Testament, we are principally dependent upon the Greek version of the
Seventy. As this was made in the Alexandrian period, not far from the
time of Theophrastus, whose work on gems we shall presently mention, the
names at that time adopted by the Greek translators may be regarded as
fairly correct equivalents of the Hebrew. The difficulty lies more in
the translation of the classical names into the English, and arises
largely from the unscientific nomenclature of the ancients; the same
name being employed for stones that resemble each other to the eye, but
which are now well distinguished by chemical and physical differences
formerly unknown.
There are some traces in the Bible of the use of precious stones as
amulets. In Proverbs xvii, 8, we read that “a gift is like a precious
stone in the eyes of the owner; whithersoever he turneth he prospereth.”
This passage is rendered somewhat differently in the Authorized Version,
but the above translation is evidently more correct. The stones of the
breastplate were of course amulets in a certain sense, and possibly
oracles also, and it is therefore quite probable that the Hebrews shared
in the belief common to all the peoples around them, although opposition
of the orthodox to all magical practices prevented them from going into
particulars in regard to such superstitious fancies.
In support of his theory that the Urim and Thummim of the Hebrew
high-priest signified the stones of the breastplate worn on the sacred
ephod, and should be rendered “perfectly brilliant,” Bellermann cites
the passage in Ezekiel (chap, xxviii, verse 14), where he writes of
“fiery stones” in treating of the royal splendors of the ruler of the
great commercial city of Tyre. As to the oracular utterances of the
high-priest when, clad in the ephod and wearing the glittering
breastplate, he sought for the counsel of the Almighty, this author
rejects the idea that the divine will was revealed by changes in the
brilliancy of the stones, by casting of lots, or by a mysterious use of
the ineffable name, the Tetragrammaton, J h w h (Jahweh), but believes
that the answer to the questions was communicated to the high-priest by
an inner voice, an inspiration similar to that vouchsafed to the great
prophets of Israel.[509]
A curious analogy to the use by Christians of fragments supposed to have
come from the True Cross as amulets, was the employment by the Talmudic
Jews of chips from an idol or from something that had been offered to an
idol, for the same purpose. It is needless to say that this was severely
condemned by the Rabbis.
It is interesting to note the statements of Arab historians that the
mummy of Cheops, the Pharaoh of the Great Pyramid, was decorated with a
pectoral of precious stones. As the regal and priestly functions were
united in the monarch, we may have here the first form of the
high-priest’s breastplate.
The Arab historian Abd er-Rahmân, writing in 829 A.D., states that Al
Mamoun(813–833), son of Haroun-al-Raschid, entered the great pyramid and
found the body of Cheops:
In a stone sarcophagus was a green stone statue of a man, like an
emerald, containing a human body, covered with a sheet of fine gold
ornamented with a great quantity of precious stones; on the breast was
a priceless sword, on the head a ruby as large as a hen’s egg,
brilliant as a flame. I have seen the statue which contained the body;
it was near the palace of Fôstat.
Essentially the same account is given by Ebub Abd el-Holem, another
Arab, who says:
One saw beneath the summit of the pyramid a chamber with a hollow
prison, in which was a statue of stone enclosing the body of a man,
who had on the breast a pectoral of gold enriched by fine stones, and
a sword of inestimable price, on the head a carbuncle the size of an
egg, brilliant as the sun, on which were characters no man could read.
In the opinion of Mariette Bey these details are so circumstantial as to
leave little doubt that the mummy of Cheops was found by Mamoun, but he
believes that the body was covered with a gilt wrapper and that the
stones were paste imitations. The ruby was probably the “uræus,” the
sacred asp, emblem of royalty, and the wonderful sword may have been a
sceptre or a poniard similar to those found in tombs of the eleventh
dynasty and in that of Queen Aah-Hotep; the statue of green serpentine
often occurs in later tombs. Should this view be correct, precious
stones were imitated in glass at a very remote period.[510]
An exceedingly fine specimen of ancient Egyptian goldsmith’s work, now
in the Louvre Museum, Paris, is a pendant terminating in a bull’s head,
each of the horns being tipped with a little ball. Above the double
reins are four rondelles, one of gold, two of a material still
undetermined, and one of lapis lazuli; the different parts of the
pendant are connected by gold wire. Its most interesting and attractive
feature, however, is a polished hexagonal amethyst, engraved on both
faces. In each case the form of a priest is figured; in one he appears
with his official staff or wand, and in the other he is represented as
bearing an incense-burner and offering the mineral and vegetable
sacrifices; an Oriental pearl is set above the engraved amethyst. The
religious and sacrificial significance of this ornament, coupled with
the costliness of the materials and the superior excellence of the
workmanship, make it likely that we have here an amulet or talisman made
for some Egyptian of very high rank.[511]
St. Jerome (346?–420 A.D.), in his commentary on Isaiah (liv, 11, 12),
alludes to the verses of Ezekiel describing the glories of the King of
Tyre and the precious stones with which he was adorned. Evidently Jerome
believed that this passage was to be taken symbolically, for he asks:
Who could have so little judgment and intelligence as to think that
any Prince of Tyre whatever should be set in the Paradise of God, and
have his place among the Cherubim, or could fancy that he dwelt with
the glowing stones, which we should without doubt understand as the
angels and the celestial virtues.[512]
It would be both curious and interesting if we could trace a connection
between the significance of the names of the Hebrew tribes and those of
the breastplate gems assigned to the tribes. In ancient times names were
much more significant than they are to-day, and the tribal names in
particular possessed for the Hebrews a symbolic meaning, but this does
not appear to have induced any marked tendency to connect the colors or
the symbolic meanings of the different stones with the fame, or with the
characteristics or fortunes of the several tribes. On the other hand,
the foundation stones, as symbols of the Apostles, became a favorite
theme with the early Christian writers. Possibly the neglect of ancient
Hebrew writers to perform a similar task in connection with the
breastplate stones might still be made good, even at this late date, and
an effort in this direction might result in giving a wider range to the
symbolic value of certain well-known gems.
The name Reuben signifies “Behold a Son,” and this has been given a
Messianic meaning by some commentators. In Jacob’s enigmatic blessing,
“excellency of dignity” and “excellency of power” are attributed to
Reuben, but this birthright is taken from him because of a heinous sin
he has committed. Still we might see in the carnelian, the gem of
Reuben, a symbol of “dignity” and “power.”
Simeon has been variously rendered “Hearing” or “Hearkener.” The
blessing accuses him of an act of cruelty in which he was aided by his
brother Levi. To the peridot, or chrysolite, dedicated to Simeon, could
be appropriately assigned the meaning “good tidings.”
The priestly functions of the tribe of Levi are expressed by the name
itself which means “attached” or “joined,” that is, to the altar. Hence
in the emerald we should see the symbol of “dedication” or
“ministration,” in addition to its other and better known meanings, such
as “hope,” “faith,” and “resurrection.”
For the tribe of Judah we have the ruby, and here the meaning of the
name, “praised,” fits in well with the dignity of the rare and glowing
ruby. This noble gem has always been a favorite adornment for royal
crowns and from Judah sprang the royalty of Israel. The blessing given
to this tribe declares that “the sceptre shall not depart from Judah,
nor a lawgiver from between his feet, until Shiloh come.” This is often
taken to signify the consummation of the Kingdom of Israel in the
Kingdom of Heaven.
Issachar, signifying “reward,” or “the rewarded,” suggests as symbolic
meanings of the tribal stone lapis lazuli, “success” and “fruition.”
This stone, the sapphire of the ancients, was typical of heaven,
probably owing to the appearance of the specimens most highly valued in
olden times, those in which a number of golden spots are scattered over
the blue surface of the stone, which thus figure both the blue of heaven
and the hosts of the stars.
The tribal name Zebulon signifies “exaltation,” and to this tribe is
assigned a dwelling-place by the sea bordering on the domains of the
rich Phenician seaport, Sidon. We could thus see in the gem of Zebulon,
the onyx, a symbol of dominion and authority. This could serve to offset
some of the old superstitions regarding the onyx, which was sometimes
charged with bringing discord and dissension.
Of the tribe Joseph, we are told that it was to be increased, and this
meaning is contained in the name itself, which is rendered: “May God
add.” To Joseph were promised “blessings of heaven above,” and
“blessings of the deep that lieth under.” The sapphire, probably the
tribal stone of Joseph, was known in ancient times by the name hyacinth
and was a stone of good omen, bringing increase of health and wealth;
therefore its significance as a tribal gem does not differ essentially
from the traditional one.
[Illustration:
CHINESE JADE AMULETS FOR THE DEAD
Figs. 1_a_ and _b_, pair of eye-protecting amulets; Fig. 2, presumably
eye-amulets; Fig. 3, eye-amulet with design of fish; Figs 4–7, lip
amulets, 4 and 7 in shape of fish; Figs. 8–9, amulets in the shape
of monsters. From “Jade,” by Berthold Laufer.
By courtesy of the author and Field Museum of Natural History,
Chicago.
]
Benjamin signifies “son of the right hand,” hence this name denotes
strength and power. This meaning accords well with what is said in
Jacob’s blessing: “Benjamin shall raven as a wolf; in the morning he
shall devour the prey and at night he shall divide the spoil.” The
banded agate symbolizing this tribe would have the meaning “strength”
and “mastery”; indeed, according to other sources the agate was reputed
to bring victory to the wearer.
Dan is the “judge” among the tribes, according to the meaning of the
name. In Jacob’s blessing Dan is said to be “a serpent by the way,” and
“an adder in the path.” These metaphors, which may not strike us as
commendatory of the tribe, probably indicated the craft and courage of
the tribesmen in attacking and defeating their foes, and enriching
themselves with the spoils of war. The amethyst, as the tribal stone of
Dan, could thus signify both “judgment” and “craft.”
To the tribe of Gad was given the beryl, and the fact that spheres made
from this stone were believed to be best adapted for use in
crystal-gazing makes it an especially appropriate gem for the tribe of
“good fortune,” this being the most probable signification of the name
“Gad,” although in the Bible the interpretation “a troop,” is given. The
beryl would therefore signify “good luck” and perhaps also
“coöperation.”
The twelfth and last tribe, Asher, has the jasper for its gem. This
would also gain an auspicious significance from its association with
Asher, which means “happy.” To the other meanings assigned to jasper
might be added that of “happiness.” As we have elsewhere remarked, there
seems good reason to suppose that jade was frequently designated jasper
in ancient times, and this stone was everywhere believed to possess
wonderful magic powers.
The jasper[513] as an emblem of strength and fortitude is noted by St.
Jerome in his commentary on Isaiah (liv, 11, 12), where he writes that
the bulwarks or walls of the Holy City were strengthened by jasper.
These bulwarks served “to overthrow and refute every proud attack
against the knowledge of God, and to subject falsehood to truth.
Whoever, therefore, is most convincing in debate and best fortified with
texts of Holy Scripture is a bulwark of the Church.”[514] Jerome also
alludes to the variety of jasper called _grammatias_, because of the
peculiar markings, suggesting letters of the alphabet. This was believed
to possess great talismanic virtue, especially in putting to flight
phantoms and apparitions, since the markings were thought to signify
some potent spell, written on the stone by nature’s hand. Of another
kind of jasper, “white as snow or sea-foam,”[515] and having reddish
stains, we are told that it symbolizes the spiritual graces, which
preserve those endowed with them from vain terrors; and the learned
Father quotes as descriptive of this stone the words of Solomon’s Song
(v, 10): “My beloved is white and ruddy.”[516]
Writing of the sapphire (lapis lazuli), one of the foundation stones of
the Holy City, St. Jerome likens it to heaven and to the air above us,
adding, somewhat fancifully, that we might apply to the sapphire the
words of Socrates in the “Clouds” of Aristophanes: “I walk upon air and
look down upon the Sun.” Turning then to Holy Scripture, Jerome notes
the well-known passage in Ezekiel (i, 26) where the Throne of God is
said to have “the appearance of a sapphire stone,” and finds in this
text a proof that blue denoted the glory of God.[517] The ingenuity of
the ancient commentators in finding hidden meanings in the simplest
things is well shown by the assertion of Thomas de Cantimpré that St.
John placed the emerald fourth in the list of foundation stones, because
the _four_ evangelists are constant in their praise of chastity.[518]
Certain gems and stones have a definite relation and appropriateness to
the various religious holidays and festivals. Notable among these is the
rhodonite, a silicate of magnesia, named from the Greek word _rhodon_,
“a rose,” because of its beautiful rose-pink hue. This is found more
especially in the Ural Mountains, and in Massachusetts, but in a number
of other places as well. In the Ural Mountains one single mass was so
immense that ninety horses were needed to move the 22–ton weight a
distance of thirty miles to the Imperial Lapidary Works at
Ekaterineburg; here the material was cut up into smaller masses to be
finally worked up in the Imperial Lapidary Works at Peterhof into a
sarcophagus and tomb for the Emperor Nicholas I.
This stone is a great favorite in Russia, and is frequently cut into
egg-shaped ornaments, either in the form of a simple egg, or of one with
a halo and a moonstone effect at one end. It may well be termed the
“Easter Stone.” For those unable to afford such an egg-shaped piece of
rhodonite, a yellow fibrous gypsum or satinspar cut into a similar form
may be substituted. Jade cut in the same way is also sometimes favored,
as well as many varieties of rock-crystal.
In marked contrast with the joyful festival of Easter stands the most
solemn day of the Christian year, Good Friday, and for this day also we
have a singularly appropriate stone, the variety of jasper known as the
bloodstone. Here the red markings can be regarded as symbolical of the
blood of Our Lord, shed for the salvation of mankind in the supreme
sacrifice of the Passion. When the head of the Christ is cut in this
stone it is often possible to utilize the red spots to figure the drops
of blood flowing from the wounds inflicted by the Crown of Thorns.
With the glad tidings of Christmas Day is intimately associated the
memory of the Star of Bethlehem, which served as a beacon light to guide
the three wise men of the East to the humble manger wherein reposed the
newly-born Saviour of the World. Hence for this great Christian festival
no gem can equal the star-sapphire, combining as it does the pure
sapphire-hue, always looked upon as symbolic of the highest moral,
spiritual, and religious sentiments, and the mysterious moving star,
which, shifting its apparent place with the slightest movement of the
stone, seems endowed with a wonderful independent life, just as the
phenomenal star of Bethlehem, unlike the fixed and changeless stars of
the firmament, glided through the heavenly expanse, by a miraculous
motion, due indeed to some supernatural law, but differing in kind and
degree from all the usual, every-day aspects of nature.
The symbolism of precious stones presented in so many different ways by
the early ecclesiastical writers appears in the prayer offered by the
Archbishop of Canterbury at the coronation of the kings and queens of
England. While the king kneels upon a footstool, the archbishop takes
St. Edward’s Crown and lays it upon the altar; whereupon he pronounces
the following words:
[Illustration:
LA MADONNA DELLA SALUTE, BY OTTAVIANO NELLI
In the Basilica of S. Francesco at Assisi.
]
O, God, the crown of the faithful, who on the heads of Thy saints
placed crowns of glory, bless and sanctify this crown, that as the
same is adorned with divers precious stones, so this Thy servant,
wearing it, may be replenished of Thy grace, with the manifold gifts
of all precious virtues, through the King eternal, Thy Son our Lord.
Amen.”[519]
In a tractate “Of the Crown of the Virgin,” ascribed to Saint Ildefonso
(607–669), the writer describes this wondrous gold crown as adorned with
twelve precious stones, six splendid stars, and six beautiful and
fragrant flowers, thus uniting the fairest treasures of earth and sky in
honor of the Queen of Heaven.[520]
The gems, stars and flowers are given in the following order: Topaz,
Sirius, sard, lily, chalcedony, Arcturus, sapphire, crocus, agate, the
evening star, jasper, the rose, carbuncle, the Sun, emerald, the violet,
amethyst, the Moon, chrysolite, sun-flower, chrysoprase, Orion, beryl,
camomile. “That thus,” the writer concludes, “with precious stones,
radiant luminaries, and fair flowers, a splendid crown may be ennobled,
beautified and adorned, and may be the more willingly and gladly
accepted by Our Lady.”
In a private collection in Smyrna there is a black hematite engraved
somewhat in the style of an Abraxas gem; and certainly not Christian. On
it is represented a galloping horseman, beneath whose steed is a
crouching man; above the rider’s head appears a star. The reverse bears
the inscription: σφραγίς θεοῦ, “seal of God.” In contrast with this is
an intaglio carnelian of the Munich Royal Collection, with the figures
of the Virgin Mary and the Infant Jesus, and the Greek words ἡ ἐικὼν τῆς
ἁγίας Μαρίας, “the image of the Holy Mary.” This is one of the best
examples of Byzantine work in gem-cutting.[521]
One of the very curious cases of the employment of a purely secular
Roman gem for ecclesiastical uses is offered by the exceedingly
beautiful convex blue aquamarine engraved with the head of Julia,
daughter of Titus, a fine work of the Augustan Age, now in the French
Cabinet des Médailles in Paris. This was donated in the ninth century by
the Carolingian emperor, Charles the Bald, to the Treasury of St. Denis,
after it had been given a setting of pearls and precious stones. In St.
Denis it was placed at the apex of a reliquary, which became known as
the Oratorium of Charlemagne, and the head of the vain and worldly
princess is said to have been venerated by the pious monks and priests
as that of the Virgin Mary. As a work of portrait art this gem is one of
the finest examples from classic times.[522]
The strange decadence and the conventionalized but profoundly earnest
quality of Early Christian art is shown in an intaglio gem of the Royal
Numismatic Museum in Munich. This is a dark-hued sardonyx of two layers,
and the engraving depicts a bearded Christ, enthroned and accompanied by
the twelve apostles, six on either side, four of them beardless while
the remainder are represented with beards; they are all gazing
reverently upon the central figure, behind whose head appear the arms of
the cross and above them the letters _I̅C̅_ _X̅C̅_ Ἰησοῦς Χριστός.[523]
Another somewhat similar Early Christian gem is a cameo cut in a
sardonyx of three layers, the groundwork being a brownish-black, and the
figures of a light-bluish hue, the upper parts yellowish-brown. Here
also we have an enshrined Christ; above his head two angels hold a
diadem. This is of superior workmanship to the intaglio gem just
described.[524] There is a sardonyx cameo showing a rude figure of the
Prophet Daniel, a lion on either side of him, and inscribed with his
name in Greek letters. This is of Byzantine workmanship.[525]
The reliquarium of Wittekind, now in the Kunstgewerbe Museum at Berlin,
is considered to be probably the most important specimen of early
Frankish goldsmith-work that has been preserved, and is richly set with
precious stones, some of these being ancient gems. This is one of a
number of cases where engraved stones of Pagan times were used in the
adornment of ornamental objects destined for Christian religious use.
The upper edge shows a row of entwined animal figures, and the front
side has medallions with primitive bird forms in cloisonné enamel; on
the reverse side are very rudely executed repoussé figures of saints.
This work is assigned to the latter part of the eighth century A.D., and
is conjectured to have been a gift from Charlemagne to the Saxon King
Wittekind, on the occasion of the latter’s conversion to Christianity in
the year 807. It was long preserved in Wittekind’s foundation at Enger
near Herford, to which he had bequeathed his treasures; in 1414 it was
removed for safe-keeping to the Johanniskirche at Herford, where it
remained until 1888, when it came into the possession of the Berlin
Kunstgewerbe Museum. This precious example of the earliest German work
has the form of a small portable satchel, in which could be placed those
sacred relics the owner might wish to bear around with him because of
the protection they were assumed to afford.[526]
One of the most notable and valuable objects in the famous Guelph
treasure that has recently been brought back to the city of Brunswick as
a result of the marriage of the Duke of Cumberland’s son, Ernest
Augustus, with the daughter of Emperor William II, is an elaborately
designed cross, a very fine specimen of the goldsmith’s art of the
twelfth century. This with the other treasures was taken by the Duke of
Cumberland to Vienna for safe-keeping, at the time he gave up, in 1884,
his title as Duke of Brunswick, rather than acknowledge Prussian
supremacy. The cross, which has the form of a so-called “crutch-cross,”
with rectangular projecting plates at the ends of the arms, was designed
to serve as a reliquary, the relic shrine being in a cruciform capsule
behind a small, round-edged golden cross set in the midst of the cross
proper. The precious relics reposing here were said to be bones of John
the Baptist, St. Peter, St. Mark the Evangelist, and St. Sebastian. On
the reverse side of the cross are set four large and beautiful sapphires
and in the centre is a remarkably brilliant topaz.
While nothing definite is known as to the goldsmith who executed this
work, its style and general character suggest the conjecture that it may
have been produced by the artist who made the “Crown of Charlemagne” in
Vienna, really a crown executed for Conrad III, King of the Germans
(1093–1152), the first Hohenstaufen, and also several regal ornaments
for the latter’s consort, Queen Gisela. In addition to the jewelled
decoration of its reverse, the front of the cross is set with many
pearls, and the form of these settings is one of the chief arguments
adduced in favor of attributing it to the maker of the so-called “Crown
of Charlemagne.”[527]