ONIONS.

The onion is exceptional in that it will thrive under a very wide range

of climatic and soil conditions. There is perhaps no extended area in

the United States, except the mountainous regions, where the onion can

not be successfully grown. For best results a temperate climate without

great extremes of heat and cold should be selected. Onion culture is

rarely profitable in regions where the climate does not change or has

no definite seasons of heat and cold or wet and dry. Naturally the

onion does best under rather cool conditions, with plenty of moisture

during its early stages, but requires a reasonable degree of heat,

together with dryness of both soil and atmosphere, for its proper

ripening.

_Soils._--The essential requirements of a soil upon which to grow

onions profitably are a high state of fertility, good mechanical

condition in order that the crop may be easily worked, sufficient

drainage, and freedom from weeds. If a soil has the proper mechanical

properties--that is, if it contains sufficient sand and humus to be

easily worked, is retentive of moisture and fertilizers, and is capable

of drainage--all other requirements can be met. As a general rule

new land is not adapted to onion growing until it has been worked one

or two years with other crops. Onions should follow some crop that

has been kept under the hoe and free from weeds the previous season.

Corn, beans, and potatoes are suitable crops with which to precede

onions. Muck and sandy soils may in some cases be brought to a suitable

condition for onions the first season, but the fitting will have to be

very thoroughly performed. The land should be plowed in the autumn,

then replowed in the spring, after which numerous harrowings and

doubtless some hand work will be required to get the soil in suitable

shape. If necessary to manure the land heavily before planting to

onions, it will be desirable to plant to some farm crop one season,

then apply the manure during the autumn in order to give it time to

become incorporated with the soil. Owing to the value of good onion

land it would not be advisable to devote it to general farm crops for

any extended period, although corn is frequently planted and oats or

rye are sometimes used in the North. Cowpeas may be of great service in

bringing new land into shape for planting to onions.

_Preparation of the Soil._--Assuming that the land intended for

planting to onions is capable of being brought to a good mechanical

condition, fertile, well drained, and reasonably free from weed seeds,

the first step in the production of the crop will be to plow moderately

deep, then harrow, disk, roll, and drag until the soil is smooth and

mellow to a depth of 4 or 5 inches. On soils that are naturally well

drained and where surface water can not accumulate, the plowing may be

done in large blocks, but where the opposite conditions are found or

irrigation is practiced it may be necessary to plow the land in narrow

beds. In the case of insufficient drainage it will be desirable to

throw the soil together into beds, leaving a double furrow between each

bed to carry off surplus water. Where the flooding system of irrigation

is practiced the beds must be leveled and a system of ditches and

ridges provided for distributing and controlling the water.

_Crop Rotation._--Onions should not be planted on the same piece of

land year after year, and some system of crop rotation should be

maintained. Care should be taken, however, to use crops in the rotation

that will not be exhaustive of the high fertility necessary in the

onion land. During the years when the land is not devoted to onions it

can be planted to some truck crop that will give a return that will

justify the application of large quantities of fertilizers, or, better

to a leguminous crop to be turned under as green manure. Continuous

cropping with onions will cause the land to become infested with both

disease and insect enemies that will sooner or later injure the crop to

such an extent as to render it unprofitable.

_Fertilizers._--As the onion is an intensive crop and yields great

quantities of marketable bulbs for the area planted, the grower is

justified in manuring heavily. It would be difficult indeed to make

the soil too rich for onions, provided the manures are thoroughly

incorporated with the soil. A heavy application of fresh raw manure

just before planting would have an injurious effect, but where the

manure is well rotted and uniformly applied there is nothing to be

feared.

_Animal Manures._--There is perhaps no fertilizer so well adapted to

the production of onions as plenty of clean, well-composted stable

manure, and the quantity and frequency of application will depend upon

the nature of the land under cultivation. All stable manure used on

onion land should be well composted before use and then spread upon

the land several months before planting to onions. In the Northern

States the manure may be applied during the autumn and well disked into

the soil. The land can then be allowed to lie in the rough state and

exposed to the action of frost during the winter, or it can be smoothed

and seeded to rye, in which case it will be necessary to replow during

the early springtime. Large quantities of fresh manure applied to

onion land just before planting will have a tendency to produce an

overgrowth of tops at the expense of the bulbs. This is especially true

on irrigated lands and soils that are naturally moist.

_Commercial Fertilizers._--Where there is an abundance of humus matter

in the soil the onion crop will be greatly benefited by moderate

applications of high-grade commercial fertilizers. Many growers follow

the practice of applying only a part of the fertilizer at planting

time, reserving the balance to be put on as a top-dressing at some time

during the period of cultivation. This plan is especially desirable

where onions are grown during the winter, as the application of highly

nitrogenous fertilizers in the autumn is liable to promote a soft

growth that will be injured by cold. If the fertilizer is not put on

until cold weather is over, the crop may be forced without danger of

injury. For this purpose only those fertilizers of a very available

form will answer.

_Planting and Thinning._--Experienced growers are frequently able by

using extreme care in regulating the drills to distribute onion seed

in rows where the crop is to mature so that little thinning will be

necessary. Thinning is generally left until the time of the first hand

weeding, when all thick bunches along the rows are thinned to a uniform

stand of eight or ten plants to the foot. It is always well, however,

to allow for considerable loss of plants, and unless the plants are so

thick as to actually crowd, thinning will not be necessary.

_Transplanting._--The transplanting process, often spoken of as the

"new onion culture," is merely a modification of the regular seeding

method. The objects gained by transplanting are an earlier crop, a

uniform stand, and bulbs of more regular size. Where a small area is

to be grown, the transplanting process is the ideal method, but for

large acreages and where labor is difficult to obtain, this would not

be practical. After transplanting, the seedlings will require rain

or watering in order that they may start, and for this reason the

transplanting process is practically limited to areas where some form

of irrigation is available. In growing onions by the transplanting

method the seed is sown in greenhouses, hotbeds, cold frames, or

specially prepared beds at the rate of 3-1/2 or 4 pounds for each acre

to be planted. When the seedlings are grown under cover, they are given

the necessary attention regarding watering and ventilation and kept

growing quite rapidly until near the time for setting them in the open

ground. As planting time approaches, the seedlings are "hardened" or

prepared for transplanting by increased ventilation and exposure and by

withholding water. When ready to transplant, the seedlings should be

somewhat smaller than a lead pencil and rather stocky. The plants are

lifted from the seed bed and the roots and tops both trimmed somewhat.

_Methods of Tillage._--The cultural requirements of the onion are

frequent shallow stirring of the soil and freedom from weeds. The

feeding roots of the onion run close to the surface of the soil and

should not be disturbed by deep cultivation. Sometimes a heavy rain

immediately after seeding will so pack the surface that the seedlings

can not break through. Under such circumstances it will be necessary

to slightly break the surface by means of a steel rake or a rake-like

attachment on a cultivator. As soon as the plants are up and the rows

can be followed the cultivator should be started to loosen the soil,

which is always more or less compacted during seeding. It is well-nigh

impossible to produce a crop of onions without some hand weeding.

During favorable seasons the strictly hand work may be reduced to but

one or two weedings, but a greater number will be necessary during

rainy seasons. The work of hand weeding may be facilitated by the

use of some of the small hand tools designed for the purpose. Among

these tools might be mentioned the onion hoe, the hand weeder, and the

thinning or weeding hook.

_Irrigation._--Outside of the areas where irrigation methods are

depended upon for the production of general crops it is not customary

to use artificial watering in the growing of onions.

_Harvesting._--In the North the bulbs are allowed to become as ripe

as possible before removing them from the soil. Growers prefer that the

tops ripen down and shrivel and that the outer skin of the bulbs be

dry before they are pulled. To the southward, where the onions are not

cured so thoroughly, they are often pulled about the time that the tops

begin to break and fall. The ripening process may often be hastened by

rolling a very light roller or a barrel over the tops to break them

down. This process is frequently spoken of as "barreling." Where the

bulbs are practically upon the surface they may be pulled by hand and

thrown in windrows consisting of eight or ten onion rows. If the onion

bulbs are considerably covered with soil it will be necessary to employ

a one-horse plow or a cultivator with a sweep attached for lifting

them. In any case it will be necessary to gather them from the soil by

hand. After lying in the windrows for several days and being stirred

occasionally with wooden rakes they are gone over and the tops removed

either by twisting or cutting with ordinary sheep shears. In cases

where very bright color is important as with fancy White Globe onions,

and this would be injured by exposure to the sun and rain, the bulbs

are cured in long, narrow, low ricks formed by two rows of onions laid

with the bulbs regularly to the center, tops to the outside, the rows

a few inches apart at the bottom of the rick but coming together at the

top, and the top of the rick covered by straw or boards to shed the

rain. As the tops are removed the bulbs are generally placed in crates

for drying. In some sections onion-topping machines are employed,

the bulbs being hauled from the field to a central location and run

through the topper. These machines remove the tops, grade the bulbs,

and deliver them into the crates or bags. If crates are not employed

for curing, the bulbs are allowed to lie in the windrows for some time,

and are then either put into sacks or hauled to slat cribs, where they

complete the curing process. Too long exposure to hot sunshine will

injure the bulbs. Where the bulbs are extremely dry at the time of

their removal from the soil, they may be allowed to lie in the windrows

for a few days only, and then sorted and cleaned in the field ready for

packing and marketing.

_Storage._--In order that onions should keep well when stored they must

be well ripened and thoroughly cured. Those that are immature, soft,

or "thick necks" should never be placed in storage but sold as soon

as gathered for whatever price they will bring. Good storage onions

will rattle almost like blocks of wood when poured from one crate to

another. In order that the bulbs may remain bright and of attractive

appearance they should not be allowed to lie exposed to the weather,

but should be hauled and stored in open sheds just as soon as they may

safely be placed in one-bushel crates. After the bulbs have remained

in drying sheds or cribs for several weeks they will be ready for

screening and removal to the storehouse. In handling onions it is the

rule to pass them over a screen each time they are moved, as in this

way the loose skins are removed and any soft or decaying bulbs may be

sorted out. The essentials for the successful storage of onions are

plenty of ventilation, storing in small quantities, a comparatively low

temperature, dryness, and safety from actual freezing. Any building

wherein the above conditions may be secured will answer.

_Marketing._--Large quantities of onions are sold and shipped direct

from the fields where they are grown. A part of the crop is held in

temporary storage until late autumn or early winter. During recent

years the winter storage of onions has become of great importance

and the finest stock is held for late winter deliveries. The Bermuda

crop from the southwestern part of the country comes upon the market

during April and May, so that most of the storage onions are disposed

of before that time. In marketing onions the first essential is to

properly grade and clean the bulbs, in order that they may present an

attractive appearance when offered for sale. Ordinarily the bulbs are

separated into three grades--primes, seconds, and picklers. The primes

include all those of 1-1/4 inches, in diameter and larger, and the

seconds consist of those from 3/4 inch to 1-1/4 inches in diameter,

while all those that will pass through a 3/4-inch screen are sold for

pickling purposes. The grading is generally done in the field during

the cleaning process, but as onions shrink considerably while in

storage it is necessary to regrade before placing upon the market.

_Weight of Onions._--The legal weight of onions per bushel varies

somewhat in different States, but 56 pounds of dry onions are generally

considered a standard bushel.

_Important Commercial Varieties._--The varieties of onions that have

distinctively yellow, white, and red skins and are of the globular type

are of greatest commercial importance. Among the varieties that belong

to the yellow globe class are the Prizetaker, Yellow Danvers, Yellow

Globe, Danvers, Southport Yellow Globe, and Ohio Yellow Globe. The

principal white varieties are Southport White Globe, New Queen, Italian

Tripoli, Silver Skin, and White Silver King. Among the more important

red sorts are Red Globe, Red Wethersfield, and Australian Brown. The

principal Bermuda varieties are Red Bermuda, White Bermuda and Crystal

Wax. The Bermuda onions are all of the more or less flat type. The

red coloration of the Bermuda onion is not distinctive like that of

the Red Wethersfield or Red Globe varieties, but is lighter in color.

The famous Denia onion is somewhat of the Prizetaker type, is light

yellow in color, grows to a large size, and is mild in flavor. In the

selection of varieties for any particular locality the soil conditions

and market requirements should both be considered. Those adapted to

the muck soils are the yellow and red sorts. For alluvial and prairie

soils the red and brown varieties are to be preferred, while all kinds

do well on the sandy loams and light soils. A cleaner, better grade of

white onions can generally be produced on light or sandy soils than

on muck or clay loams. Those of the Bermuda, Spanish, and Egyptian

types flourish on the deep, rich alluvial soils of the river bottoms

and delta regions. Certain of our markets show a decided preference

for onions belonging to a particular type. The red and brown varieties

find ready sale on the markets of the Middle West, while onions of

the yellow and white varieties are preferred in the eastern cities.

Onions will withstand long-distance shipment, those of the Red Globe

type being generally more subject to injury than the yellow and brown

sorts. Some of the white varieties also have a thin skin and are easily

injured. It should be the aim of every grower to employ varieties that

will withstand handling and at the same time find ready sale on the

market. Other types of onions are top onions, multipliers, garlic, and

leeks, which are planted to some extent for marketing purposes.

_Bermuda Onions._--The production of Bermuda onions in the United

States is a comparatively new industry and has thus far been undertaken

mainly in Texas and California. Soils of a silty or alluvial nature

are suited to the production of Bermuda onions, and those containing

considerable sand are most desirable. The Bermuda requires a very rich

soil for the best results, and this can only be obtained by first

selecting a good soil and then manuring heavily. The Bermuda onion

as grown in this country is a winter crop; therefore, mild climatic

conditions are required. While the plants would withstand considerable

freezing, their growth is seriously checked by cold weather, and the

crop will not mature in time for the early market if grown to the

northward. The cultural methods employed in the growing of Bermuda

onions are essentially the same as those for ordinary onions. As the

greater portion of the crop is grown in a region which has no regular

rainfall, irrigation methods are employed almost universally. The

greater part of the crop is grown by the transplanting process and a

great amount of hand labor is required. Bermuda onions are harvested

as early as possible, generally before the tops have become fully

ripened. Phenomenal yields of 34,000 and 35,000 pounds of Bermuda

onions are frequently made on an acre of land, but this is far above

the general average, which is in the neighborhood of 10,000 or 12,000

pounds to the acre. Many fields, especially when planted for the first

time, do not yield as much as 10,000 pounds to the acre. On land that

has been heavily manured and planted to onions for several years the

yield averages about 16,000 pounds. The best Bermuda-onion farms are

valued at $300 to $500 an acre. In order to prove profitable, the

growing of Bermuda onions should be conducted on a comparatively large

scale. The necessary land and irrigation facilities will require

the initial outlay of from $10,000 to $30,000, and the running

expenses are quite heavy. Labor can be secured at a low price, but

is correspondingly inefficient and often not to be had in sufficient

quantities. Furthermore, the markets are now pretty well supplied with

Bermuda onions, and persons who desire to engage in their production

are advised to investigate every phase of the industry before embarking

too heavily in it. The expansion of the Bermuda-onion industry is

limited by the facts that a large supply of bulbs can be grown on a

comparatively small area, that the distance to market is great, that

the product is perishable, and that the markets will consume only a

limited quantity at the prices at which the crop can be sold with

profit.

_Green Onions for Bunching._--Another phase of onion culture that is

of considerable importance in certain localities is the production of

young bunching onions for the early spring trade. In several sections

along the South Atlantic coast the growing of this class of onions is

quite an enterprise. Many persons who are engaged in other lines of

work follow the practice of growing a small area of bunching onions

as a side issue. The varieties known as multipliers and top onions

are generally employed for this purpose; however, bunching onions are

sometimes grown from ordinary sets, from inferior and damaged large

onions, and from seed. The multipliers and top onions are the only

kinds adapted for this work on a large scale. For growing bunching

onions the bulbs or sets are planted during the autumn either in beds

or in rows 12 or 14 inches apart with the bulbs quite close in the

rows. The bulbs will start growing within a short time and make more

or less growth during the winter. As soon as the weather becomes warm

during the first months of spring the onions make a rapid growth and

are ready for marketing about the time peach trees begin to bloom. In

marketing this class of onions the young shoots are pulled, the roots

trimmed, and the outside peeled off, leaving the stem white and clean.

The onions are then tied in small bunches by means of a soft white

string, the tops trimmed slightly, and the bunches packed in crates or

baskets for shipment or sale on the local market. This phase of the

onion industry is limited to small plantings and is well suited to the

needs of the general market garden. During the springtime and early

summer large quantities of ordinary young onions are pulled when the

bulb is about the size of a fifty-cent piece, the roots and tops are

trimmed, and they are then bunched and sold for stewing purposes. So

far as known, this class of onions is not shipped to any great extent,

but is sold mainly on local markets.

_Home Production of Onion Seed._--The bulbs, or "mother bulbs," as

they are commonly called, for the production of onion seed should

be grown in the same manner as those intended for marketing, except

that more care should be taken throughout. Some seed growers prefer

to use 6 pounds of seed to an acre for the production of seed bulbs

instead of 4 pounds, as ordinarily used in growing for market, in

order that the bulbs may crowd and not become too large. The planting,

culture, and harvesting of the bulbs are practically the same as for

first-class marketable stock. Onion-seed growing is a two-year process

and two crops are constantly to be cared for. After growing the bulbs

the first summer they must be stored over winter and replanted the

following spring for the production of seed. Meantime the crop for

the next year's planting must be coming on in order to have a crop

of seed every year. The first requisite for the growing of the best

seed is a clear-cut ideal of the exact shape, form, color, and general

characteristics sought in the variety being grown. The second requisite

is the growing of seed from bulbs of that exact type for the greatest

possible number of generations. Two selections should be made, the

first to include but a small number of the very finest and most ideal

bulbs from which to produce the stock seed to be used the following

year for the growing of the seed bulbs, and the second to include the

bulbs from which to grow the supply of seed for the market. By keeping

the very best stock separate and using the product for propagation the

entire strain will be gradually improved. Bulbs a trifle below the

ideal market size, or about 1-1/2 to 2 inches in diameter, are the most

profitable for seed production.

Bulbs that are to be used for seed productions should be allowed

to become thoroughly ripe in the field. After pulling they should

be stored in crates under a roof where they will have plenty of

ventilation and be protected from sun and rain. Before freezing weather

begins the onions should be graded and removed to a house where both

ventilation and temperature can be controlled. The temperature of the

storage house should at no time be so low as to cause the bulbs to

become frosted. A temperature of 32° F. for a short period will do

no harm, but should not be allowed to continue. If the bulbs become

frosted, heated, or sweated in storage they will sprout before planting

time and be greatly injured for seed purposes. In general, the storage

conditions should be the same as for marketable onions.

The proper time to gather the seed is when the inside of the grain has

reached the dough stage. Onion seed assumes its black color very early;

in fact, before it has passed the watery stage and formed milk in the

grain. This change of color is no indication of ripeness and very often

deceives the inexperienced grower. The heads should be harvested just

before the first-formed seed begins to shatter in handling.

_Curing the Seed Heads._--Any building having a tight floor and in

which a free circulation of air can be maintained will serve as a

curing place for onion seed. In localities where rains do not occur

during the curing period the seed heads are frequently dried on sheets

of canvas stretched over frames or spread upon the ground. For curing

the seed in houses, wire-bottomed racks or trays placed one above the

other are generally employed. As the seed is stirred from time to time

during the curing process considerable of it will be shattered and fall

upon the tray below or finally upon the floor. The main essentials in

the curing of onion seed are to spread the heads very thinly, not over

two heads in depth, and to give free ventilation. Even at a depth of

3 inches in the trays it will be necessary to stir them very often,

especially during damp weather.

_Thrashing and Cleaning the Seed._--The date for gathering the seed

depends upon the locality and climate, but as a rule this will be about

midsummer. The thrashing and cleaning of the seed are often deferred

until quite late in the autumn, except where the curing is done in the

open air. Where large quantities of seed are produced the thrashing is

done with machines similar to regular grain thrashers, but when grown

on a small scale the seed is removed by beating with a flail.

After the seed has been thrashed, there is still considerable danger of

its heating or molding if left in too great bulk. The usual practice is

to run it through a fanning mill to remove the dust and small particles

of the heads or chaff that are broken up in thrashing. In former years

the method of cleaning was to place the seed in a tank of water the

heavy seed settling to the bottom of the tank while the chaff and

lighter portions could be floated off. This process is no longer used

to any great extent, owing to the improvement in cleaning machinery,

and the danger of injuring the seed by the water. After the seed is

fanned and most of the foreign matter removed, it should be spread

thinly on the floor or canvas and stirred from time to time. About the

only test that can be applied in order to detect moisture in the seed

is that of feeling it with the hand, and anyone experienced in the

handling of seed will soon become expert at determining when it is safe

to bag it ready for storage or shipment.

_Production of Seed for Onion-Set Growing._--Frequently the seed

for onion-set growing is produced from bulbs selected from the sets

themselves; in other words, the bulbs or mother bulbs are the overgrown

sets. Owing to the great quantity of seed employed in set growing it

is desirable to secure it cheaply, and the bulbs selected from the

sets, being small, will produce a larger quantity of seed per bushel

from mother bulbs than when grown in the usual manner. The stock seed

bulbs should, however, be well matured, small necked, uniform in size,

and selected according to an ideal shape. Onion seed from undersized

bulbs is not so desirable, even for set growing, as that from standard

bulbs. The length of time that onion seed will retain its vitality

depends largely upon maturity and climatic conditions. Well-matured

seed will always keep better than poorly ripened and inferior seed.

Under ordinary conditions onion seed loses its vitality very rapidly

after the second year, especially if stored in a damp climate. It will

often pay to ship the seed to a dry climate for storage.

_Production of Onion Sets._--The term "set," as applied to the onion,

indicates a small, undersized bulb which, when replanted in the ground,

will produce a large onion. This method of producing onions is perhaps

the oldest and now the most universally employed for the growing of

small areas of onions in the garden where an early crop is desired. The

common method of producing sets is to plant a large quantity of seed

on a small area of rather rich land and thus procure a great number of

bulbs that are undersized, owing to crowding and lack of plant food.

The greater number of these bulbs do not attain sufficient size or

maturity to produce seed the following season and are really plants in

which the process of growth has been arrested. The climatic conditions

governing the production of onion sets are practically the same as

those for standard onions, although it is not necessary to plant quite

so early in the spring. As the essential feature of growing onion sets

is the crowding together of the plants in the rows, a large quantity

of seed is required to plant an acre. The quantity of seed required

varies with the different localities. The ideal onion set is almost

globular in shape and a trifle less than half an inch in diameter. The

color should be bright and the surface free from smut or spots. The

term "pickler" is applied to the onion just above sets in size, or,

in other words, one-half to three-fourths of an inch in diameter. The

term "boiler," or "stewer," is applied to the size next larger than

picklers, which are too small for sale as standard onions, or from

three-fourths of an inch to 1-1/4 inches in diameter.

_Varieties Used for Sets._--Seed of almost any variety of onion may be

used for the production of sets, but a greater demand exists for the

distinctly yellow, white, and red colors. In the trade the sets are

recognized by their color rather than by actual varietal names. The

demand for the yellow and the white sets is greater than for the red,

and those of the globular type are generally preferred.

Onion sets are sometimes grown from left-over seed, in which case a

large number of varieties may be included. In the principal set-growing

districts, where the seed has been locally grown for many years,

the varieties are more or less distinct from those of seedsmen's

catalogues.--(F. B. 255, 354, 434; Ariz. E. S. Cir. 75; Colo. E. S. 81,

Cir. 5; N. Mex. E. S. 52, 74; Oreg. E. S. 74; N. Y. E. S. 206; U. Id.

E. S. 22; N. Dak. E. S. 12; S. Dak. 47; Mich. E. S. 6; Kans. E. S. 70.)