bowl from Tusayan 325
295.--Painted design 326
296.--Original form of painted design 326
297.--Handled cup from Tusayan 327
298.--Handled cup from Tusayan 327
299.--Dipper from Tusayan 327
300.--Dipper from Tusayan 328
301.--Figure of bird 328
302.--Dipper from Tusayan 328
303.--Painted design 329
304.--Painted design 329
305.--Unit of the design 329
306.--Bowl from Tusayan 330
307.--Bowl from Tusayan 331
308.--Bowl from Tusayan 331
309.--Bowl from Tusayan 332
310.--Bowl from Tusayan 332
311.--Painted design 333
312.--Bowl from Tusayan 333
313.--Bowl from Tusayan 334
314.--Vase from Tusayan 334
315.--Vase from Tusayan 335
316.--Vase from Tusayan 335
317.--Vase from Tusayan 336
318.--Vase from Tusayan 336
319.--Painted design 337
320.--Vase from Tusayan 337
321.--Vase from Tusayan 338
322.--Painted design 338
323.--Unit of the design 339
324.--Vase from Tusayan 339
325.--Painted design 340
326.--Unit of the design 340
327.--Vase from Tusayan 341
328.--Painted design 342
329.--Unit of the design 342
330.--Vase from Tusayan 343
331.--Vase from Cibola 343
332.--Vase from Cibola 344
333.--Painted design 345
334.--Painted design 345
335.--Vase from Tusayan 346
336.--Handled vase from Tusayan 346
337.--Painted design 347
338.--Handled mug from Tusayan 347
339.--Painted design 348
340.--Vase from Tusayan 348
341.--Painted design 348
342.--Handled cup from Cibola 349
343.--Painted ornament 349
344.--Painted ornament 349
345.--Painted ornament 350
346.--Painted ornament 350
347.--Vase from Tusayan 350
348.--Vase from Tusayan 351
349.--Bottle from Tusayan 351
350.--Bottle from Tusayan 352
351.--Bottle from Tusayan 352
352.--Vase from eastern Arizona 353
353.--Vase from eastern Arizona 354
354.--Vase from Tusayan 354
355.--Vase from Tusayan 355
356.--Vase from Tusayan 355
357.--Vase from Tusayan 356
358.--Vase from Cibola 357
359.--Vase from Arizona 358
360.--Bird-shaped cup from Tusayan 358
POTTERY OF THE ANCIENT PUEBLOS.
By WILLIAM H. HOLMES.
INTRODUCTORY.
A study of the pottery of the ancient Pueblo peoples is here commenced
in accordance with plans formed years ago by the Director of the Bureau
of Ethnology. His aim was to present to the world a monographic work
upon the splendid material obtained by the Bureau, including with it the
important collections made previously by himself. The preparation of
this work has been postponed from time to time with the view of
completing the collections, which were being enriched by annual visits
to the Pueblo country. Meantime I began the study of the collection for
the purpose of securing at the start a satisfactory classification of
the material on hand.
The present paper is the first result of that study. I have, however,
taken up only the more ancient groups of ware, leaving the rest for
subsequent papers. A comparative study is not attempted, for the reason
that a detailed examination of all the groups to be considered is
absolutely essential to satisfactory results. Conclusions drawn from
partial observations lead generally to error.
There were great difficulties in the way of treating satisfactorily the
modern varieties of ware, as no one had sufficient familiarity with the
language of the Pueblo tribes to discuss the ideographic phases of the
ornamentation. Mr. F. H. Cushing's studies bid fair to supply this want,
and his recent return from Zuñi has led to the preparation of the
valuable paper presented in this volume.
Mr. James Stevenson, who has procured a large portion of the collection
of modern pottery, has published catalogues with copious illustrations.
Most of the cuts have been prepared under my supervision, and have been
selected with the view of securing engravings of a full series of
typical examples for a final work.
PUEBLO ART.
DISTRIBUTION.--The ancient Pueblo peoples dwelt in a land of cañons and
high plateaus. They had their greatest development in the valley of the
Rio Colorado, where they delighted to haunt the shadows of the deepest
gorges and build their dwellings along the loftiest cliffs. The limits
of their territory are still in a measure undefined. We discover
remnants of their arts in the neighboring valleys of Great Salt Lake,
the Arkansas, and the Rio Grande, and southward we can trace them beyond
the Rio Gila into the table-lands of Chihuahua and Sonora.
Thus outlined, we have an area of more than one hundred thousand square
miles, which has at times more or less remote been occupied by tribes of
town-building and pottery-making Indians.
CHARACTER.--High and desert-like as this land is, it has borne a noble
part in fostering and maturing a culture of its own--a culture born of
unusual needs, shaped by exceptional environment, and limited by the
capacities of a peculiar people. Cliff houses and cavate dwellings are
not new to architecture, and pottery resembling the Pueblo ware in many
respects may be found wherever man has developed a corresponding degree
of technical skill; yet there is an individuality in these Pueblo
remains that separates them distinctly from all others and lends a keen
pleasure to their investigation.
TREATMENT.--The study of prehistoric art leads inevitably to inquiries
into the origin of races. Solutions of these questions have generally
been sought through migrations, and these have been traced in a great
measure by analogies in archæologic remains; but in such investigation
one important factor has been overlooked, namely, the laws that govern
migrations of races do not regulate the distribution of arts. The
pathways do not correspond, but very often conflict. The arts migrate in
ways of their own. They pass from place to place and from people to
people by a process of acculturation, so that peoples of unlike origin
practice like arts, while those of like origin are found practicing
unlike arts. The threads of the story are thus so entangled that we find
it impossible to trace them backward to their beginnings.
For the present, therefore, I do not propose to study the arts of this
province with the expectation that they will furnish a key to the origin
of the peoples, or to the birthplace of their arts, but I shall treat
them with reference rather to their bearing upon the processes by which
culture has been achieved and the stages through which it has passed,
keeping always in mind that a first requisite in this work is a
systematic and detailed study of the material to be employed.
THE CERAMIC ART.
AGE.--The ceramic art of the ancient Pueblos is practically a unit. We
find in its remains few indications of distinct periods. There is
nothing to carry us back to a remote past. The oldest specimens known
are nearly as high in the scale as the latest. In the deposits of caves
and burial-grounds we find, so far, nothing more archaic than in the
ruins of once populous villages and beneath the fallen walls of
hewnstone cliff houses. In methods of manufacture and in styles of
ornamentation there is no specific distinction.
Once introduced, there is much in the character of the country to
develop this art. The people were sedentary, and thus able to practice
the art continuously for a long period; and in a country so arid there
was often great need of vessels suitable for the transportation and
storage of water.
MATERIAL.--Nature was lavish in her supply of the material needed.
Suitable clay could be found in nearly every valley, both in the
well-exposed strata and in the sediment of streams. I have noticed that
after the passage of a sudden storm over the mesa country, and the rapid
disappearance of the transient flood, the pools of the arroyos would
retain a sediment of clay two or three inches thick, having a
consistency perfectly suited to the hand of the potter. This I have
taken without tempering and have made imitations of the handsome vases
whose remnants I could pick up on all sides. In drying and burning,
these vessels were liable to crack and fall to pieces; but I see no
reason why, with the use of proper tempering materials, this natural
paste might not be successfully employed. It would not be difficult,
however, to find the native clay among the sedimentary formations of
this district. Usually the clay has been very fine grained, and when
used without coarse tempering the vessels have an extremely even and
often a conchoidal fracture.
TEMPERING.--The materials used in tempering do not often come into
notice. It appears that, in a majority of cases, fine sand, probably
derived from naturally disintegrated rocks, was employed. A large
percentage of rather coarse sand is found in the more roughly finished
coil-made ware, but vessels intended for smooth finish have little
perceptible tempering material.
The speckled appearance of some of the abraded surfaces suggests the use
of pulverized potsherds, a practice frequently resorted to by the modern
tribes. In some localities, notably in the south, we find a slight
admixture of mica, which may have come from the use of pulverized
micaceous rock.
CONSTRUCTION.--No one can say just how the materials were manipulated,
fashioned into vessels, and baked; yet many facts can be gleaned from a
critical examination of the vessels themselves; and an approximate idea
of the various processes employed may be formed by a study of the
methods of modern potters of the same region or of corresponding grades
of culture.
It is evident that the vessels were built and finished by the hands
alone; no wheel was used, although supports, such as shallow earthen
vessels, baskets, and gourds were certainly employed to a considerable
extent. Primitive processes of building have varied considerably. The
simplest method perhaps was that of shaping a single mass of clay by
pressure with the fingers, either with or without the assistance of a
mold or support. The mold would be useful in shaping shallow vessels,
such as plates, cups, and bowls. The walls of vessels of eccentric forms
or having constricted apertures would be carried upward by the addition
of small more or less elongated masses of clay, with no support but the
hand or an implement held in the hand. Casting proper, in regularly
constructed molds, was practiced only by the more cultured races, such
as the Peruvians. A variety of methods may have been employed in the
construction of a single piece.
SURFACE FINISH.--A great deal of attention was given to surface finish.
In the coiled ware the imbricate edges of the fillets were generally
either smoothed down and obliterated entirely, or treated in such a way
as to give a variety of pleasing effects of relief decoration. Vessels
with smooth surfaces, whether built by coiling, modeling, or molding,
very often received a thin coat of fine liquid clay, probably after
partial drying and polishing. This took the place of the enamels used by
more accomplished potters, and being usually white, it gave a beautiful
surface upon which to execute designs in color. Before the color was
applied the surface received a considerable degree of polish by rubbing
with a suitable implement of stone or other material. Attention was
given chiefly to surfaces exposed to view--the interior of bowls and the
exterior of narrow-necked vases.
FIRING.--The firing of the ancient ware seems to have been carefully and
successfully accomplished. The methods probably did not differ greatly
from those practiced by the modern Pueblo tribes. The ware is, as a
rule, light in color, but is generally much clouded by the dark spots
that result from imperfections in the methods of applying the fire. The
heat was rarely great enough to produce anything like vitrifaction of
the surface, and the paste is seldom as hard as our stone ware.
GLAZE.--A great deal has been said about the glaze of native American
wares, which exists, if at all, through accident. The surface of the
white ware of nearly all sections received a high degree of mechanical
polish, and the effect of firing was often to heighten this and give at
times a slightly translucent effect; a result of the spreading or
sinking of the coloring matter of the designs.
HARDNESS.--The paste exposed in fractured edges can be scratched with a
steel point, and often with ease. Some of the white pottery of ancient
Tusayan can be carved almost as readily as chalk or sun-dried clay. At
the same time all localities furnish occasionally specimens that through
the accidents of firing have the ring and hardness of stoneware. The
ancient pottery is generally superior in hardness to that produced by
the historic tribes.
COLOR.--This pottery presents a pleasing variety of color, although the
light grays prevail, especially in the more archaic varieties. The
general color probably depended greatly upon the natural constituents of
the clay and the degree of heat applied, and these conditions varied
with the locality and the people. Reds and browns result from the
presence of iron, which may have been oxidized in burning, or the red
oxides may have been used in rare cases as coloring matter in kneading
the clay. The surface is often lighter than the mass; a condition
probably resulting from the presence of vegetable matter in the clay,
which is destroyed on the surface and remains unchanged within. In the
south the colors of the paste are often slightly reddish or yellowish in
hue. It is notable that a small percentage of the ware of all localities
is red. This gives rise to the suggestion that vessels of this color
probably had some especial or sacred use. Color is known to have an
intimate connection with superstitious observances among many barbarian
peoples.
FORM.--In form the ancient ware is universally simple and pleasing. Many
shapes known to both civilized and barbarian art are absent. High-necked
bottles and shallow plates are of rare occurrence, and pitchers,
canteens or lenticular bottles, and vessels with legs and stands are
unknown. There is a notable dearth of life forms, a circumstance that
would seem to indicate the rather tardy development of a taste for
modeling--a condition which may have resulted from the comparatively
recent origin or introduction of art in clay.
Vessels with full globular bodies prevail. The bottoms are generally
round or a little pointed, indicating primitive conditions of life and
suggesting great simplicity in methods of manufacture and in the models
copied.
_Origin of Forms._--There can be no doubt that ceramic forms are to a
great extent derivative, and the search for their originals will
constitute a most important feature in our studies. Turning to nature
for possible originals, we find them liberally supplied by both the
animal and the vegetable kingdom. The shells of the sea shore were
probably among the first receptacles for food and drink. We have
examples of pottery from the mounds in the Mississippi Valley,
representing three or four distinct varieties of shells. The shells of
turtles and the horns of cattle and other animals have also served as
models.
[Illustration: FIG. 210.--Origin of forms.]
[Illustration: FIG. 211.--Origin of forms.]
The vegetable world furnishes many originals; the gourd, for example,
was utilized at a very early date. Its forms are greatly varied, and
must have given rise to many primitive shapes of vessels in clay, and
perhaps in wicker-work and wood. One of the ordinary forms cut off
midway would suggest the series of bowls outlined in Fig. 210. Simply
perforated it would give rise to the series illustrated in Fig. 211.
[Illustration: FIG. 212.--Origin of forms.]
[Illustration: FIG. 213.--Origin of forms.]
[Illustration: FIG. 214.--Origin of forms.]
Wide-mouthed vases would be suggested as indicated in Fig. 212, bottles
as shown in Fig. 213, and eccentric forms as seen in Fig. 214.
These particular examples are presented in illustration of the manner in
which forms may be derived and nothing more, as there are many possible
origins of the same forms. In a separate paper I have amplified this
topic, and have discussed the relative importance of the influence of
natural and artificial products upon the conformation of utensils of
clay.
HANDLES.--In searching for the first suggestions of handles we must
certainly go back to the very beginnings of art, when men and women
employed leaves or vines to carry their children or their food, or to
suspend them for safety from the trees of the forest. The art of
basketry would naturally fall heir to this use of handles. Clay, bronze,
and iron, when they came into use, would also inherit some of the forms
thus developed. There are, however, other sources of equal importance,
among which are animal forms, such as horns, and various forms of
vegetable growth, such as the gourd. The latter may again serve as an
illustration.
By cutting the body of the gourd longitudinally at one side of the axis,
we have dippers with straight or curved necks or handles. The primitive
potter would in like manner have the suggestion of a handled vessel in
clay, which, carried forward by the ever active spirit of improvement,
would in time give us the series shown in Figs. 215 and 216:
[Illustration: FIG. 215.--Origin of handles.]
[Illustration: FIG. 216.--Origin and development of handles]
ORNAMENT.--The shapes of vessels are, in a measure, ornamental, but it
is difficult to say just how much the necessary or functional characters
of particular forms have given way to decorative modifications. Pure
ornament is a feature not essential to the vessel. Its ideas may be
expressed by three principal methods: by relieved, by flat, and by
intaglio figures.
Relief ornament was not extensively employed by the ancient Pueblos. The
forms are few and simple, and nearly all are traceable to constructional
or to functional features. Thus the ornamental crenulated surface of the
coiled ware is constructional, consisting as it does of ridges,
resulting from the method of building. The knobs, isolated coils, and
festooned fillets are probably, in some cases, atrophied forms of
handles.
Intaglio decoration is still more rare. It consists of incised,
impressed, and punctured figures. No designs of importance are produced
by this method, the most notable being the simple patterns traced by the
finger or a sharp implement upon the relieved edges of fillets in the
coiled ware.
With these people, the highest class of decoration consisted of designs
in color. This topic is fully discussed in a subsequent section.
_Origin of ornament._--It is probable that before pottery came into use
the decorative art had been cultivated in other fields, and we shall
need to look both to nature and to antecedent arts for the originals of
many decorative ideas.
From a remote period man has been able to appreciate beauty. The first
exercise of taste would probably be in the direction of personal
adornment, and would consist in the choice of colors or articles thought
to enhance attractiveness, or in the grouping and modification of
objects at first functional in character. Later, taste would be
exercised on a variety of subjects, and finally it would extend to all
things in use. Man may have recognized the comeliness of the first
simple articles employed in his humble arts, but when he came to attempt
the multiplication of these articles artificially, utility was probably
the only thought. In reproducing them, however, non-essential features
would be copied automatically, and the work of art would through this
accident inherit purely ornamental attributes.
Thus it appears that the first ideas of decoration do not necessarily
originate in the mind of the potter, but that, like the shapes of art
products, they may be derived, unconsciously, from nature. This is an
important consideration. At a later stage new forms of ornament are
derived in a like manner from constructional features of the various
arts. Invention of decorative motives is not to be expected of a
primitive, tradition-following people. Advance is greatly by utilization
of accidents.
USE.--A satisfactory classification of this pottery by functional
characters will be most difficult to make. In the early stages of its
manufacture it was confined chiefly, if not solely, to the alimentary
arts. A differentiation of use would take place when certain vessels
were set aside for special departments of the domestic work. Thus we
would have vessels for eating, for cooking, for carrying, and for
storage. When vessels came to be used in superstitious exercises,
certain forms were probably set aside for especial ceremonies. With some
peoples, particular forms were dedicated to mortuary uses, but we have
no clew to any such custom among the ancient Pueblos, as the same vessel
served for food both before and after death, and cinerary vessels were
not called for. Certain classes of the ruder and plainer ware are found
to be blackened by smoke. These were evidently cooking vessels. The
painted pottery rarely shows evidences of such use. Bowls were probably
employed chiefly in preparing and serving food. The larger vessels were
devoted to carrying and storing water, fruits, grains, and miscellaneous
articles. Smaller vessels were used as receptacles for paint, grease,
and the like. The ancient people had not yet devoted their ceramic art
to trivial uses--there are no toys, no rattles, and no grotesque
figures.
CLASSIFICATION.--In treating a subject covering so wide a field, and
embracing such a diversity of products, a careful classification of the
material is called for. Three grand divisions of the ceramic work of
this province may be made on a time basis, namely: prehistoric,
transitional, and modern. At present I have to deal chiefly with the
prehistoric, but must also pay some attention to the transitional, as it
embraces many features common both to the archaic and to the modern art.
In discussing the prehistoric pottery I find it convenient to consider
it under the three heads, coiled ware, plain ware, and painted ware.
This classification is unsatisfactory, as it is based upon somewhat
imperfectly differentiated characters. The smooth vessel is in many
cases a coil-built one with obliterated coils, and a painted vessel a
smooth one with the addition of designs in color. Very little of the
pottery was left plain, but the coiled and painted varieties are fully
represented in every locality.
I place the coiled ware first because to all appearances it is the most
archaic variety and one which is rarely made at the present day. I
suspect that the pieces made by modern potters serve to supply the wants
of the collectors rather than to meet the requirements of traditional
art. Among the collections in the National Museum are found many crude
attempts to manufacture this ware by potters who did not comprehend the
secrets of its construction, or who thought to produce the coiled effect
by the cheap device of scarifying and indenting the surface of a plain
vessel.
Close relations are established between the coiled and the painted
pottery, not only by the identity of materials, form, color, and time,
but by the union of the two methods of finishing, the coiling and
painting, in one and the same vessel, as may be seen in the examples
given in in the following pages.
COIL-MADE WARE.
COILING.--The art of building vessels by means of coils of clay has been
practiced by many widely separated communities, and is, therefore,
certainly not peculiar to the ancient Pueblos. A careful study of the
ceramic field shows considerable diversity in the treatment of the coil.
The most striking variation, the employment of the coil as a means of
embellishment, is, so far as my observation extends, peculiar to the
Pueblo peoples. With others it is a feature of construction simply.
The preliminary steps are with all primitive potters in a general sense
the same. The first care is to secure suitable clay and to have it
properly purified and tempered. After this the treatment varies greatly.
_Coiling of the Pueblos._--The ancient Pueblo potter rolled out long,
slender fillets or ropes of clay, varying in width and thickness to suit
the size and character of the vessel to be constructed. They were
usually perhaps from one-fourth to one-half of an inch in thickness.
When they were properly trimmed and smoothed the potter began by taking
the end of a single strip between his fingers and proceeded to coil it
upon itself, gradually forming a disk, as shown in Fig. 217, which
represents the base of a large vase from the San Juan Valley.
[Illustration: FIG. 217.--Beginning of the coil.]
[Illustration: FIG. 218.--Section of coil-made vessel.]
At first the fillets overlapped only a little, but as the disk grew
large and was rounded upward to form the body of the vessel, the
imbrication became more pronounced. The fillet was placed obliquely, as
shown in the section, Fig. 218, and was exposed on the exterior side to
probably one-half of its width. Strip after strip of clay was added, the
ends being carefully joined, so that the continuity might not be broken
until the vessel was completed. The rim generally consisted of a broad
strip, thickened a little at the lip, and somewhat recurved. The
exterior imbricate edges were carefully preserved, while those on the
inner surface were totally obliterated, first by pressure, and finally
by smoothing down with an implement, or with the fingers, imprints of
the latter being frequently visible. So thoroughly were the fillets
pressed down and welded together that the vessels seldom fracture more
readily along the lines of junction than in other directions.
The fact that the spiral ridges of the bottom are frequently without
abrasion, as shown in Fig. 217, suggests an idea in regard to the
manipulation of the coil. While building the upper part of the vase the
base would necessarily rest upon some sort of support and the soft
ridges would suffer from abrasion. In preventing such defacement, an
interior support, such as a mold or the base of another vessel, must
have been used, in which case the vessel was necessarily built in an
inverted position. At the same time it is clear that this would be
practicable only with bowls or with very wide-mouthed vessels, as the
mold, if rigid, could not be removed through a restricted aperture.
In pressing the coil down, in welding it to the preceding turn, internal
support would be necessary, as otherwise the strain would warp the
walls. A curved trowel or a rounded pebble could be used as long as the
aperture would admit the hand, but no support excepting the fingers, or
an implement shaped for the purpose, could be used beyond this stage.
The whole process was a most delicate one, requiring patience and skill.
In this respect it contrasted strongly with the coiling of other
peoples. As indicated by numerous specimens, the coil was sometimes laid
on the inside of a shallow basket or bowl, the surface of the vessel
showing a combination of basket-markings and nearly obliterated spiral
creases. This device served a good purpose in starting the vessel, the
upper part being completed by free-hand coiling.
_Coiling of other peoples._--The art, as practiced by the Indians of
Louisiana, is graphically described by Dumont. The following paragraph
is translated from his work:
"Moreover, the industry of these (savage) girls and women is admirable.
I have already alluded to the skill with which, with their fingers only,
and without a wheel, they make large pieces of pottery. The following is
their method of work: After having collected a quantity of the proper
kind of earth, and having cleaned it thoroughly, they take shells which
they break up and reduce to a very fine, loose powder; they mix this
fine dust with the earth which they have collected, and, moistening the
whole with a little water, work it with their hands and feet into a
paste, from which they make rolls six or seven feet long and as thick as
they may desire. If they wish to make a dish or a vase, they take one of
these rolls by the end, and marking on this lump with the thumb of the
left hand the center of the vessel, they turn the roll around this
center with admirable rapidity and dexterity, describing a spiral. From
time to time they dip their fingers into the water, which they are
always careful to have near them, and, with the right hand, they flatten
the inside and the outside of the vase, which without this would be
uneven. In this way they make all kinds of earthen utensils, dishes,
plates, bowls, pots, and jugs, some of which hold as much as 40 or even
50 pints. This pottery does not require much preparation for baking.
After having dried it in the shade, they make a large fire, and as soon
as they think they have enough embers they clean a place in the middle,
and, arranging the pieces of pottery, cover them with charcoal. It is
thus that the pieces are given the necessary heating (cooking), after
which they are as strong as our pottery. There is no doubt but that we
must attribute their strength to the mixture which these women make of
powdered shells with the earth which they employ."[1]
Professor C. F. Hartt has furnished many facts in regard to the
manufacture of pottery by the Brazilian Indians. According to his
account the women of Santarem model the bottom of a vessel from a lump
of clay in the usual way. Then "a piece of clay is rolled under the hand
into a long, rope-like cylinder. This rope is then coiled around the
edge of the bottom of the vessel, being flattened sidewise by pinching
with the fingers of the left hand, and caused to adhere to the bottom.
On this, coil after coil is laid in like manner, each being flattened as
before. After a few have been added they are worked into shape with
the fingers, which are occasionally moistened in water, and the
irregularities produced by the coils are caused to disappear. The vessel
is formed by the hand alone and the surface is smoothed down by means of
a bit of gourd or a shell, which is from time to time dipped in water.
If the vessel be large it is now set away in the shade for a while to
dry a little, after which new coils are added as above, no other
instrument being used except the hands and the gourd or shell, with
which alone the vessel may receive not only an extremely regular form,
but also a very smooth surface. * * * The coils are so worked together
that from a simple inspection of the vessel it is impossible to
determine how it was built up. I should never have suspected that the
pottery of Pacoval had been made by coiling, were it not that I found
the coils still ununited on the inner surface of the heads of idols."[2]
Prof. Hartt states, also, on the authority of Dr. de Magalhaes, that the
pottery of the several tribes of the Araquaya River is always made by
coiling, the surface being worked down by the hand and water and the aid
of a spoon-like trowel made of bamboo. Humboldt makes a similar
statement in regard to the tribes of the Orinoco.
Mr. E. A. Barber[3] relates, on the authority of Captain John Moss, a
resident, for a long time, of southwestern Colorado, that the Ute
Indians manufacture pottery at the present time, and that they probably
follow the methods of the Mokis, from whom they learned the art.
[1] Mémoires sur la Louisiane. Butel-Dumont. Vol. II, pp. 271-273.
Paris, 1753.
[2] Hartt: American Naturalist, February, 1879, pp. 83-86.
[3] Barber: American Naturalist, Vol. X, p. 412.
Captain Moss states that "They use marl, which they grind between two
rocks to a very fine powder. They then mix this with water and knead it
as we would dough. Afterwards they roll it out into a rope-like state
about one inch in diameter and several yards in length. They then
commence at the bottom of the jar, or whatever vessel they may be
making, and coil the clay-rope layer on layer until they have the bottom
and three inches of the sides laid up. The tools for smoothing and
joining the layers together are a paddle made out of wood and perfectly
smooth, and an oval-shaped polished stone." Both of these tools are
dipped in the water (salt water is preferred), the stone is held in the
left hand and on the inside of the vessel, and the paddle is applied
vigorously until the surfaces are smooth. The method thus described by
these authors was, probably, almost universally practiced.
[Illustration: FIG. 219.--Ordinary superposition of coils. Section.]
I have specimens from a number of the Eastern and Southern States that
fracture along the line of junction, showing clearly the width of the
fillets and the manner of their attachment. I picked up a small specimen
at Avoca, North Carolina, which has broken along the line of junction,
giving the section illustrated in Fig. 219. It will be seen that there
is no overlapping as in the Pueblo work, the attachment being
accomplished by pressure and by drawing both edges of the coil down over
the convex edge of the preceding coil. I have similar specimens from the
modern Pueblos, from Florida, from Mexico, and from Brazil. It will
readily be seen that this method of building differs essentially from
that practiced so successfully by the ancient Pueblos.
ORIGIN OF THE COIL.--This use of the coil is but a refinement of the
most simple possible method of construction, that of building by the
addition of small masses of clay. A disk or shallow cup can be formed
successfully by the fingers alone from a single lump of clay, but to
carry the wall upward by pressure or by blows from a paddle would result
in a weak, frayed edge. To counteract or prevent this tendency small
elongated masses are used, which are laid one upon another along the
growing margin. From this, in the most natural manner possible, we
arrive at the use of the long, even rope or fillet. The imbrication or
overlapping of the coil practiced by the Pueblos may have originated in
the effort to secure a more stable union of the parts which had to be
welded together by pressure. It would also almost necessarily arise from
the attempt to lay the coil upon or within a mold or support. There is a
possibility that it may have been suggested by features of construction
observed in other arts--the overlapping parts of a roof, of a plate or
scale garment, or of a coiled basket. The latter is especially
suggestive, since we must generally look for the origin of features of
the ceramic art in the features of closely associated arts.
THE COIL IN ORNAMENTATION.--Ordinarily the coil has not been expected to
contribute to the beauty of the vessel, but the Pueblo tribes made it a
prominent feature in decoration. The primitive potter as he laid his
rude coils noticed that the ridges thus produced served to enhance the
appearance of the vessel. He also observed that the series of
indentations left on the outer surface of the fillet in pressing it down
gave a pleasing effect, and made use of the suggestion. Improving upon
the accidents of manufacture, he worked out a variety of decorative
devices.
In some cases the coiled ridges are confined to particular parts of the
vessel, the other parts having been worked down or originally
constructed by plain modeling. Numerous examples have the body quite
plain, the collar alone retaining the spiral ridges of the coil. Fig.
251 illustrates a very good example of this peculiarity.
[Illustration: FIG. 220.--Coiled and plain surface. Section.]
The fragment shown in Fig. 220 is from the neck of a pot-shaped vase.
The surface has been plain below and the fillets of the upper part have
been pressed down evenly with the thumb, leaving the extreme edge of the
overlapping band in sharp relief, as shown more clearly in the section.
The whole coil is sometimes left plain, as in Figs. 221 and 222, in
which cases the edges have been carefully pressed down and smoothed with
the fingers.
[Illustration: FIG. 221.--Rib-like coil. Section.]
[Illustration: FIG. 222.--Rib-like coil. Section.]
A great variety of devices were resorted to to diversify and decorate
the ribbed spirals, and in this the innate good taste of the Indian
exhibits itself to much advantage. The coil is often indented or crimped
throughout, from the center of the bottom to the rim of the vessel. At
times a few turns at the beginning are left plain, as shown in Fig. 217,
while again alternate bands, consisting of several turns each, are not
crimped, as clearly brought out by an example from Southern Utah,
illustrated in the Art Review for July, 1874, by F. W. Putnam, and also
by two fine specimens recently collected by E. W. Nelson near
Springerville, Arizona.
The decided taste of this ancient people for ornament is still further
indicated by attempts to elaborate more intricate patterns by means of
thumb-nail indentations. The idea may have been borrowed from basketry.
The fragment given in Fig. 223 illustrates the method of procedure. We
have some very fine vessels of this class from Springerville, and others
from the province of Tusayan in which the entire surface is covered with
checkered or meandered patterns. An excellent example is shown in Fig.
253. We shall appreciate the cleverness of this work more fully when we
remember that the separate thumb indentations forming the figures of the
pattern are made in each coil as it is laid and pressed into place and
before the succeeding turn is made.
[Illustration: FIG. 223.--Indented pattern.]
[Illustration: FIG. 224.--Nail indentations.]
These curious decorative effects were still further elaborated by
diversifying the character of the indentations of the coil. In Fig. 224
we have a most successful effort in this direction. The fillets are
alternately crimped and plain. The thumb, in pressing down the one, has
been applied with such force that the nail has cut entirely through it,
indenting the plain layer below and causing the two to coalesce. This
specimen was obtained from the cañon of the Rio Mancos.
Certain districts are particularly rich in remains of this peculiar ware
and furnish many examples of crimped ornament. The remarkable
desert-like plateau lying north of the Grand Cañon of the Colorado
contains many house and village sites. At intervals along the very brink
of the great chasm we come upon heaps of stones and razed walls of
houses about which are countless fragments of this ware. These are
identical in nearly every character with the pottery of Saint George on
the west, of the San Juan on the east, and of the Gila on the south. A
few miles south of Kanab stands a little hill--an island in the creek
bottom--which is literally covered with the ruins of an ancient village,
and the great abundance of pottery fragments indicates that it was, for
a long period, the home of cliff-dwelling peoples. In no other case have
I found so complete an assortment of all the varieties of
coil-ornamentation. All the forms already given are represented and a
number of new ones are added.
[Illustration: FIG. 225.--Wave-like indentation.]
[Illustration: FIG. 226.--Wave-like indentation.]
In the example given in Fig. 225 the fillets are deeply indented, giving
a wave-like effect. Another pretty variety is seen in Fig. 226.
[Illustration: FIG. 227.--Impressions of finger-tips.]
[Illustration: FIG. 228.--Implement indentations.]
One of the most successful of these archaic attempts at relief
embellishment is illustrated in the fragment shown in Fig. 227. The
raised edge of the fillet is pinched out at regular intervals, producing
rows of sharp-pointed "beads." Over the entire surface impressions of
the fine lines of the finger-tips are still distinctly visible. The
dotted lines show the direction of the coil.
The indenting was not always done with the thumb or finger-tips, but a
variety of implements were used. The vase, of which Fig. 228 shows a
small fragment, had a figure worked upon it by indenting the soft coils
with a sharp implement.
[Illustration: FIG. 229.--Nail markings.]
The coil ridges were sometimes worked down into more regular forms by
means of an implement and were left plain or were interrupted by
transverse lines. Lines of nail marking are shown in Fig. 229. These
lines are occasionally combined in rude patterns.
[Illustration: FIG. 230.--Incised lines.]
In the specimen illustrated in Fig. 230, incised lines are drawn across
the ridges of the coil.
[Illustration: FIG. 231.--Incised pattern.]
OTHER VARIETIES OF ORNAMENT.--I have already remarked that certain
styles of decoration are confined to somewhat definite geographic
limits. In the ancient Pueblo district we find that painted designs and
coil ornaments are co-extensive, while within this area there are but
rare examples of incised designs, stamped figures, or cord-marking. We
find basket indentations, but these are in all cases the accidents of
manufacture. The coil has often been laid upon the inner surface of a
basket.
The fragment shown in Fig. 231 was picked up on the site of an ancient
Pueblo village near Abiquiu, New Mexico. It is a portion of the neck and
upper part of the body of a small vase which was covered by a simple
pattern of intaglio lines, produced with a bone or wooden stylus.
Ornaments in relief, aside from the coil and forms resulting directly
from its use, were sparingly employed and are of comparatively little
interest. They consist of straight, curved, or crimped fillets, applied
to the surface of the vessel as shown in Fig. 232. Additional examples
are given in Figs. 233, 234, and 235.
Nodes, cones, and other forms are also used as seen in Figs. 236, 237,
and 238. These are usually placed about the neck of the vessel,
occupying the places of the handles.
[Illustration: FIG. 232.--Applied fillet.]
MATERIAL.--The clay used in this ware was in some sections tempered with
a large percentage of rather coarse silicious sand, which gives to the
surface a rough, granular look. In the south the paste seems to be finer
grained than in the northern districts.
COLOR, ETC.--The color of the paste is generally gray, but in the
province of Tusayan it is frequently yellow. In some cases the surface
has received a wash of fine liquid clay, and a few bowls from the Little
Colorado and Gila Valleys have designs in white paint covering the
exterior surface. This ware is always well baked and extremely hard.
[Illustration:
FIG. 233. FIG. 234. FIG. 235.
FIG. 236. FIG. 237. FIG. 238.
Examples of relief ornaments.]
FORM.--The forms are not nearly so varied as are those of the painted
ware. The leading variety is a round-bodied, wide-mouthed olla or pot,
with flaring rim. Bottles are of rare occurrence, and bowls are not
nearly so plentiful as in other varieties of pottery. Life and eccentric
forms are occasionally found. Many small vessels of the more elongated
shapes are furnished with handles, which are in most cases placed
vertically upon the neck, and consist of single or double bands or ropes
or of two or more strands twisted together.
USE.--As a rule the forms are such as have been devoted by most peoples
to culinary uses, and in many cases the entire exterior surface is
coated with soot. Plain vessels of similar outlines are used by the
modern tribes of this province for cooking and serving food. Examples
having very neatly or elaborately finished surfaces have apparently not
been used over a fire. Those of large size doubtless served for the
transportation and storage of water.
ILLUSTRATIONS OF VESSELS.