former may be mentioned ALPHONSO I, the Conqueror, first King of Portugal,
son of Henry of Burgundy, the Conqueror and first Count of Portugal; born
1110, fought successfully against the Spaniards and the Moors, named
himself King of Portugal, and was as such recognized by the Pope; died
1185.--ALPHONSO V, the African, born in 1432; succeeded his father, Edward
I, 1438; conquered Tangiers in 1471; died 1481. During his reign Prince
Henry the Navigator continued the important voyages of discovery already
begun by the Portuguese. Under him was drawn up an important code of
laws.--Among kings of Spain may be mentioned ALPHONSO X, King of Castile
and Leon, surnamed the _Astronomer_, the _Philosopher_, or the _Wise_ (El
Sabio); born in 1226; succeeded in 1252. Being grandson of Philip of
Hohenstaufen, son of Frederick Barbarossa, he endeavoured to have himself
elected Emperor of Germany, and in 1257 succeeded in dividing the election
with Richard, Earl of Cornwall. On Richard's death in 1272 he again
unsuccessfully contested the imperial crown. Meantime his throne was
endangered by conspiracies of the nobles and the attacks of the Moors. The
Moors he conquered, but his domestic troubles were less easily overcome,
and he was finally dethroned by his son Sancho, and died two years after,
1284. Alphonso was the most learned prince of his age. Under his direction
or superintendence were drawn up a celebrated code of laws, valuable
astronomical tables which go under his name (_Alphonsine Tables_), the
first general history of Spain in the Castilian tongue, and a Spanish
translation of the Bible.--ALPHONSO V of Aragon, I of Naples and Sicily,
born in 1385, was the son of Ferdinand I of Aragon, the throne of which he
ascended in 1416, ruling also over Sicily and the Island of Sardinia. Queen
Joanna of Naples made him her heir, but after her death in 1435 her will
was disputed by Rene of Anjou. Alphonso now proceeded to take possession of
Naples by force, which he succeeded in doing in 1442, and reigned till his
death in 1458. He was an enlightened patron of literary men, by whom, in
the latter part of his reign, his Court was thronged.--ALPHONSO XII, King
of Spain, the only son of Queen Isabella II and her cousin Francis of
Assisi, was born in 1857 and died in 1885. He left Spain with his mother
when she was driven from the throne by the revolution of 1868, and till
1874 resided partly in France, partly in Austria. In the latter year he
studied for a time at the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, being then
known as Prince of the Asturias. His mother had given up her claims to the
throne in 1870 in his favour, and in 1874 Alphonso came forward himself as
claimant, and in the end of the year was proclaimed by General Martinez
Campos as king. He now passed over into Spain and was enthusiastically
received, most of the Spaniards being by this time tired of the republican
Government, which had failed to put down the Carlist party. Alphonso was
successful in bringing the Carlist struggle to an end (1876), and
henceforth he reigned with little disturbance. His minister Canovas del
Castillo ruined, however, Alphonso's popularity when he advised the king to
conclude an alliance with Bismarck and Germany. He married first his cousin
Maria de las Mercedes, daughter of the Duc de Montpensier; second, Maria
Christina, Archduchess of Austria, whom he left a widow with two daughters
and a son.--ALPHONSO XIII, King of Spain, born in 1886, the posthumous son
of Alphonso XII. His mother was appointed regent during his minority, and
acted as such until 1902. On attaining his sixteenth year, the king assumed
personal charge of the Government. In 1906 (31st May) he married Princess
Ena, daughter of Princess Henry of Battenberg, a daughter of Queen
Victoria.
ALPINE CLUB, an association of English gentlemen, originating in 1856 or
1857, having as their common bond of union a delight in making the ascent
of mountains, in the Alps or elsewhere, difficult to ascend, and in
investigating everything connected with mountains. Similar associations now
exist in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and France.
ALPINE CROW, or ALPINE CHOUGH (_Pyrrhoc[)o]rax alp[=i]nus_), a European
bird closely akin to the chough of England.
ALPINE MUSEUM, a museum established at Munich in 1911 by the German and
Austrian Alpine Club. Its purpose is to spread knowledge about the Alps,
and to disseminate the results of scientific research by means of exhibits
and literary publications. Not only alpine geology, botany, and zoology,
but also industry, custom, and costumes are well demonstrated in the
exhibits.
ALPINE PLANTS, the name given to those plants whose habitat is in the
neighbourhood of the snow, on mountains partly covered with it all the year
round. As the height of the snow-line varies according to the latitude and
local conditions, so also does the height at which these plants grow. The
mean height for the alpine plants of Central Europe is about 6000 feet; but
it rises in parts of the Alps and in the Pyrenees to 9000 feet, or even
more. The high grounds clear of snow among these mountains present a very
well marked flora, the general characters of the plants being a low
dwarfish habit, a tendency to form thick turfs, stems partly or wholly
woody, and large brilliantly-coloured and often very sweet-smelling
flowers. They are also often closely covered with woolly hairs. In the Alps
of Middle Europe the eye is at once attracted by gentians, saxifrages,
rhododendrons, primroses of different kinds, &c. Ferns and mosses of many
kinds also characterize these regions. Some alpine plants are found only in
one locality. Considerable success has attended the attempt to grow alpine
plants in gardens, the first necessity being a situation where there is
plenty of sunlight, and which is free from the shade of trees.
ALPINE WARBLER (_Accentor alp[=i]nus_), a European bird of the same genus
as the hedge-sparrow.
ALPIN'IA, a genus of plants. See _Galanga_.
ALPS, the highest and most extensive system of mountains in Europe,
included between lat. 44deg and 48deg N., and long. 5deg and 18deg E.,
covering great part of Northern Italy, several departments of France,
nearly the whole of Switzerland, and a large part of Austria, while its
extensive ramifications connect it with nearly all the mountain systems of
Europe. The culminating peak is Mont Blanc, 15,781 feet high, though the
true centre is the St. Gothard, or the mountain mass to which it belongs,
and from whose slopes flow, either directly or by affluents, the great
rivers of Central Europe--the Danube, Rhine, Rhone, and Po. Round the
northern frontier of Italy the Alps form a remarkable barrier, shutting it
off from the mainland of Europe, so that formerly it could hardly be
approached from France, Germany, or Switzerland, except through high and
difficult passes. In the west this barrier approaches close to the
Mediterranean coast, and near Nice there is left a free passage into the
Italian peninsula between the mountains and the sea. From this point
eastward the chain proceeds along the coast till it forms a junction with
the Apennines. In the opposite direction it proceeds north-west, and
afterwards north to Mont Blanc, on the boundaries of France and Italy; it
then turns north-east and runs generally in this direction to the Gross
Glockner, in Central Tyrol, between the Rivers Drave and the Salza, where
it divides into two branches, the northern proceeding north-east towards
Vienna, the southern towards the Balkan Peninsula. The principal valleys of
the Alps run mostly in a direction nearly parallel with the principal
ranges, and therefore east and west. The transverse valleys are commonly
shorter, and frequently lead up through a narrow gorge to a depression in
the main ridge between two adjacent peaks. These are the passes or _cols_,
which may usually be found by tracing a stream which descends from the
mountains up to its source.
The Alps in their various great divisions receive different names. The
_Maritime Alps_, so called from their proximity to the Mediterranean,
extend westward from their junction with the Apennines for a distance of
about 100 miles; culminating points Aiguille de Chambeyron, 11,155 feet,
and Grand Rioburent, 11,142 feet; principal pass, the Col di Tende (6158
feet), which was made practicable for carriages by Napoleon I. Proceeding
northward the next group consists of the _Cottian Alps_, length about 60
miles; principal peaks: Monte Viso, 12,605 feet; Pic des Ecrins, 13,462;
Pelvoux, 12,973. Next come the _Graian Alps_, 50 miles long, with extensive
ramifications in Savoy and Piedmont; principal peaks: Aiguille de la
Sassiere, 12,326 feet; Grand Paradis, 13,300; Grande Casse, 12,780. To this
group belongs Mont Cenis (6765 feet), over which a carriage road was
constructed by Napoleon I, while a railway now passes through the mountain
by a tunnel nearly 8 miles long. These three divisions of the Alps are
often classed together as the _Western Alps_, while the portion of the
system immediately east of this forms the _Central Alps_. The _Pennine
Alps_ form the loftiest portion of the whole system, having Mont Blanc (in
France) at one extremity and Monte Rosa at the other (60 miles), and
including the Alps of Savoy and the Valais. In the east the valley of the
Upper Rhone separates the Pennine Alps from the great chain of the _Bernese
Alps_ running nearly parallel, the great peaks of the two ranges being
about 20 miles apart. The principal heights of the Pennine Alps are Mont
Blanc, 15,781 feet; Monte Rosa, 15,217; Mischabelhoerner (Dom), 14,935;
Weisshorn, 14,804; Matterhorn, 14,780. In the Bernese Alps, the
Finsteraarhorn, 14,026; Aletschhorn, 13,803; Jungfrau, 13,671. The pass of
Great St. Bernard is celebrated for its hospice. The most easterly pass is
the Simplon, 6595 feet, with a carriage road made by Napoleon I, and a
tunnel leading into Italy, fully 12 miles long. Farther east are the
_Lepontine Alps_, which give off a number of streams that feed the Italian
lakes--Maggiore, Como, &c. The principal pass is the St. Gothard (6936
feet), over which a carriage road leads to Italy, while through this
mountain mass a railway tunnel more than 9 miles long has been opened.
Highest peaks: Toedi, 11,887 feet; Monte Leone, 11,696. The _Rhaetian
Alps_, extending east to about lat. 12deg 30', are the most easterly of the
Central Alps, and are divided into two portions by the Engadine, or valley
of the Inn, and also broken by the valley of the Adige; principal peaks:
Piz Bernina, 13,294 feet; Ortlerspitze, 12,814; Monte Adamello, 11,832. The
Brenner Pass (4588 feet), from Verona to Innsbruck, and between the Central
and the Eastern Alps, is crossed by a railway. On the railway from
Innsbruck to the Lake of Constance is the Arlberg Tunnel, over 6 miles
long. The _Eastern Alps_ form the broadest and lowest portion of the
system, and embrace the _Noric Alps_, the _Carnic Alps_, the _Julian Alps_,
&c.; highest peak, the Gross Glockner, 12,405 feet. The height of the
south-eastern continuations of the Alps rapidly diminishes, and they lose
themselves in ranges having nothing in common with the great mountain
masses which distinguish the centre of the system.
The Alps are very rich in lakes and streams. Among the chief of the former
are the Lakes of Geneva, Constance, Zuerich, Thun, Brienz, on the north
side; on the south Maggiore, Como, Lugano, Garda, &c. The drainage is
carried to the North Sea by the Rhine, to the Mediterranean by the Rhone,
to the Adriatic by the Po, to the Black Sea by the Danube.
In the lower valleys of the Alps the mean temperature ranges from 50deg to
60deg. Half-way up the Alps it averages about 32deg--a height which in the
snowy regions it never reaches. But even where the temperature is lowest
the solar radiation produced by the rocks and snow is often so great as to
raise the photometer to 120deg and even higher. The exhilarating and
invigorating nature of the climate in the upper regions during summer has
been acknowledged by all.
In respect to vegetation the Alps have been divided into six zones,
depending on height modified by exposure and local circumstances. The first
is the olive region. This tree flourishes better on sheltered slopes of the
mountains than on the plains of Northern Italy. The vine, which bears
greater winter cold, distinguishes the second zone. On slopes exposed to
the sun it flourishes to a considerable extent. The third is called the
mountainous region. Cereals and deciduous trees form the distinguishing
features of its vegetation. The mean temperature about equals that of Great
Britain, but the extremes are greater. The fourth region is the sub-Alpine
or coniferous. Here are vast forests of pines of various species. Most of
the Alpine villages are in the two last regions. On the northern slopes
pines grow to 6000, and on the southern slopes to 7000 feet above the level
of the sea. This is also the region of the lower or permanent pastures
where the flocks are fed in winter. The fifth is the pasture region, the
term _alp_ being used in the local sense of high pasture grounds. It
extends from the uppermost limit of trees to the region of perpetual snow.
Here there are shrubs, rhododendrons, junipers, bilberries, and dwarf
willows, &c. The sixth zone is the region of perpetual snow. The line of
snow varies, according to seasons and localities, from 8000 to 9500 feet,
but the line is not continuous, being often broken in upon. Few flowering
plants extend above 10,000 feet, but they have been found as high as 12,000
feet.
At this great elevation are found the wild goat and the chamois. In summer
the high mountain pastures are covered with large flocks of cattle, sheep,
and goats, which are in winter removed to a lower and warmer level. The
marmot, and white or Alpine hare, inhabit both the snowy and the woody
regions. Lower down are found the wild-cat, fox, lynx, bear, and wolf; the
last two are now extremely rare. The vulture, eagle, and other birds of
prey frequent the highest elevations, the ptarmigan seeks its food and
shelter among the diminutive plants that border upon the snow-line.
Excellent trout and other fish are found; but the most elevated lakes are,
from their low temperature, entirely destitute of fish.
The geological structure of the Alps is highly involved, and is far, as
yet, from being thoroughly investigated or understood. In general three
zones can be distinguished, a central, in which crystalline rocks prevail,
and two exterior zones, in which sedimentary rocks predominate. The rocks
of the central zone consist of granite, gneiss, hornblende, mica slate, and
other slates and schists. In the western Alps there are also considerable
elevations in the central zone that belong to the Jurassic (Oolite) and
Cretaceous formations. From the disposition of the beds, which are broken,
tilted, and distorted on a gigantic scale, the Alps appear to have been
formed by a succession of disruptions and elevations extending over a very
protracted period. Among the minerals that are obtained are iron and lead,
gold, silver, copper, zinc, alum, and coal.
Extensive views of alpine scenery are now commanded by means of special
railways climbing to the summit of Mont Blanc, the Jungfrau, and other
mountains. The Rigi railway was one of the earliest constructed of these.
Here there are hotels at the top, 5905 feet above the level of the sea, and
4468 above the Lake of Lucerne. A favourite view from hence is to watch the
sun rise over the Bernese Alps. The Becca di Nona (8415 feet), south of
Aosta, gives, according to some authorities, the finest panoramic view to
be obtained from any summit of the Alps. The most accessible glaciers are
those of Aletsch, Chamonix, and Zermatt.
ALPUJARRAS ([.a]l-p[:o]-_h_[.a]r'r[.a]s), a district of Spain, in
Andalusia, between the Sierra Nevada and the Mediterranean, mountainous,
but with rich and well-cultivated valleys, yielding grain, vines, olives,
and other fruits. The inhabitants are Christianized descendants of the
Moors.
ALQUIFOU (al'ki-f[:o]), a sort of lead ore used by potters as a green
varnish or glaze.
ALSACE ([.a]l-s[.a]s; Ger. _Elsass_), before the French revolution a
province of France, on the Rhine, afterwards constituting the French
departments of Haut- and Bas-Rhin, and subsequently to the Franco-Prussian
war of 1870-1 annexed by Germany, and incorporated in the province of
Elsass-Lothringen (Alsace-Lorraine). Alsace is generally a level country,
though there are several ranges of low hills richly wooded. The principal
river is the Ill. Corn, flax, tobacco, grapes, and other fruits are grown.
Area, 3202 sq. miles. Pop. 1,218,803. Alsace was originally a part of
ancient Gaul. It afterwards became a dukedom of the German Empire. In 1268,
the line of its dukes becoming extinct, it was parcelled out to several
members of the empire. By the peace of Westphalia, in 1648, a great part of
it was ceded to France, which afterwards seized the rest of it, this
seizure being recognized by the peace of Ryswick, in 1697.
ALSACE-LORRAINE, the imperial territory, or Reichsland of
Elsass-Lothringen, taken by Germany from France in 1871, and restored to
France in 1919. The province is partly bounded by the Rhine; area, 5605 sq.
miles. Pop. 1,874,014. Under the German system the province was divided
into three districts, namely, Lorraine, Upper Alsace, and Lower Alsace, and
governed by a Statthalter, having his seat at Strassburg. By the law of
31st May, 1911, a constitution was granted to Alsace-Lorraine, by which it
received three votes in the Federal Council. After the signing of the
armistice, French troops occupied Alsace-Lorraine, and the French
Government, by a decree of 26th Nov., 1918, took over the administration of
the restored territories, and French officials were installed. The three
chief towns are Strassburg, Mulhausen, and Metz. About 76 per cent of the
inhabitants are Roman Catholics, 22 per cent Evangelical, and between 1 and
2 per cent Jews. The chief crops are wheat, rye, barley, oats, potatoes,
and hay; the potash deposits of Alsace are superior to and more extensive
than those of Strassfurt, Germany. _See France; Moselle._--BIBLIOGRAPHY: M.
Harrison, _The Stolen Lands: a Study on Alsace-Lorraine_; G. W. Edwards,
_Alsace-Lorraine_.
ALSA'TIA, formerly a cant name for Whitefriars, a district in London
between the Thames and Fleet Street, and adjoining the Temple, which,
possessing certain privileges of sanctuary, became for that reason a nest
of mischievous characters who were liable to be arrested. These privileges
were abolished in 1697. The name Alsatia is a Latinized form of Alsace,
which, being on the frontiers of France and Germany, was a harbour for
necessitous or troublesome characters from both countries.
AL'SEN, an island on the east coast of Schleswig-Holstein; length, 20
miles, breadth, from 5 to 7 miles, diversified with forests, lakes,
well-cultivated fields, orchards, and towns. Pop. 25,000.
AL SIRAT (s[=e]'rat), in Mahommedan belief the bridge extending over the
abyss of hell, which must be crossed by everyone on his journey to heaven.
It is finer than a hair, as sharp as the edge of a sword, and beset with
thorns on either side. The righteous will pass over with ease and
swiftness, but the wicked will fall into hell below.
ALSTROEME'RIA, a genus of South American plants, ord. Amaryllidaceae, some
of them cultivated in European greenhouses and gardens. _A. Salsilla_ and
_A. ov[=a]ta_ are cultivated for their edible tubers.
ALTAIC LANGUAGES (also called URAL-ALTAIC and TURANIAN), a family of
languages occupying a portion of Northern and Eastern Europe, and nearly
the whole of Northern and Central Asia, together with some other regions,
and divided into five branches, the Ugrian or Finno-Hungarian, Samoyedic,
Mongolic, Turkic, and Tungusic.
ALTAI MOUNTAINS ([.a]l't[=i]), an important Asiatic system on the borders
of Siberia and Mongolia, partly in Russian and partly in Chinese territory,
between lat. 46deg and 53deg N., long. 83deg and 91deg E., but having great
eastern extensions. The Russian portion is comprised in the governments of
Tomsk and Semipalatinsk, the Chinese in Dsungaria. The rivers of this
region, which are large and numerous, are mostly headwaters of the Obi and
Irtish. The mountain scenery is generally grand and interesting. The
highest summit is Byeluka ('white mountain', from its snowy top), height
11,000 feet. The area covered by perpetual snow is very considerable, and
glaciers occupy a large area. In the high lands the winter is very severe,
but on the whole the climate is comparatively mild and is also healthy. The
flora of the Altai Mountains greatly resembles that of the Alps, about
five-sixths of the latter being found here. The mountain forests are
composed of birch, alder, aspen, fir, larch, stone-pine, &c. The wild sheep
has here its native home, and several kinds of deer are found. The Altai is
exceedingly rich in minerals, including gold, silver, copper, and iron. The
name Altai means 'gold mountain'. The inhabitants are chiefly Russians and
Kalmuks. The chief town is Barnaul.
ALTAMU'RA, a town of South Italy, province of Bari, at the foot of the
Apennines, walled, well built, and containing a magnificent cathedral. Pop.
25,616.
ALTAR ([a:]l'tar), any pile or structure raised above the ground for
receiving sacrifices to some divinity. Amongst the Semites the altar was
primarily the place where the victim was slaughtered, and amongst the
Indo-Germanic peoples the place where it was burnt. The Greek and Roman
altars were various in form, and often highly ornamental; in temples they
were usually placed before the statue of the god. In the Jewish ceremonial
the altar held an important place, and was associated with many of the most
significant rites of religion. Two altars were erected in the tabernacle in
the wilderness, and the same number in the temple. In most sections of the
Christian Church the communion-table, or table on which the eucharist is
placed, is called an altar. In the primitive Church it was a table of wood,
but subsequently stone and metal were introduced with rich ornaments,
sculpture, and painting. After the introduction of Gothic art the altar
frequently became a lofty and most elaborate structure. Originally there
was but one altar in a church, but later on there might be several in a
large church, the chief or _high altar_ standing at the east end. Over an
altar there is often a painting (an _altar-piece_), and behind it there may
be an ornamental _altar-screen_ separating the choir from the east end of
the church.
ALTAZ'IMUTH (also called UNIVERSAL INSTRUMENT), an astronomical instrument
similar to a theodolite, having a telescope so mounted that it can be
turned round in a plane perpendicular to the horizon, while it and the
graduated vertical circle connected can also be turned horizontally to any
point of the compass above a graduated horizontal circle. The altazimuth
can thus determine the altitude and azimuth of objects, hence the name.
ALTDORF. See _Altorf_.
AL'TENA, a town of Prussia, Westphalia, 40 miles N.N.E. of Cologne; it has
wire-works, rolling-mills, chain-works, manufactories of needles, pins,
thimbles, &c. Pop. 14,579.
AL'TENBURG, a town of Germany, capital of Saxe-Altenburg, 23 miles south of
Leipzig. It has some fine streets and many handsome buildings, including a
splendid palace; it manufactures cigars, woollen yarn, gloves, hats,
musical instruments, glass, brushes, &c. Pop. 39,976.
ALTERATIVES ([a:]l'-), medicines, as mercury, iodine, &c., which,
administered in small doses, gradually induce a change in the habit or
constitution, and imperceptibly alter disordered secretions and actions,
and restore healthy functions without producing any sensible evacuation by
perspiration, purging, or vomiting.
ALTER EGO (Lat., 'another I'), a second self, one who represents another in
every respect. This term was formerly given, in the official style of the
Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, to a substitute appointed by the king to
manage the affairs of the kingdom, with full royal power.
[Illustration: Alternate leaves]
ALTER'NATE, in botany, placed on opposite sides of an axis at a different
level, as leaves.--_Alternate generation_, the reproduction of young not
resembling their parents, but their grandparents, continuously, as in the
jelly-fishes, &c. See _Generations, Alternation of_.
ALTERNATOR. See _Electricity_.
ALTHAE'A, a genus of plants. See _Hollyhock_ and _Marsh-mallow_.
ALTHORN, one of the instruments of the sax-horn family, the tenor sax-horn.
See _Sax-horn_.