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COTTON MANUFACTURING.
[Illustration: SINGLE-ACTION JACQUARD LOOM. _Frontispiece._]
COTTON
MANUFACTURING.
BY
C. P. BROOKS,
Examiner to the City and Guilds of London Institute; Sen. Honours
Medallist, Cotton Manufacturing, 1887; Late Lecturer on
Cotton Spinning, Weaving, and Designing, at the
Blackburn Technical Institutions.
_WITH OVER EIGHTY ILLUSTRATIONS._
Third Edition.
BLACKBURN: C. P. BROOKS, THE MOUNT.
LONDON: E. & F. N. SPON, 125 STRAND,
AND
NEW YORK: 12 CORTLANDT STREET.
1892.
[_All rights reserved._]
Cloth, crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
SECOND EDITION.
WEAVING CALCULATIONS.
_BY THE SAME AUTHOR._
A Handbook on all Calculations required in
Weaving and the Preparatory Processes, including
Standard Wage Lists. For further
particulars see the end pages of this book.
PREFACE.
The lack of books relating to the weaving of cotton goods is the
motive which has led to the production of this work. Although several
admirable books are extant on special branches of textile industry,
few, if any, works claim to treat practically of the whole range of
processes popularly known as Cotton _Manufacturing_ as at present
conducted, and which, at the same time, are within reach of the
artisan’s pocket.
This class of work is all the more requisite in consequence of the
admirable system of trade education introduced by the City and Guilds
of London Institute, whose syllabuses for the subjects of Cotton
Manufacturing and Weaving and Pattern Designing are included in this
work. It is hoped that the student in either of these subjects may find
a handy book of reference in this volume, which goes into explanatory
details to as great an extent as space allows.
However, as the author has found, and doubtless many others actively
engaged in the industry have discovered, it is becoming a requisite
in the mill that those employed there be possessed of something more
than “rule of thumb” systems of working--that careful and intelligent
research and investigation is necessary to success in every department.
The writer trusts that this volume, based on practical experience and
on the application of theoretical principles in the industry, may prove
of assistance to such.
In addition to chapters on Weaving, in which reference is made to most
of the plain and figured fabrics woven in cotton, space is devoted
to the preparatory processes, especially to the important one of
Sizing; a chapter on Mill Calculations is added, as well as a Glossary
of Technical Terms--necessitated by the nomenclature of different
districts.
Acknowledgment is made of the assistance rendered by many
correspondents, whose suggestions have been, and will be, welcomed.
The thanks of the author, and it may be added those of the reader,
are due to the many firms who have lent blocks to illustrate and
simplify the letterpress. Amongst these may be mentioned Messrs. David
Sowden & Sons, Shipley; Butterworth & Dickinson, Burnley; J. H. Stott,
Rochdale; Devoge & Co., Manchester; Willan & Mills; Ward Bros.; and W.
Dickinson & Sons, Blackburn; whilst especial mention should be made of
Messrs. Howard & Bullough, of Accrington, whose sizing machinery has
been selected for description; and of Messrs. Hy. Livesey, Limited,
Blackburn, whose well-known weaving and preparatory machinery is
engraved.
C. P. B.
The Mount, Blackburn,
_January, 1888_.
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.
In this edition some necessary additions and alterations have been
made, especially in the statistical portion of the work; and as the
City and Guilds of London Institute have altered the Syllabus of the
textile subjects during the few months that have elapsed since the
publication of the First Edition, the old Syllabus has been replaced by
the new one. Apart from these alterations the book retains its original
form, and the author hopes that this issue will obtain from those
interested in cotton manufacturing the same kindly appreciation as the
former edition.
C. P. B.
_April, 1889._
CONTENTS.
PAGE
CHAPTER I.--INTRODUCTORY.
History, Statistics, Cotton and Cotton Spinning, Cotton Manufacturing 1
CHAPTER II.--WINDING AND WARPING.
Warp Yarn, Winding, Beaming, Sectional Warping, Ball Warping 21
CHAPTER III.--SIZING.
Materials, Mixing, Machinery 32
CHAPTER IV.--WEAVING.
Plain Loom, Movements of Loom, Modifications of Loom, Splits 52
CHAPTER V.--COTTON CLOTH.
Varieties, Dimensions, Standard Makes 80
CHAPTER VI.--FANCY WEAVING.
Fancy Weaving by Tappets and Dobby, Analysis of Cloth, Tappets,
Dobby, Gauze, Handkerchief Motion 89
CHAPTER VII.--JACQUARD.
Jacquard Cloth, Woven Pile Cloths 118
CHAPTER VIII.--DROP BOXES.
Drop-Box Looms, Stripes, Checks, Spotting 133
CHAPTER IX.--CALCULATIONS.
Mill Calculations, Yarn Counts, Reeds, Healds, Cost of Cloth,
Warping and Sizing Lengths, Wages, Speeds, Engines, Miscellaneous 143
SYLLABUS OF TECHNOLOGICAL SUBJECTS 161
GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS 165
INDEX 169
COTTON MANUFACTURING.
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTORY, HISTORY, STATISTICS, COTTON AND COTTON SPINNING,
MANUFACTURING.
In the general acceptance of the term, manufacturing is understood to
refer to the whole range of processes which convert a raw material
into the finished article, but whatever that word may usually signify,
in the Cotton Trade it is technical for that department only, which
comprises the conversion of cotton yarn into woven fabric, and as such
is understood in the ensuing pages.
This department is frequently worked apart from spinning, and the
gradual and marked severance of the cotton industry into the two great
departments of spinning and manufacturing is a striking feature of this
great trade, although the reason of cotton spinning finding so fertile
a soil in South Lancashire is no more apparent than the cause of North
Lancashire being so favourable to the prosperity of cotton weaving.
Probably accidental causes in the early days of the trade had much to
do with its future division--the fixing upon a South Lancashire town
for the establishment of the first spinning machinist’s works, the
fact that the factory system was firmly established in the spinning
department before the working of looms in one building was possible, or
at any rate advisable, and the existence of large warehouses in North
Lancashire for distributing to the hand-loom weavers their materials
for use, were probably some of these causes.
The fact of the trade being carried on in two divisions, each in
different districts, has its disadvantages, the greatest being that
of additional carriage--an extra cost of no inconsiderable amount.
To remove this and other disadvantages, many attempts have been made
to introduce the lacking department both in the North and South of
Lancashire, but such attempts have generally failed to a greater or
less extent, mainly in consequence of the incompetence of the hands, or
rather the insufficient number of competent ones. Where the majority
may excel in weaving, the number of good spinners is generally very
small, and _vice versâ_. Another objection is the disadvantage at
which the one party is placed should the production of one part of
the industry exceed that of the other, the margin which might serve
to provide remunerative occupation for both being at present often
unequally distributed, the over-producer taking the lower position. On
the contrary, there is no doubt that the skill of the operative is more
greatly developed where one district takes up a specific branch of the
sub-divided labour, and conducts it in a more fully equipped style,
than would be the case were it to be attempted on a small scale.
The known pre-eminence of Manchester as the market town is attributed
in part to the necessity for some common centre where a meeting of
the representatives of each of these industries could take place to
transact the business of the trade. The Exchange of Cottonopolis is
that centre. Here, every day of the week, but more especially on the
Tuesday and Friday market days from all parts where the cotton trade is
conducted, the spinner goes to meet the manufacturer, the manufacturer
to meet the merchant, who in turn represents all countries to which
our manufactures are exported; and thus the Exchange has become, as
it were, the heart of the trade, for on it depends the prosperity of
the whole industry, and a stoppage or diminution of the business there
paralyses the trade.
The movement of the cotton trade, like that of civilisation, has ever
been westward. India is recognised as having been from time immemorial
its home, and although there cotton has probably been in use for ages
as clothing, there is no evidence to show that the substance was even
known in Europe till the tenth, or that its manufacture was commenced
in England till the end of the sixteenth, century. At _that_ time the
weavers used yarn made from “cotton wool,” as it was called, but which
yarn was furnished by the Levant and only used for weft, linen forming
the warp. However, the invention of simple hand-spinning apparatus
rendered it possible for the ever-increasing demand for cotton yarn
to be adequately supplied for a time by English spinsters, and it is
chronicled that, in 1701, 1,900,000lb. of raw cotton were imported,
although it is improbable that the whole of it was required for
conversion into cloth. At the beginning of the eighteenth century such
inventions as that of Kay’s fly shuttle so increased the output of
the hand loom as to cause for some years a dearth of yarn. This had a
good effect in inducing the great era of invention in cotton-spinning
machinery, from 1760 to 1780; during which time Hargreaves, Arkwright,
Crompton, and many lesser lights brought before the world the results
of their labour. These inventions, the importance of which it is not
necessary to refer to--their details and the story of their invention
having been so frequently dilated upon--these _created_ the cotton
manufacture.
The cause which influenced the development of spinning machinery was
antithetical to that which now caused an extension of the weaving,
which was an excess of the supply of yarn, and for which the only
consumers were the loomshops attached to scattered houses on the
country side, containing one or two ponderous hand-looms.
It is rather more than a century since the Rev. E. Cartwright, a
Kentish minister, first gave his attention to the invention of a power
loom, and although his first patent in 1785 was not satisfactory, yet
it is to this clergyman’s efforts that the world is indebted for the
first power loom. In 1787, he patented such a machine, fitted with
spring motion, batten or slay, temples, etc., with the addition of
a protector and weft stop motion in an imperfect form. Nine years
afterwards Robert Millar, of Glasgow, applied to it the means of
picking by plates and shedding by tappets or wipers.
Here all the principles of the modern loom were present, although in
very different form, and it is only in details that the loom of a
century later presents a different aspect. In 1834 the weft stop motion
was patented by Messrs. Ramsbottom and Holt, which was perfected seven
years later and patented in its present form by Messrs. J. Bullough and
Kenworthy, of Blackburn. To these gentlemen is due the invention of an
improved dressing machine called a “tape,” the forerunner of slashing;
also the take-up motion for cloth. They, too, patented the loose reed
loom and the roller temple; but from records of the time and tales told
by the older section of the community in Blackburn to-day, apparently,
it is to John Osbaldeston "that the honour is due of breaking the
concussion of the loom and inventing an improved temple. He also
originated many of those inventive appliances so essential to adapt the
power loom for weaving fancy goods, but was not successful in securing
any pecuniary advantage to himself, thus illustrating the fact that
not every benefactor of his species meets with the reward due to his
merits."[1] The creative spirit which carried cotton-spinning machinery
to so high a degree of perfection, was directed also to the improvement
of the preparatory machinery of the weaving department.
[1] Alderman Baynes’ Lectures, 1857, at Blackburn.
In the hand-loom days each weaver stiffened or dressed his own warp
whilst it was in the loom, applying the size with a flat brush. A
length of about two yards was sized in this manner, and dried by
means of hot irons being passed over the surface of the warp, paper
being first laid over the damp twist, or by means of a fan; grease
afterwards being applied. In the face of our modern systems this
old-fashioned method hardly appears credible. The paste used was a
mixture of flour and water, boiled over the fire, and stored in a
stone vessel not unlike a swine trough. Probably from this reason the
term “sow box,” indicating in our modern “slashers” the size vessel,
arose; and etymologists may find some connection between it and the
word "sowlin’"--a common expression in Lancashire for a mixture of the
nature referred to--of its intended use or application. The necessity
for this was removed by the invention of the dressing machine by
William Ratcliffe and Thomas Johnston, his assistant, of Stockport, in
the year 1803, by which warps were sized before putting them in the
loom. This dressing machine consisted of little more than a frame with
rollers to carry the warp from two back beams, one at each end, to the
centre where the weaver’s beam was fixed, whilst between were arranged
brushes traversing to and fro by means of rods actuated from a crank in
the so-called crank dressing machine, to apply the “sow” or size. In
addition there was a wooden fan to dry the warp, which passed through
the healds and reed also.
Dressing was in vogue until 1830 without any competitive system, but
soon after this the tape frame, producing five times more work than
the dressing machine, was invented, and continued in use until in an
improved form--delivering the yarn direct to the weaver’s beam, and
with still further capacity for large turnout of work--it under the
name of the “slasher” takes the lead among all sizing systems now
current, which important position is attributable to a great extent to
the speed and to the good quality of the turn off.
To James Bullough, a native of Westhoughton (though from early life a
resident of Blackburn), may be credited this last invention, which
brought in its train the beam-warping frame, and found increased
employment for the winding frame invented early in the century by the
senior Robert Railton.
The factory system was deeply rooted in the spinning department
before we hear of any attempt at gathering a large number of looms
under one roof. Arkwright had a spinning mill as early as 1771, but
the first successful weaving shed was built in Glasgow in 1801 by
Mr. Monteith, and contained 200 looms; previously, in 1790, Messrs.
Grimshaw partially erected one at Knot Mills, near Manchester, which
was burnt to the ground by a mob of hand-loom weavers. In 1813, we
learn of 2400 power looms being in use in the United Kingdom. Since
then the number of factories has rapidly increased, and excepting
for the effects of occasional deterrent influences, such as war and
famine, the cotton manufacture has steadily prospered and extended.
250,000 hand-loom weavers, and 30,000 power-loom weavers were engaged
in all weaving trades of all materials in 1833. Now, in 1887, 250,000
power-loom weavers are engaged in the cotton industry alone; while
in most districts a hand loom is a curiosity as a relic of the past.
The contrast is great, more especially so when it is remembered that
during the same period the trade has been established in many foreign
countries where nothing but handicraft skill was available at the early
part of the period, but where now the number of mules and looms has
grown, and is growing, so rapidly as to create out of former consumers
important competitors in the export trade.
The recent history of cotton manufacturing has been marked by little
which has caused extensive alterations in its methods.
The extensive and well-organised association of the operatives for the
protection of their position in relation to the masters, has become
a power, as shown by the great strike of 1878, when the operatives
were able to resist the masters for a period of nine weeks, and by
the increasing influence of the employés in all trade questions. The
more important Parliamentary proceedings relating to the cotton trade
during the time of its being conducted on the factory system are, of
course, the Factory Acts. The first important legislative enactment
was the Factory Act of 1833. By this no young person under 18 was
allowed to work before 5.30 a.m. or later than 8.30 p.m., nor more than
12 hours per day, although 3 hours extra might be worked per week to
make up for lost time. Children had to be 9 years old, and had not to
work more than 48 hours per week till 11 years of age, having 2 hours’
schooling per day to be provided by the employer. In 1844, females over
18 were granted the same privileges as young persons, and children were
allowed to work 6-1/2 hours per day if only 8 years old. Work had to
cease at 4.30 on Saturday. In 1846, the hours of labour were reduced to
11 per day, and 63 per week for children, young persons, and females.
Only minor alterations were made till 1874, when the Ten Hours’ Bill
was passed, limiting work to 10 hours per day, and 6-1/2 on Saturday.
In 1878, all the previous Acts were repealed and a new one made which
is still in force, and requires that for young persons and females the
hours be limited to 10 per day, and 56-1/2 per week; that no child be
employed at all under 10 years of age, or under the Second Educational
Standard; and only half-time below 13 unless the Fourth Standard of
Elementary Education shall have been passed, failing which the limit is
14 years of age. Males and females under 18 are deemed young persons,
and all young persons and females possess certain advantages over the
male workers, which rights are protected by Government inspectors. The
Bill was a lengthy one, and contains many restrictions as to holidays,
painting and cleaning, reports of accidents, fencing machinery, and
school attendance, for the benefit of the employé.
The Limited Liability Act of 1862 gave great facilities for conducting
business by companies of more than seven members, whose liability in
case of a collapse does not exceed the amount promised on formation--a
scheme inaugurated for the benefit of the working classes, but which
has been misapplied in many instances.
The Employers’ Liability Act of 1880 gives facilities for recompense to
the workmen for accident or injury sustained by the negligence of the
employer or his deputies, such liability being incurred under certain
conditions only, and being restricted to the amount of three years’
salary.
The Merchandise Marks Act of 1887 has caused a reaction in the tendency
towards short lengths and false description, by making it a penal
offence to falsely mark goods either in respect to dimension, quality,
counts, or place of manufacture.
In addition to these, the variation of tariff charges, notably the
reduction of Indian tariffs, the returns and reports to Parliament of
statistical information, the Inquiry Commissions, and some few small
enactments, all have their influence in a greater or lesser degree on
the industry.
The cotton goods of a standard make at the commencement of this
century comprised printer, muslins, corduroys, fustians, sheetings,
shirtings, twills, ginghams. In 1830, records give madapollams,
tanjibs, domestics, jacconets, gauze leno, figured muslin, splits,
and velveteens. Later, in 1846, there are chronicled lawns, books,
nainsooks, figured counterpanes; and, in 1864, brilliante, chambrey,
blue mottle, satin checks, in addition to previously mentioned goods,
from which list the absence of dhooties, Turkey reds, Turkish towels,
and cloths of later origin will be noted.
A comparison of the position of the cotton trade to-day with
what it was some thirty years ago shows a decided change in one
respect--_i.e._, in the firms conducting the business. Many of the
old private firms have disappeared and their places been taken by
companies, while, for many years back, the tendency has appeared to
be in favour of carrying on the trade by the co-operation of small
capitalists. Some of these companies are not limited, being formed
by a few speculative operatives who invest the savings of a frugal
lifetime in the mill concern, to which they also devote their labour,
being satisfied at the year’s end if they have drawn an ordinary wage,
week by week, while the capital has been added to, and increased.
Manufacturing, in consequence of the comparatively smaller amount of
capital required, is generally selected for the above system.
To these establishments many of the wealthy manufacturers of North
Lancashire can trace the beginning of their prosperity. By far the
greater number of these companies, however, especially in spinning, are
on the limited liability principle, and their increasing number shows
how valued, as an investment, such companies are; so much so that it
appears not unlikely, what with the narrowing margins and increased
competition, that the trade will, at no very distant period, cease to
be a means of making the wealthy cotton lord, and, as the trade falls
into the hands of gigantic companies, become merely a bank, with a
small rate of interest, in which the wealth of the smaller Lancashire
capitalists will be locked up.
This carries our thoughts to another branch of the subject--the
importance of the trade with regard to the capital invested in it,
a sum which cannot fall short of seventy-five million pounds even
in Great Britain alone, without taking the allied industries of
machine-making, dyeing, calico printing, lace and hosiery manufacturing
into account. By dipping into calculation, taking the spindles at the
figure of 17s. 6d. each, and the looms at £16, the amount invested in
plant will touch £45,000,000, and adding to this a floating capital of
£30,000,000, fully which will be necessary to the trade in importing
the raw material, converting it into fabric and distributing the same
to the world, a total sum is obtained which indicates what is at stake
in this mighty industry.
STATISTICS.
A perusal of the subjoined list will indicate in figures the extent of
the trade, and from it will be observed the comparative importance of
our trade with each country. Taking the value of the exports of piece
goods only as the standard of comparison, the list of countries will
be found as follows:--
_Exports of Cotton Manufactures--Piece goods of all kinds._
+-----------------------+---------------------------+---------------------+
| | QUANTITIES. | VALUE. |
| +---------------------------+---------------------+
| | Twelve Months ended | Twelve Months ended |
| COUNTRY. | December. | December. |
| +-------------+-------------+----------+----------+
| | 1886. | 1887. | 1886. | 1887. |
+-----------------------+-------------+-------------+----------+----------+
| | | | £ | £ |
|Germany Yds. | 45,358,400| 40,765,000| 676,321| 626,104|
|Holland | 34,132,200| 43,203,200| 519,491| 590,154|
|Belgium | 61,499,600| 65,712,700| 867,666| 921,207|
|France | 35,474,900| 34,585,300| 681,047| 598,531|
|Portugal, Azores, | | | | |
| and Madeira | 54,312,300| 66,761,400| 563,006| 683,429|
|Italy | 85,053,900| 119,961,500| 965,010| 1,364,075|
|Austrian Territories | 6,391,200| 5,946,800| 76,291| 72,245|
|Greece | 36,020,900| 35,860,000| 429,066| 454,862|
|Turkey | 299,706,200| 299,824,400| 3,358,980| 3,271,768|
|Egypt | 139,384,500| 156,150,900| 1,280,335| 1,391,736|
|West Coast of Africa | | | | |
| (Foreign) | 37,493,200| 46,394,300| 427,945| 547,784|
|United States | 45,251,600| 44,028,500| 1,148,955| 1,054,221|
|Foreign West Indies | 90,237,900| 95,223,700| 922,322| 973,227|
|Mexico | 32,312,200| 35,412,200| 359,932| 380,378|
|Central America | 37,503,800| 53,490,800| 379,280| 522,006|
|United States of | | | | |
| Colombia | 42,905,800| 61,637,100| 425,716| 572,082|
|Venezuela | 23,718,200| 44,697,300| 239,287| 446,528|
|Brazil | 241,034,500| 215,370,400| 2,679,273| 2,517,899|
|Uruguay | 35,732,600| 49,767,800| 414,497| 615,685|
|Argentine Republic | 104,812,100| 105,585,100| 1,224,586| 1,394,604|
|Chili | 59,701,800| 73,694,800| 562,722| 768,366|
|Peru | 33,593,000| 23,894,800| 354,389| 251,189|
|China and Hong-Kong | 455,823,000| 552,742,700| 4,570,207| 5,624,953|
|Japan | 34,628,500| 65,403,800| 383,500| 699,462|
|Dutch Possessions in | | | | |
| India | 86,511,500| 105,572,700| 928,813| 1,082,348|
|Philippine Islands | 43,214,700| 39,247,900| 481,513| 387,062|
|Gibraltar | 12,082,300| 17,424,300| 138,767| 190,988|
|Malta | 24,021,500| 16,987,100| 250,668| 175,010|
|West Coast of Africa | | | | |
| (British) | 28,502,600| 38,584,300| 318,964| 414,283|
|British North America | 32,584,700| 33,692,500| 634,158| 620,378|
|British W.I. Islands | | | | |
| and Guiana | 42,723,200| 51,593,100| 489,367| 582,803|
|British Possessions | | | | |
| in S. Africa | 21,465,800| 32,443,300| 341,689| 523,845|
|British East Indies | | | | |
|Bombay Yds. | 797,776,900| 647,673,400| 6,871,733| 5,737,475|
|Madras | 142,687,200| 126,804,300| 1,408,193| 1,296,161|
|Bengal |1,178,374,300|1,037,464,800|10,207,523| 9,422,554|
|Straits Settlements | 103,929,600| 144,570,800| 949,983| 1,325,562|
|Ceylon | 14,868,200| 16,914,200| 160,201| 184,024|
|Australasia | 96,756,600| 91,399,900| 1,700,432| 1,551,069|
|Other Countries | 152,629,100| 165,262,100| 1,779,844| 1,907,257|
| |-------------+-------------+----------+----------+
| Total |4,850,210,500|4,904,109,200|50,171,672|51,743,314|
| |-------------+-------------+----------+----------+
|Total | | | | |
|--Wholly of Cotton-- | | | | |
| Unbleached or Bleached|3,497,866,100|3,473,477,400|32,237,682|32,812,846|
| Printed Dyed, or | | | | |
| Coloured |1,351,976,700|1,430,537,600|17,922,454|18,925,985|
| Total of Mixed | | | | |
| Materials, Cotton | | | | |
| predominating | 367,700| 94,200| 11,536| 4,483|
| +-------------+-------------+----------+----------+
| Total |4,850,210,500|4,904,109,200|50,171,672|51,743,314|
+-----------------------+-------------+-------------+----------+----------+
In 1886, according to the estimate of Messrs. Ellison, of Liverpool,
the number of spinning spindles in various parts of the world was as
follows:--
Great Britain 42,700,000
Continent 22,900,000
United States 13,350,000
East Indies 2,100,000
----------
81,050,000
In a recent estimate published by Messrs. Worral & Co., of Oldham, the
spindles and looms engaged on cotton in Lancashire and its borders are
given as 40,946,709 spindles, and 582,504 looms. This does not include
other parts of the kingdom, nor a number of looms just now starting;
therefore we may without erring take the number of cotton looms in the
kingdom at about 615,000. In India there are 18,536 power looms.
The number of persons employed is:
Males 196,378
Females 307,691
-------
504,069
of which 465,654 are in England and Wales, 37,167 in Scotland, and 1248
in Ireland.
COTTON DISTRICTS.
Taking into consideration the various districts of Lancashire,
Blackburn is the most northern of those which take an important part
in the industry, and this town also takes the lead in Lancashire, if
not in the whole world, with regard to its importance as an exclusively
cotton manufacturing town. The class of goods made are of a plain
character, principally shirting, mulls, and jacconetts, while a large
number of looms are engaged on dhooties, grey and coloured, which goods
were introduced from Glasgow. A large quantity of dobby dhooties are
manufactured in this district--this class of cloth, of comparatively
recent origin, having been first made in Blackburn. The local spinning
industries are now very important, most of the spindles being run by
those who are also manufacturers.
Darwen weaving trade is of a similar character, and there is a fair
trade in yarn by several sale-spinning mills.
The neighbouring towns of Preston and Chorley have a connection with
goods of a distinctly finer and more “fancy” character, such as leno,
velveteen, damasks, embroidery, and brocades, while the plain trade,
including the well-known home trade shirting, is important. Here also
the spinning trade is comparatively small, the yarns spun being 40/80’s
T and 40/90’s W.
Burnley is remarkable for the recent increase of cotton manufacturing
within its borough, and has a most extensive trade in Burnley printers
and shirtings, with a few heavy twills--ranking second to Blackburn in
quantity produced.
Accrington, Harwood and district have a plain trade, but in yarns the
goods are of a much finer character than other plain districts. A large
business is done in the better classes of printers for the supply of
the local print and dyeworks.
The spinning of medium fine yarns, 40/200’s, from Egyptian cotton,
seems to be centred in Bolton, as is also the manufacture of heavy
fancy goods, especially Alhambra, Marseilles, and other counterpanes
and towels, with some finer fancies--leno, damasks, and velvets;
although many mills are to be found engaged in Blackburn goods.
Haslingden, Bacup, Rawtenstall, and many smaller districts in East
Lancashire are engaged on manufactures of coarse and heavily-sized
goods, shirtings, T-cloths, Wigans, and domestics.
Manchester, while being pre-eminently _the_ English market of the
manufactured cotton goods, is also known as the locality where the
finest yarns known to commerce are spun--_i.e._, yarns from Egypt,
and Sea Island cottons, 80/200’s in twists, and 80/350’s in weft.
The finer numbers, however, are not used for the ordinary purposes
of manufacturing, their consumption being divided between the lace
curtain manufactories of Nottingham and the great sewing thread
factories. The weaving trade of Manchester consists of checks,
ginghams, Harvard and Oxford shirtings.
Oldham is, it is needless to state, _the_ spinning town. Here the
coarsest yarns, 4/24’s, made out of the waste from finer mills, have
their spinning centre, and here the spinning of medium yarns from
American cotton has made the name of the town familiar wherever English
cotton yarn is known.
Rochdale depends mainly on the coarse trade, 12/24 warps (water T) made
from Indian cotton, together with some mule spinning up to 30/40’s.
The weaving of the heaviest cotton goods from waste, twills, sheets,
T-cloths, velveteens, fustian and cords, is here carried on.
Mossley, 30/50’s, warp yarn; Shaw Lees, Royton, Dukinfield, Ashton,
Heywood and Hyde, may be placed in the same category as Oldham, minus
the waste trade.
Stalybridge spins 30/150’s.
Stockport has good trade in spinning, as high as 150’s gassed and
doubled yarns with varied weaving, including the well-known Turkish
towels.
Nor must the other parts of the United Kingdom be forgotten. Cotton
weaving extends no further into Yorkshire than Todmorden, and about
2,000,000 spinning and doubling spindles are in use about Halifax,
Brighouse, Sowerby Bridge and district, these being employed on yarns
for dress fabrics made of a mixture of cotton and worsted, as well as
for curtains and hosiery in the Nottingham and Leicester districts.
In Scotland, the cotton trade is confined to the counties of Lanark,
Renfrew and Ayr. The spinning trade is here going down rapidly, there
only being about one third the number of spinning spindles running
this year (1888), as compared with 1857. The doubling spindles are on
the increase, especially for the Paisley thread trade. The weaving
department is also increasing, there being in the three counties
28,853 looms as compared with 20,963 in 1856. The superior classes of
cloth are made for the home trade--fine reeds, fine muslin, plain and
figured, and the manufacture of Turkey reds is also extensive. In
Ireland there are three cotton-spinning firms, three cotton-weaving
firms, and one both spinning and weaving, with a total of 70,900
spindles, and 2501 power looms.
Summarising the different classes of work into which the industry is
divided, we may allot to the coarse plain trade the Rossendale Valley
and Rochdale, locating the medium plain trade in Blackburn, Burnley
and Darwen, with the finest plain goods in Accrington and Preston, the
light fancy trade in Preston, Chorley, and Ashton, and the heavy fancy
in Bolton and Bury.
COTTON.
Even in a manual treating of the weaving processes it is not foreign
to refer succinctly to the cotton and the treatment it has undergone
to fit it for use in a weaving shed. The manufacturer who has had
experience in a spinning mill often finds the knowledge acquired there
to stand him in good stead in the selection and use of the yarn. Our
chief supplies of cotton are drawn from the United States of North
America; next in importance, although far removed in quantity from the
first-named, is East India, then Egypt, and lastly Brazil. Cotton is
a fibrous vegetable substance, being the fruit of the cotton plant, a
shrub of the _Malvaceæ_, genus _Gossypium_. There are several varieties
of this plant, but the development of the raw material is the same in
each. The plant attains its full height about June (this being about
two months subsequent to sowing), and the bolls or seed pods are found
to be ripening about the middle of July. These bolls, about 1in.
diameter, are divided by membranous walls into three parts, containing
three or four seeds each, covered with the thin transparent cylindrical
fibres attached by one end to the seed.
As the fruit approaches maturity, these fibres lose their cylindrical
form, becoming ribbon-shaped through the collapse of their walls,
and at the same time each fibre twists on its axis, thus causing a
sufficient pressure on the interior of the boll to burst it at the
junction of the compartments in the outer casing.
[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
After being left on the trees for some days, during which time the
ripening influences are at work, increasing the convolutions and
maturing the fibre--or exposed perhaps in the case of unfavourable
weather to the damaging influence of rain, which stains the cotton, or
intense heat which renders it brittle, or wind which fills the boll
with sand or leaf--the cotton is picked. It is then passed through a
gin, a machine which has for its object the separation of the fibre
from the seed. This latter, which in medium-stapled cotton exists
in the proportion of 2lb. seed to 1lb. fibre, is used up at the
oil-mills--while the cotton is packed in bales of 4cwt. and forwarded
to the sea-coast for export. The foregoing may be taken as a condensed
description of the cultivation of cotton on an American plantation.
In Brazil and Egypt the season is about a fortnight later; in India
planting generally commences in July, or immediately after the dry
season.
The raw fibre then is a ribbon-shaped filament with corded edges
twisted with 300 to 800 convolutions to the inch; thus, although to the
naked eye appearing quite smooth, under the microscope it has somewhat
of a resemblance to the shape of a joiner’s auger.
Fig. 1 represents a typical cotton fibre about 400 times the actual
size, and Fig. 2 represents its section. Fig. 3 represents an immature
or imperfect fibre, one which is more transparent, brittle, and weak
than the ordinary fibre, with no tendency to take dye. The convolutions
also are few and irregular. Fig. 4 represents its section.
The longest fibre is the Sea Island cotton grown off the coast of
the States, averaging 1-5/8 inches in length, and chiefly spun into
150’s to 400’s yarn, although for experimental purposes 2150’s have
been produced from it. Egypt gives three varieties--brown, white, and
Gallini. The first-named is commonest and is used for 50’s to 150’s
wefts and twists.
The American States yield a comparatively clean and even-running
cotton, the best variety being Orleans, of a mean length of 1-1/16
inches, used for 30/40’s T and 30/60’s wefts. Texas, though shorter,
is from its strength used for warp yarn, while the numerous varieties
classed as uplands or boweds are suitable for weft on account of their
usual good colour and cleanliness. The difference between the white
60’s and 70’s wefts and brown ditto is that the latter is from brown
Egyptian cotton.
Brazilian is a very harsh fibre about average length, and used for
twists either alone or mixed with American.
The East Indian varieties are extremely variable in length, and also
in relation to the quantity of weak fibres; the properties common to
almost the whole being brown colour, and dirty and rough character
of the cotton. It is chiefly used in Rossendale, Bury and Oldham for
coarse counts.
In the medium trade the fibre is subjected to no fewer than nine
processes (each different, and sometimes duplicated or triplicated)
before it arrives at the form of even thread known as yarn. In the fine
trade two or three additional processes are added.
[Illustration: PLATE I.--PLAN OF SHED. _To face pp. 16 and 18._]
The spinning department, to describe it briefly, consists of:--
1. _Mixing_ the cotton in stacks to secure thorough blending of
various qualities, and elimination of the unevenness present in
different bales or parts of one bale. Then commence processes
for cleansing, viz.:--
2. _Opening_ or passing the matted pieces of the bales through
a series of armed beaters having the functions of both
separating the material into small flakes and removing the
heavier impurities contained in it, such as sand and seeds.
3. _Scutching._--In this process a wing beater, revolving at a
speed of 11/1500 revolutions per minute, removes the remainder
of the heavy dirt, delivering the material in the form of a lap
or roll of cotton. This process is repeated.
4. _Carding._--Here, by means of revolving cylinders covered
with fine wire teeth, and combing the cotton against
other cylinders or plates similarly covered, the light
impurities--leaf, dust, short and weak fibres--are extracted,
and the lap attenuated into a thin sliver, in which the fibres
are laid in such a position as to be easily drawn parallel at
the drawing process. These four kinds of cleaning machinery
remove impurities and other matter foreign to the nature of
cotton, to the extent of about 10 per cent., taking middling
American cotton.
5. _Combing._--The long fibres are here separated from the
short, thus enabling a portion of the cotton to be used for
spinning finer yarns than the bulk would spin. It is only in
the mills spinning yarns above, say 80’s, that this process is
found; in ordinary, the custom is to go direct from carding to
6. _Drawing._--A simple process repeated for yarn up to 30’s,
used three times up to 60’s, and four processes are used above
this. The machine has for its object the levelling of the
slivers, six of which are placed together and drawn six times
the original length. When this has been repeated once or twice,
the sliver becomes very even and silky in consequence of all
the fibres having had the curl taken out and been laid parallel
to each other.
7. _Slubbing_; 8. _Intermediate_; and 9. _Roving_.--These
frames are all constructed on one principle, and have for their
object the gradual diminution of the thickness of the sliver,
which at these processes is attenuated so much as to require
twisting to keep it from breaking at the succeeding process. An
additional jack roving frame is used at mills making over 100’s
yarn.
10. _Spinning_ completes the object of all the former
machines--_i.e._, to produce a level clean thread, free from
unevenness in every respect.
Four sorts of machines are used for completing the attenuation--the
self-actor mule, ring frame, hand mule, and throstle frame. The two
latter are fast disappearing in consequence of the great improvements
over the hand mule recently made in the self-actor mule, so as to
spin fine counts up to 300’s, and in the increased output of the ring
over the throstle frame. The mule is automatic in all its movements
for spinning the yarn and winding it on the spindle in the form of a
cop--_i.e._, a cylindrical coil of yarn, cone-shaped at each end. In
this machine the spinning is intermittent--_i.e._, for a few seconds
the different portions of the machines are engaged in drawing out the
roving to the required fineness until about 64 inches have been spun,
the slack being taken up by a moving carriage bearing the spindles,
then a few seconds are employed in drawing back the carriage and
winding the yarn on the spindles. The ring frame is a constant spinner,
and as fast as the yarn is spun it is wound on a bobbin, while the
necessary twist is put in by a traveller shaped revolving round a
ring. It will thus be seen that the ring frame is only suited for warp
yarns, mainly in consequence of having to use a bobbin, which of course
requires modifications in the shuttle and box of the loom, and even
then is disadvantageous. The ring frame is suitable and preferable for
warp yarn up to 40’s, where the spinner also reels, warps or weaves his
own spinning. The mule spins both weft and twist. Throstle twist (or,
as it is called when reeled or warped by the spinner, water twist) is
generally admitted to be the evenest and roundest thread, ring twist
being next best, and mule yarn inferior to both. Mule yarn, however,
possesses an elasticity which neither of these can boast of.
From a consideration of spinning we arrive at a definition of the
manufacturing processes.
Unlike the spinning which is carried on in a building five or six
storeys high, the manufacture of cotton goods takes place in a “shed,”
as much of the work as is possible being carried on on the ground
floor. The weft yarn, or that which is laid transversely in the cloth,
leaves the mule in the condition in which it is required at the loom,
but the twist or warp yarn passes through several “preparatory”
processes to fit it for the operation in the weaving:--
1. Winding--to take the yarn from the cop and place it on the
warper’s bobbin.
2. Warping or beaming to wind the yarn from 400 or 500 bobbins
to one large beam.
3. Sizing--_i.e._, covering the warp with an adhesive
preparation to fit it for standing the strains in weaving.
4. Attaching the healds and reeds to the warp, called looming
or drawing-in.
5. Weaving.
Each of these will be described more fully in succeeding chapters,
and as in different districts different methods are employed, more
especially in the sizing and beaming systems, the one chosen for most
minute description will be the one used most commonly, although the
other systems will be referred to.
The weaving mill--or, as it is termed, shed--requires description next.
The general details of such a building will be more easily understood
by referring to the annexed plan.
The most important point to remember in the arrangement of the rooms
for the different processes, is to place each so as to require as
little transit of material as possible. The engine, a condensing one of
110 indicated H.P., horizontal, is driven by the steam generated in a
30ft. by 7ft. two-flued steel boiler working at 120lb. pressure.
In the flue is fixed a set of economisers heated by the hot air and
gases generated in the furnace, and through the pipes of which passes
the feed water.
In the winding room are two 200 spindle machines (100 each side),
keeping 12 winders employed. There are 3 beaming frames, 504 ends each.
In the sizing department are found the usual becks and cisterns for
mixing purposes, and one slasher sizing machine. It will be noted that
the weaving shop has direct communication with the looming room where
the beams are stored, and with the warehouse whence the weavers obtain
the yarn, at the same time returning the manufactured material. There
is also an outlet into the mill yard without passing through any other
department.
In case of a new shed having to be built, many important questions
present themselves for consideration. In fixing upon the site, the
essentials for a suitable position are a foundation sufficiently damp
and of such a nature as not to easily part with moisture, even in hot
weather, so as to preserve that humid atmosphere so essential to good
weaving, more especially where heavy sizing is resorted to; yet there
must be no yielding, for it is of vital importance that vibration be
reduced to a minimum, both in weaving, winding and warping, to avoid
breakages of yarn.
As many readers will be aware, it is partially in consequence of this
disadvantage being removed in mills entirely on the ground floor, and
partially in consequence of the increased dampness thereby obtained,
that such mills can obtain good results out of inferior yarns. A
position in the neighbourhood of good workpeople is most important;
such an advantage more than compensates for the increased rents,
rates and other dues of a town as compared with a country district,
for with inferior employés, inferior work, and therefore less
advantageous prices and fewer orders, are a consequence, while the
cost of production is increased. Good coal and water supplies are of
importance, and are best obtainable in the vicinity of a canal, and if
the district under consideration be a hilly one, it will be worth while
considering how to be sheltered from that _bête noir_ of a weaver, the
east wind.