in Ceylon, to the effect that the male cobra, during the night, uses a
certain luminous stone to lure its prey and to attract the female. This
is probably the chlorophane, a variety of fluorite, a substance which
shines with a phosphorescent light in the darkness, and this quality,
quite mysterious in the eyes of the natives, may have induced them to
associate the stone with the snake, the epitome of all subtlety and
cunning. Serpent-stones were supposed to exist in both ancient and
medieval times, and the belief in their existence is widespread among
many races of mankind.
A chlorophane is also found in the microlite localities of Amelia
Court House, Virginia. The writer made a series of experiments and
noted that some of these specimens emit a phosphorescent light at a
low temperature. The material occurs in Siberia, and Pallas
describes a specimen from this locality. When subjected to the heat
of the hand, it gave out a white light, in boiling water a green
light, and when placed on a burning coal a brilliant emerald-green
light, visible at a considerable distance. Similar phenomena have
been observed by the writer, who has found that very slight
attrition, even the rubbing of one specimen against another in the
dark, will produce phosphorescence.[474]
The real or supposed virtues of the “snake-stones” of Ceylon are
detailed at considerable length by the great Dutch naturalist, Rumphius.
After noting the old tale that the “natural” snake-stones came from the
_cobra de capello_ (_Serpens pilosus_), he proceeds to relate the
information he had been able to gather regarding the “spurious” stones
of this type. These were fabricated by the Brahmins, the process being
kept a profound secret; indeed, there were those who asserted that the
Brahmins themselves had lost the art, as this had been possessed by but
a single family which had died out, leaving the secret unrevealed.
Rumphius describes these artificial stones as usually round and flat,
the size varying from that of a half-shilling piece to that of a
two-shilling piece. Some were of lenticular form and a few were oblong;
all had a white spot in the middle. In making the application, the
bitten spot was first pricked until it bled, whereupon the stone was
immediately laid on and allowed to remain until it dropped off of itself
“just as a leech would do.” So intense was its absorbent activity that
it would sometimes break, in which case a substitute had to be quickly
applied. The saturated stone was placed in milk and the absorbed venom
was thus drawn out, turning the milk blue.[475]
One of the tales of the Gesta Romanorum treats of a serpent-stone of
singular medicinal virtue. According to the story—which is, of course, a
mere legend—a certain Theodosius, who “reigned in a Roman city,” was a
most prudent ruler, but was afflicted with blindness. In his care for
the welfare of his subjects he had decreed that when anyone who desired
justice rang the bell at the palace gate, a judge must forthwith appear
and try his case. Now it happened that a serpent had its nest near the
bell-rope, and one day, while the reptile was absent, a toad took
possession of the nest. Returning and finding the nest occupied, the
serpent,—evidently a worthy descendant of the original serpent of
Paradise, “more subtle than any beast of the field,”—wound its tail
about the bell-rope and pulled the bell. When the judge appeared, as in
duty bound, he was struck by this strange spectacle, and reported it to
the emperor, who told him to right the wrong which had been done,
directing him to expel and kill the toad. Not long after, the serpent
made its way into the palace and entered the emperor’s room, bearing in
its mouth a small stone. Proceeding to the emperor’s couch, it crawled
up, raised its head above the emperor’s face and dropped the stone upon
his eyes. As soon as the stone touched the eyes, the emperor’s sight was
restored. The serpent disappeared and was never seen again.[476]
A representative type of “madstone” is a concretionary calculus
occasionally, but very rarely, found in the gullet of male deer. In form
it bears a resemblance to a water-worn pebble and is usually of oblong
shape, the largest specimens being 3 inches in length and 1½ inches in
width. The chemical analysis of Dr. H. C. White showed that the chief
component was tricalcic phosphate. His experiments demonstrated that
while such a concretion would absorb water to the amount of 5 per cent.
of its own weight, the quantity of blood or other fluid it was able to
absorb only amounted to 2.3 per cent. of its weight. When immersed in
water, after having been placed on a wound caused by the bite of a
venomous creature, the liquid absorbed was given out so as to discolor
the water, and the material exuded was found to be of toxic quality.
However, experiments with animals that had been bitten by snakes or
other reptiles, failed to show that the stone exercised any curative
effect. Dr. White states that he has in his possession a “madstone”
dating from 1654, but this is of a different type, being a porous
sandstone.[477]
Even in South Africa snake-stones are known, but it appears that the few
specimens reported had been brought thither from the Dutch East Indies;
one such stone had been handed down for generations in a Dutch settler’s
family. From their appearance some of these snake-stones were judged to
be pieces of burnt hartshorn. A Boer farmer owned an amulet of this kind
that he would loan from time to time to neighbors who might have need of
it. On one occasion, when the daughter of an English hunter had been
bitten by a snake, the father sent off a man on horseback to borrow this
snake-stone. Owing to the unavoidable delay, some hours elapsed before
it could be applied to the wound. The girl recovered after its use but
the wound did not heal satisfactorily, and this was attributed to the
length of time that had intervened between the attack of the snake and
the use of the remedial stone.[478]
In December, 1887,[479] the writer described a white opaque variety of
hydrophane with a white, chalky or glazed coating, which had recently
been brought from a Colorado locality. The absorbent quality of this
stone is quite remarkable, and when water is allowed to drop on it, it
first becomes very white and chalky, and then gradually perfectly
transparent. This property is developed so strikingly that the finder
proposed the name “Magic Stone” for the mineral and suggested its use in
rings, lockets, charms, etc., to conceal photographs, hair, and other
objects, which the wearer wishes to reveal only as caprice dictates.
VI
Angels and Ministers of Grace
The veneration of angels and the attribution to them of especial days or
months, as well as the idea that they were guardians of those born on
those days or during those months, was the result of many factors. The
belief in the existence of angels is present in all parts of the Bible,
but in the earlier portions they are not individualized in any way. The
angel of God, or of the Lord (_malach Elohim_ or _malach Yahveh_) was
simply a messenger of God, employed to communicate his will or else to
accomplish some act of divine justice.
It is quite possible that the greater prominence given to angels among
the Jews after the Babylonian Captivity was not solely dependent upon
Babylonian or Persian influence. We learn from the historical and
prophetical books of the Old Testament that the Jews had, from the
earliest times, worshipped other gods besides the God of Israel, and
were ever ready to assimilate the religious superstitions of the heathen
world. Several of the divinities that were worshipped in Babylonia and
Assyria were also objects of adoration in Israel, not indeed by the
chosen spirits of the nation from whom we receive our records, but by
the masses of the people. This very fact, however, served in a certain
sense to maintain the purity of the national religion. As the
superstitious inclinations of the populace were so fully satisfied from
without, there was no necessity to develop or distort the national
religion in this direction. The Babylonian Captivity changed all this.
It was the élite of the Jewish nation that was deported, and the
sufferings and humiliations to which they were subjected in a foreign
land only served to strengthen their faith in Yahveh and in his Law.
Hence it is, that when this tried and purified remnant returned to
Judæa, rebuilt the fallen temple and reorganized the state, the latter
became a theocracy in a much stricter sense than ever before, and from
this time we can really speak of Judaism as the religion of the whole
people.
But the inevitable tendency to split up the unity of the divine force, a
tendency that makes itself felt in all religions and among all peoples,
soon asserted itself anew and in a different direction. As the people
were no longer allowed, we may even say were no longer inclined, to go
after foreign gods, they proceeded to develop the idea of divine
messengers or intermediaries which had always formed part of the
national faith, but had never been fully evolved. While Isaiah and
Ezekiel both knew of a division of the angels into certain categories
as, for example, cherubim, seraphim, hayyot (living creatures), ofanim
(wheels) and arelim, there is no attempt at individualization, and the
first mention of an angel’s name occurs in the Book of Daniel, which
later critics are disposed to assign to the second century B.C. It is
most natural to suppose that such names were known and were familiar to
the people long before that time. When we read in the Book of Daniel,
xii, 1: “And at that time shall Michael stand up, the great prince which
standeth for the children of Israel,” it is easy to see that the idea
that certain special qualities were attributed to this angel was deeply
rooted in the popular mind. In a previous verse, x, 13, we read:
“Michael, one of the chief princes, came to help me,”—a conclusive proof
that a hierarchy of angels had already been thought out.
[Illustration]
Fossil Amethystine Lapis Anhydrite Banded Hematite
Coral of Quartz Lazuli About 2500 Agate About About 2000
the About 2500 About 2000 B.C. 2800 B.C. B.C.
Devonian B.C. B.C.
Period 1000
B.C.
Amethystine Lapis Lazuli Aragonite-banded Amazon Stone Black
Quartz 2000 B.C. or 3000 B.C. About 1500 Serpentine,
Probably earlier B.C. hard and
Assyrian of compact.
700 B.C. Seals of this
type are
generally as
old as 2500
B.C.
Marble, Jaspery Agate Aragonite Rock-Crystal Serpentine
discolored by As late as Probably as old About 1200 (banded)
fire About 800 B.C. as 3000 B.C. B.C. Probably as
2500 B.C. early as 2500
B.C.
Ferruginous Shell 3000 Jasper, banded Chalcedony, Agate
Agate About B.C. or red and black Blue (banded)
800 B.C. earlier About 1200 B.C. Saphirine Assyrian of
About 700 about 700
B.C. B.C.
ILLUSTRATIONS OF ACTUAL PRECIOUS STONES AND MINERALS USED FOR SEALS IN
ANCIENT ASSYRIA AND BABYLONIA
Mostly from the collection in the American Museum of Natural History,
New York City.
The great source of information in regard to angelology is the
Rabbinical literature which had its rise about the first century B.C.
and culminated in the Talmuds of Babylon and Jerusalem in the fifth
century A.D. As these compilations, although nominally commentaries on
the books of the Old Testament, are almost encyclopedic in their
character, they throw much light on this subject. In a monograph of
Kohut, entitled “Jüdische Angelologie,”[480] many extracts, belonging to
an early period, are given. Seven princes of heaven were recognized and
among these four were especially favored. They occupied a place near to
the Throne of Light and were bathed in its radiance. We are told that
“God surrounded his Throne of Light with four angels: Michael, ‘Who is
like God?’ at the right; Gabriel, ‘Might of God,’ at the left; Uriel,
‘Splendor of God,’ before it; and Raphael, ‘Salvation of God,’ at the
west” (Numeri Rabba, c. 2).[481] They represented various attributes of
the divine: Michael, goodness and mercy; Gabriel, punitive justice;
Uriel, the majesty of God, and Raphael, his providence. Michael and
Gabriel are particularly prominent and are called Royal Angels (מלכיהון
דמלאכיא); they have especial care of Israel. As we have seen, Michael
was singled out by Daniel and he was commonly regarded as chief prince.
Gabriel was looked upon as the avenger and the executor of divine
judgments and occupied the next place, while Uriel and Raphael are less
frequently alluded to, although the latter appears prominently in the
Book of Tobit.
In the New Testament, also, Michael and Gabriel are evidently regarded
as the chief angels, and Revelation places Michael at the head of the
hosts of the good angels in their conflict with Satan and his followers.
We can see in the Gospels how widespread was the belief in demoniacal
possession, and in the existence of evil spirits; it was almost
inevitable that the aid of good spirits should be invoked to counteract
them, and although both Christianity and Judaism sternly rebuked any
direct worship of angels, they were regarded as ministering spirits, and
it was only natural that the masses should be led to use their names on
amulets and talismans, and little by little to arrive at the belief that
a particular angel was entrusted with the welfare of each individual.
The same tendencies were at work in both religions, but a new
development was initiated for the Christian church by the growing
veneration of the early martyrs and of their relics. When this became
more pronounced, the saints to a great extent took the place of the
angels; a passage from the writings of St. Ambrose composed in 377 A.D.
shows us that this transformation of belief had already begun to make
itself felt at that time. St. Ambrose writes: “We should address our
supplications to the angels who are appointed to guard us; we should
also address them to the martyrs, whose patronage seems assured to us by
a physical pledge” (their relics).
The danger that the worshipping of angels might lead Christians away
from the Church into magic practices and beliefs was clearly recognized
in the early centuries, and at the Council of Laodicea, in 363 A.D., it
was proclaimed that Christians should not render worship to angels
outside the church, or in private assemblies or associations. Whoever
was found guilty of such practices (of such idolatry, as it was called)
was pronounced anathema, as he was considered to have turned away from
the Lord Jesus Christ and worshipped idols. The first Council of Rome,
held in 492 A.D., expressly forbids the wearing of talismans inscribed
with the names “not of angels as they pretend, but rather with those of
demons.” Indeed, there is abundant evidence that in this age, and even
earlier, those addicted to angelolatry were not satisfied with the few
angels named in the Holy Scriptures, but addressed their petitions to a
multitude of angels evolved from the fervid imagination of the
superstitious among the Jews. Of these angels not recognized by the
Church, the following prayer of a certain Aldebert, condemned by the
second Council of Rome, 745 A.D., gives us a few names: “I pray and
supplicate the angel Uriel, angel Raguel, angel Michael, angel Adimis,
angel Tubuas, angel Sabaoth and angel Simihel.” In the judgment of the
Church fathers, all these names, with the exception of Michael,
designated demons.[482]
A manuscript of the ninth or tenth century in the Library of Cologne
gives the following “nomina angelorum”, and instructs the reader as to
their special virtues:
If when it thunders you think of the Archangel Gabriel, no harm will
befall you. If on awakening you think of Michael you will have a happy
day. Have Orihel (Uriel) in mind against your adversary and you will
prevail. When eating and drinking think of Raphael and abundance will
be yours. On a journey think of Raguhel and everything will prosper.
Should you have to lay your case before a judge, think of Barachahel
and all will be explained. When you take part in a banquet, think of
Pantasaron and all the guests will delight in you.[483]
On some medieval gems appear angel figures, one very curious specimen of
this class being an onyx, engraved in intaglio. On this gem, which is in
the British Museum, the engraver depicts the Annunciation, but the
figure of the Angel Gabriel is precisely that of a nude Cupid; hand and
foot are raised as though the little god (or angel) were dancing. It has
been conjectured that this strange attempt at adapting a classic form is
due to the fact that the gem was cut in Constantinople during one of the
violent iconoclastic persecutions, and that the engraver thus sought to
veil the true significance of his work. In this case, however, we must
believe that the accompanying inscription was added at a later date, for
it expressly names the Annunciation, the Angel Gabriel, and the Virgin
(“Mother of God”).[484]
Another interesting gem, from about the same period, is a square
amethyst, measuring about 3 cm. in each direction. This bears, engraved
in intaglio, a standing figure of Christ, without a halo; behind his
head is the monogram [Symbol], and in his left hand he holds a scroll
with the words (in Greek): “In the beginning was the Word”; his right
hand is stretched forth in benediction, and alongside the figure are the
following angels’ names in Greek characters: Raphaêl, Penel, Ouriêl,
Ichthys, Michaêl, Gabriêl, Azaêl. The fourth and middle name, Ichthys
(fish) is the well-known anagram of the Greek words signifying “Jesus
Christ, the Son of God, the Saviour,” and the use of this as the name of
an angel is thought to have been suggested by a passage in Isaiah (ix,
6).[485]
A “prime émeraude” among the Gorlæus gems is engraved with a design
showing two souls brought before God by the two guardian angels.[486]
Somewhat the same belief in the guiding or conducting of souls after
death is found in Plato’s “Phædon,” where it is said that the _daimon_
which had guided a person during life led his spirit to the place in
Hades where judgment was to be rendered.
The following list from Lodge’s “Wit’s Miserie,” printed in 1596, gives
the seven good angels and sets over against them the seven bad angels,
each of whom represents one of the seven deadly sins:
[Illustration:
By courtesy of the American Numismatic Society, New York.
ZODIAC MOHURS, COINED BY THE MOGUL SOVEREIGN SHAH JEHAN, ABOUT 1628.
]
Good Angels Bad Angels
Michael Leviathan, pride
Gabriel Mammon, avarice
Raphael Asmodeus, lechery
Uriel Beelzebub, envy
Euchudiel Baalberith, ire
Barchiel Belphagor, gluttony
Salathiel Ashtaroth, sloth
The curious book called in Hebrew “Sepher de-Adam Kadmah” and attributed
to the angel Raziel, is supposed to belong to the twelfth or the
thirteenth century, or at the earliest to the eleventh century,[487]
although the redactor may have used some earlier materials. Legend
states that it was engraved upon a sapphire and was given by the angel
Raziel to Adam when the latter was driven from Paradise. Handed down
from generation to generation, it finally came into the possession of
Solomon. The name Raziel signifies “secret of God,” in allusion to the
revelations contained in the book, which was supposed to protect the
house wherein it was from all danger of fire.
In this book there is an interesting list of angels, denominated the
twelve princes, set over the twelve months of the year. The text of the
first printed edition appears to be corrupt in some places, but the
names may be transliterated as follows:[488]
Sh’efiel, “Balm of God” Presiding over Nisan (April)
Ragael, “Balance of God” Presiding over Ayyar (May)
Didanor, “Our Light” Presiding over Sivan (June)
Ta’anbanu, “Answer for us” Presiding over Tammuz (July)
Tohargar, “Whirlwind” Presiding over Ab (August)
Morael, “Fear of God” Presiding over Elul (September)
Hahedan, “The Brilliant” Presiding over Tishri (October)
Uleranen, “To chant, celebrate” Presiding over Marchesvan (November)
Anatganor, “Thou art the Guardian” Presiding over Kislev (December)
Mephniel, “Before God” Presiding over Tebah (January)
Tashnadernis, “Saturnus” Presiding over Shebat (February)
Abarchiel, “Fire of God” Presiding over Adar (March)
The following list, while probably of later date than the one we have
just given, is more frequently cited as authoritative:[489]
Orders Angels Tribes Signs
Seraphim Malchidiel Dan Aries
Cherubim Asmodel Reuben Taurus
Thrones Ambriel Judah Gemini
Dominations Muriel Manasseh Cancer
Powers Verchiel Asher Leo
Virtues Hamaliel Simeon Virgo
Principalities Zuriel Issachar Libra
Archangels Barbiel Benjamin Scorpio
Angels Adnachiel Naphtali Sagittarius
Innocents Hanael Gad Capricornus
Martyrs Gabriel Zabulun Aquarius
Confessors Borichiel Ephraim Pisces
In Rabbinical writings we are told that if a man fulfilled one of the
commandments, one angel was bestowed upon him; if he fulfilled two
commandments, he received two angels; if, however, he fulfilled all the
commandments, many angels were given him. This was a literal
construction of the text Ps. xci, 11: “For he shall give his _angels_
charge over thee.” These angels were believed to shield the believer
from the attacks of evil spirits.[490]
[Illustration:
The medieval conception of the cosmos, the successive spheres of the
planets, including the sun, and beyond these the crystalline heaven
and the empyrean. In an outermost circle are named the great
celestial powers, as recapitulated above the spheres. From a XIV
century Italian MS. in the author’s library.
]
The Mohammedan Atlas, the angel appointed by God to bear the earth on
his shoulders, was given a rock of ruby to stand upon. Beneath this
ruby-rock, were, successively a huge bull, an immense fish, a mass of
water, and lastly darkness.[491] Thus the grand vision of “the face of
the deep” over which hovered the Spirit of God, before the creative
words were spoken, giving form to the earth, is not altogether lost
sight of in this Mohammedan fancy.
Luther was a firm believer in the existence of guardian angels, and he
even goes so far as to assert that the angels assigned to men differed
in rank and ability as did the men themselves. Of this he says:
Just as among men, one is large and another small, and one is strong
and another weak, so one angel is larger, stronger, and wiser than
another. Therefore, a prince has a much larger and stronger angel, one
who is also shrewder and wiser, than that of a count, and the angel of
a count is larger and stronger than that of a common man. The higher
the rank and the more important the vocation of a man, the larger and
stronger is the angel who guards him and holds the Devil aloof.[492]
Our idea of a guardian angel is so spiritual and so pure that it is
difficult for us to understand the curious results this belief has
occasionally produced among the primitive peoples. A weird tale is told
of a Congo negro who killed his mother so as to gain an especially
powerful guardian spirit.[493] The dreadful deed was perpetrated in the
full conviction that the mother’s love would remain unshaken, while her
power for good would be increased. Such ferocious egoism does not find
an exact parallel among civilized peoples, but the underlying principle
is unfortunately too often illustrated in our midst at the present day.
The belief in guardian angels has the best of Scripture warrant as
offered by the text Matthew, chapter xviii, v. 10, where Christ speaking
of little children says: “Their angels do always behold the face of my
Father who is in Heaven.” Another New Testament passage testifying
distinctly to the existence of this belief in the Apostolic Age, is in
the Acts of the Apostles (xii, 15), where we read that after the
miraculous rescue of Peter from his imprisonment, his friends could not
believe the report that he had been seen standing at the door of their
dwelling, and exclaimed: “It is his angel.”