_alqadi_ (Cadi), the judge, not to be confused with _alcaide_, the governor
of a fortress), the name of a magistrate in the Spanish and Portuguese
towns, to whom the administration of justice and the regulation of the
police is committed. His office nearly corresponds to that of justice of
the peace. The name and the office are of Moorish origin.
AL'CAMO, a city in the west of Sicily, 2-1/2 miles south of the Gulf of
Castellamare, near the site of the ancient Segesta, the ruins of which,
including a well-preserved Doric temple and a theatre, as well as the
remains of Moorish occupation, are still to be found here. The district is
celebrated for its wine. Pop. 32,200.
ALCANIZ ([.a]l-k[.a]n-y[=e]th'), a town of north-eastern Spain (Aragon).
Pop. 8750.
ALCAN'TARA (Ar., 'the bridge'), an ancient town and frontier fortress of
Spain, on the Tagus, on a rocky acclivity, and enclosed by ancient walls.
Pop. 3224.--_Order of Alcantara_, an ancient Spanish order of knighthood
instituted for defence against the Moors in 1156, and made a military
religious order in 1197.
ALCARRAZA ([.a]l-k[.a]r-r[:a]'th[.a]), a vessel made of a kind of porous,
unglazed pottery, used in Spain to hold drinking-water, which, oozing
slightly through the vessel, is kept cool by the evaporation that takes
place at the surface. Similar vessels have been long used in Egypt and
elsewhere.
ALCAZAR DE SAN JUAN ([.a]l-k[:a]'th[.a]r d[=a] s[.a]n-_h_w[:a]n), a town of
Spain, province of Ciudad-Real (New Castile), with manufactures of soap,
saltpetre, gunpowder, chocolate, &c. Pop. 13,645.
ALCE'DO. See _Kingfisher_.
ALCES'TIS, in Greek mythology, wife of Admetus, King of Thessaly. Her
husband was ill, and, according to an oracle, would die unless someone made
a vow to meet death in his stead. This was secretly done by Alcestis, and
Admetus recovered. After her decease Hercules brought her back from the
infernal regions.
AL'CHEMY, or ALCHYMY, the art which in former times occupied the place of
and paved the way for the modern science of chemistry (as astrology did for
astronomy), but whose aims were not scientific, being confined solely to
the discovery of the means of indefinitely prolonging human life, and of
transmuting the baser metals into gold and silver. Among the alchemists it
was generally thought necessary to find a substance which, containing the
original principle of all matter, should possess the power of dissolving
all substances into their elements. This general solvent, or _menstruum
universale_, which at the same time was to possess the power of removing
all the seeds of disease out of the human body and renewing life, was
called the _philosophers' stone_, _lapis philosophorum_, and its pretended
possessors were known as _adepts_. Alchemy flourished chiefly in the Middle
Ages, though how old such notions might be as those by which the alchemists
were inspired it is difficult to say. There are many stories about the
mystic origin of alchemy. The art is said to have been taught by the fallen
angels, by Isis, or by Miriam, sister of Moses, or by John the Baptist.
According to Suidas, Egypt was the home of alchemy, and the mythical Hermes
Trismegistus of pre-Christian times was said to have left behind him many
books of magical and alchemical learning, and after him alchemy received
the name of the _hermetic art_. At a later period chemistry and alchemy
were cultivated among the Arabians, and by them the pursuit was introduced
into Europe. Many of the monks devoted themselves to alchemy, although they
were afterwards prohibited from studying it by the popes. Thus Albertus
Magnus is said to have been the author of a work _De Alchimia_, and several
treatises on the subject are attributed to Thomas Aquinas. But even Pope
John XXII is said to have worked at the science at Avignon. Raymond Lully,
or Lullius, a famous alchemist of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries,
is said to have changed for King Edward I a mass of 50,000 lb. of
quicksilver into gold, of which the first rose-nobles were coined. Among
other alchemists may be mentioned John Cremer, Abbot of Westminster
(1327-77), Nicholas Flamel (1330-80), Basilius Valentinus, Isaac of
Holland, and Paracelsus (1493-1541). With the growth of chemistry, the
recognition of the chemical elements as forming a large number of distinct
substances, and the conception of the fixed unalterable nature of the
atoms, attempts to transform the base metals into gold were largely
abandoned as being unscientific. But the most modern view of matter,
namely, that the atoms of all elements are composed of numerous electrons,
favours the idea of the transmutability of elements, and the production of
helium from radium (see these articles) by Ramsay shows the possibility of
this transmutation.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pattison-Muir, _Alchemy, or the
Beginnings of Chemistry_ (Hodder & Stoughton: Useful Knowledge Series);
H. S. Redgrove, _Alchemy, Ancient and Modern_.
ALCIBI'ADES (-d[=e]z), a famous Athenian statesman and general of high
family and of great abilities, but of no principle, was born at Athens in
the 82nd Olympiad, 450 B.C., being the son of Cleinias, and a relative of
Pericles, who also was his guardian. In youth he was remarkable for the
beauty of his person, no less than for the dissoluteness of his manners. He
came under the influence of Socrates, but little permanent effect was
produced on his character by the precepts of the sage. He acquired great
popularity by his liberality in providing for the amusements of the people,
and after the death of Cleon attained a political ascendancy which left him
no rival but Nicias. Thus he played an important part in the long-continued
Peloponnesian war. In 415 he advocated the expedition against Sicily, and
was chosen one of the leaders, but before the expedition sailed he was
charged with profaning and divulging the Eleusinian mysteries, and
mutilating the busts of Hermes, which were set up in public all through
Athens. Rather than stand his trial he went over to Sparta, divulged the
plans of the Athenians, and assisted the Spartans to defeat them. Sentence
of death and confiscation was pronounced against him at Athens, and he was
cursed by the ministers of religion. He soon left Sparta and took refuge
with the Persian satrap Tissaphernes, ingratiating himself by his
affectation of Persian manners, as he had previously done at Sparta by a
similar affectation of Spartan simplicity. He now began to intrigue for his
return to Athens, offering to bring Tissaphernes over to the Athenian
alliance, and after a while he was recalled and his banishment cancelled.
He, however, remained abroad for some years in command of the Athenian
forces, gained several victories, and took Chalcedon and Byzantium. In 407
B.C. he returned to Athens, but in 406, the fleet which he commanded having
suffered a severe defeat, he was deprived of his command. He once more went
over to the Persians, taking refuge with the satrap Pharnabazus of Phrygia,
and here he was assassinated in 404 B.C. The authorities for his life are
Thucydides, Xenophon, Plutarch, and Cornelius Nepos.
ALCINOUS (al-sin'o-us), King of the Phaeacians. See _Ulysses_.
ALCIRA ([.a]l-th[=e]'r[.a]), a town of Spain, province of Valencia, on the
Jucar, founded by the Carthaginians. Fruits, rice, &c., are grown. Pop.
22,050.
ALC'MAN, the chief lyric poet of Sparta, a Lydian by birth, flourished
between 671 B.C. and 631, and wrote (in the Doric dialect) love songs,
hymns, paeans, &c., of which only fragments remain.
ALCME'NA. See _Amphitryon_.
ALCO, a small variety of dog, with a small head and large pendulous ears,
found wild in Mexico and Peru, and also domesticated.
ALCOBACA ([.a]l-k[=o]-b[:a]'s[.a]), a small town of Portugal, 50 miles
north of Lisbon, celebrated for a magnificent Cistercian monastery founded
in 1148 by Don Alphonso I, and completed in 1222. It contains the tombs of
Alphonso II, Alphonso III, Pedro I and his wife Ines de Castro.
AL'COHOL, or ETHYL ALCOHOL, C_2H_6O, is a substance obtained by allowing
the juice of the grape to undergo a change known as fermentation. It is
only in modern times that alcohol has been isolated and its properties
examined. Alcohol is now prepared in enormous quantities, both for
industrial purposes and for the preparation of alcoholic beverages, from
substances rich in sugar or in starch. Potatoes and maize form the main
source of alcohol. These are treated with steam under pressure in
specially-constructed tanks to extract starchy materials. The starch so
liberated is then fermented by means of a substance diastase. This
treatment transforms sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid gas. The solution
is then filtered to remove all insoluble matter, proteids, &c., and from
this solid residue, cattle-feeding cakes are made. This treatment yields a
solution containing 9-10 per cent alcohol. The solution is fractionally
distilled, using a special form of distilling column. The most volatile
part of the distillate, first runnings, contains acetaldehyde, the second
fraction contains the bulk of the alcohol and some water, and the least
volatile portion, last runnings, fusel oil and higher alcohols. By this
means a liquid containing 80-95 per cent alcohol, rectified spirits, is
obtained. For preparation of beverages, fusel oil must be carefully
separated from alcohol, as fusel oil has an injurious effect
physiologically. The removal of the last traces of water from alcohol is
very troublesome. It is repeatedly distilled over quicklime or
freshly-ignited potassium carbonate, giving an alcohol containing 98-99 per
cent alcohol. The small quantity of water still contained is removed by
leaving it in contact with metallic calcium. An alcohol containing more
than 96 per cent alcohol is known as _absolute_. Pure alcohol is a
colourless poisonous liquid boiling at 78deg C., possessing a strong odour
and a burning taste. It is inflammable and mixes with water in all
proportions and has a specific gravity 0.80625 at 0deg C. Very low
temperatures convert it into a glassy solid, melting at -117deg C., hence
it may be used in thermometers for low-temperature measurements. Alcohol
burns with a non-luminous flame and gives out great heat; it is used,
therefore, in various types of lamps for heating purposes. It is also used
as a fuel for motors and is a very valuable solvent for many substances
such as resin, oils, colouring-matter, varnishes, and ethereal essences.
The so-called 'solid alcohol' can be obtained by dissolving 30 to 40 parts
of collodion in 100 parts of alcohol, a solid which separates and burns
like alcohol, leaving no residue. Alcohol is the important constituent of
all alcoholic beverages and it is due to its presence that wine, whisky,
&c., have a stimulating and intoxicating effect on the nervous system.
Beverages such as beer, wine, cider, &c., are prepared by direct
fermentation of sugars obtained in fruit juices in the case of wine and
cider and from barley in the case of beer. These contain varying amounts of
alcohol, thus wine may contain from 8 to 10 per cent of alcohol, whilst
beer contains 3 to 5 per cent. Whisky, brandy, &c., contain more alcohol,
50-70 per cent, and for the preparation of these the alcohol used must be
distilled and purified after fermentation. The alcohol content of an
aqueous solution may be deduced from a determination of the specific
gravity of the solution or directly by the Alcoholometer. This gives
percentage by volume. The amount of alcohol present in any alcoholic
beverage cannot be obtained directly, but if 1/3 of the liquid be distilled
and the distillate made up to the original volume, then the alcohol may be
determined by the Alcoholometer. The name alcohol is applied generally in
chemistry to a large group of substances, containing carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen, which have chemical properties analogous to those of ethyl alcohol.
AL'COHOLISM, a morbid condition of the body (especially of the nervous
system) brought on by the immoderate use of alcoholic liquors.
ALCOHOLOM'ETER, an instrument constructed on the principle of the
hydrometer, to determine from the specific gravity of spirituous liquors
the percentage of alcohol they contain, the scale marking directly the
required proportion. If the liquor contain anything besides water and
alcohol, previous distillation is necessary.
ALCO'RAN. See _Koran_.
AL'COTT, LOUISA MAY, a distinguished American authoress, born in 1833. She
wrote a number of books chiefly intended for the young: _Little Women_
(1867), _An Old-fashioned Girl_ (1869), _Little Men_ (1871), _Jack and
Jill_ (1880), &c. Died in 1888.
[Illustration: Alcove. French; late sixteenth century]
AL'COVE, a recess in a room, usually separated from the rest of the room by
columns, a balustrade, or by curtains, and often containing a bed or seats.
ALCOY', a town of Spain, in Valencia, 24 miles north by west of Alicante,
in a richly-cultivated district. There is a Roman bridge over the river,
and the town has a very picturesque appearance; its chief manufactures are
paper and woollen goods. On the 22nd of April an annual feast is celebrated
by the inhabitants of the town commemorating a victory over the Moors in
1257. Pop. 33,896.
ALCUDIA, Duke of. See _Godoy_.
ALCUIN (alk'win; in his native tongue _Ealhwine_), a learned Englishman,
the confidant, instructor, and adviser of Charles the Great (Charlemagne).
He was born at York in 735, and was educated at York School, of which he
subsequently was head master. Alcuin having gone to Rome, Charlemagne
became acquainted with him at Parma, invited him in 782 to his Court, and
made use of his services in his endeavours to civilize his subjects. To
secure the benefit of his instructions, Charlemagne established at his
Court a school, called _Schola Palatina_, or the Palace School. In the
royal academy Alcuin was called _Flaccus Albinus_. Most of the schools in
France were either founded or improved by him; thus he founded the school
in the abbey of St. Martin of Tours, in 796, after the plan of the school
in York. Alcuin left the Court in 801, and retired to the abbey of St.
Martin of Tours, but kept up a constant correspondence with Charles to his
death in 804. He left works on theology, philosophy, rhetoric, also poems
and letters, all of which have been published. His letters, 232 of which
were addressed to Charlemagne, form the most important part of his work. As
a philosopher, Alcuin, though lacking in originality, exercised a
considerable influence over his contemporaries. The expression of
'scholasticism' is attributed to him.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. J. B. Gaskoin,
_Alcuin, His Life and his Work_, J. B. Mullinger, _The Schools of Charles
the Great_.
ALCYONA'RIA, coelenterate animals forming a great division of the class
Actinozoa (see _Sea-anemone_). These animals are nearly all composite, and
the individual polyps have mostly eight tentacles. They include the
organ-pipe corals, sea-pens, fan-corals, &c., as also the red coral of
commerce. The polyps resemble those of the genus Alcyonium in structure,
and in the number and arrangement of the tentacles. See _Alcyonium_.
ALCYO'NIUM, a genus of coelenterate animals, one familiar species of which,
dredged around the British coasts--_A. digit[=a]tum_--is named 'Dead-Men's
Fingers', or 'Cow's Paps', from its lobed or digitate appearance. It grows
attached to stones, shells, and other objects. It consists of a mass of
little polyps, each polyp possessing eight little fringed tentacles
disposed around a central mouth. The Alcyonium forms the type of the
_Alcyonaria_.
AL'DAN, a river of Eastern Siberia, a tributary of the Lena, 1200 miles in
length. The Aldan Mountains run along parallel to it on the left for 400
miles.
ALDEB'ARAN, a star of the first magnitude, forming the eye of the
constellation Taurus or the Bull, the brightest of the five stars known to
the Greeks as the Hyades. Spectrum analysis has shown it to contain
antimony, bismuth, iron, mercury, hydrogen, sodium, calcium, &c.
ALDEBURGH ([a:]ld'bu-ru), a municipal borough of England, on the coast of
Suffolk, more important formerly than it is now, having suffered from
encroachments of the sea. The poet Crabbe was born there in 1754. Pop.
2892.
AL'DEHYDE, in chemistry, the generic name given to the compounds of alcohol
intermediate between the alcohols and the acids. Common aldehyde (C_2H_4O)
is derived from spirit of wine by oxidation, and is a colourless, limpid,
volatile, and inflammable liquid, with a peculiar ethereal odour, which is
suffocating when strong; specific gravity, 0.79. Atmospheric oxygen
converts it into acetic acid. It decomposes oxide of silver, depositing a
brilliant film of metallic silver; hence it is used in silvering curved
glass surfaces.
[Illustration: Common Alder (_Alnus glutinosa_)]
ALDER ([a:]l'd[.e]r; Alnus), a genus of plants of the sub-ord. Betulaceae
(Birch), (nat. ord. Amentaceae). Fourteen species are known as small trees
or shrubs indigenous to temperate and colder regions of the globe; eight of
these are found in Central and Western Europe. The only species indigenous
to Britain is the common alder (_Alnus glutin[=o]sa_), a tree growing in
wet situations in Europe, Asia, and the United States. Its wood, light and
soft and of a reddish colour, is used for a variety of purposes, and is
well adapted for work which is to be kept constantly in water. Alder is
still largely used in gunpowder manufacture, and the roots and knots
furnish a beautifully-veined wood well suited for cabinet work; it is used
for cigar-boxes in East Prussia and West Russia. The bark is used in
tanning and leather-dressing, and by fishermen for staining their nets.
This and the young twigs are sometimes employed in dyeing, and yield
different shades of yellow and red. With the addition of copperas it yields
a black dye.
ALDERLEY EDGE, a town of England, Cheshire, about 8 miles south-west of
Stockport. Pop. (1921), 3072.
AL'DERMAN ([a:]l'd[.e]r-; Anglo-Saxon _ealdorman_, from _ealdor_, older,
and _man_), among the Anglo-Saxons a person of a rank equivalent to that of
an earl or count, the governor of a shire or county, and member of the
_witena-gemot_ or great council of the nation. Aldermen played an important
role already before the Constitution of Egbert, but reached their highest
power during the reign of Alfred the Great, who had married the daughter of
an alderman. Aldermen, at present, are officers associated with the mayor
of a city for the administration of the municipal government in England and
the United States.
AL'DERNEY (Fr. _Aurigny_), an island belonging to Britain, off the coast of
Normandy, 10 miles due west of Cape La Hogue, and 60 from the nearest point
of England, the most northerly of the Channel Islands, between 3 and 4
miles long, and about 1-1/4 broad. The coast is bold and rocky; the
interior is fertile. About a third of the island is occupied by grass
lands; and the Alderney cows, a small-sized but handsome breed, are famous
for the richness of their milk. The climate is mild and healthy. A judge,
with six 'jurats', chosen by the people for life, and twelve 'douzainiers',
representatives of the people, form a kind of local legislature. The French
language still prevails among the inhabitants, but all understand and many
speak English. The _Race of Alderney_ is the strait between the coast of
France and this island. Pop. 2561.
ALDERSHOT ([:a]l'd[.e]r-), a town and military station in England, the
latter having given rise to the former. The 'camp' was originated in 1854
by the purchase by Government of a tract of moorland known as Aldershot
Heath, on the confines of Surrey, Hampshire, and Berkshire. The object was
to accustom both officers and soldiers to act more readily when drawn up in
brigades and divisions, their practice having been limited for the most
part, since the termination of the French war, to the movements of
battalions and companies. It was also deemed advisable to accustom the army
to camp life, and to exercise the men in all the evolutions and movements
which they might be required to perform when brought into actual contact
with the enemy. The accommodation provided for the army, officers as well
as men, consisted at first of wooden huts; but these have been superseded
by brick barracks, and altogether the money expended on the camp has
amounted to over L3,000,000. The men are exercised in marching,
skirmishing, and similar field operations, which are carried on during the
summer months with great activity; they are also instructed in the camp in
cooking and other duties. The troops at Aldershot in summer include a
number of Territorials, Senior and Junior O.T.C., &c. The town is in the
neighbourhood of the barracks, immediately beyond the Government ground,
and in Hampshire. It contains several churches, and has schools,
newspapers, literary institutes, music-halls &c. Aldershot gives its name
to a parliamentary division of Hants. Pop. (1921), 28,756.
ALD'HELM, an Anglo-Saxon scholar and prelate, Abbot of Malmesbury and
Bishop of Sherborne, born 640 (?), died 709. He was a great fosterer of
learning and builder of churches, and has left Latin writings on
theological subjects.
AL'DINE EDITIONS, the name given to the works which proceeded from the
press of Aldus Manutius and his family at Venice (1494-1592), Rome
(1562-70), and Bologna. (See _Manutius_.) Recommended by their value, as
well as by a splendid exterior, they have gained the respect of scholars
and the attention of book-collectors. Many of them are the first printed
editions (_editiones principes_) of Greek and Latin classics. Others are
texts of the modern Italian authors. These editions are of importance in
the history of printing. The editions printed by Aldus Manutius the Elder
are, however, much more valuable than those issued by his descendants.
Among the former are the first edition of the works of Aristotle in 5
vols., and the works of Virgil, Horace, and Petrarch. Aldus had nine kinds
of Greek type, and no one before him printed so much and so beautifully in
this language. Of the Latin character he procured fourteen kinds of type.
ALDOBRANDI'NI, the name of a Florentine family, subsequently of princely
rank (now extinct), which produced one Pope (Clement VIII) and several
cardinals, archbishops, bishops, and men of learning.--_Aldobrandini
Marriage_, one of the most beautiful ancient fresco paintings, belonging
probably to the time of Augustus, discovered in 1606 on Mount Aquilinus at
the very spot where once were the gardens of Maecenas, and acquired by
Cardinal Aldobrandini, nephew of Clement VIII, now in the Vatican. It
represents a marriage scene in which ten persons are portrayed. There is a
beautiful copy of this fresco by Poussin in the Galleria Doria at Rome.
AL'DRED, or EALDRED, Anglo-Saxon prelate, Bishop of Worcester and
Archbishop of York, born 1000(?), died 1069. He improved the discipline of
the Church and built several monastic churches. On the death of Edward the
Confessor he is said to have crowned Harold. Having submitted to the
Conqueror, whose esteem he enjoyed and whose power he made subservient to
the views of the Church, he also crowned him as well as Matilda.
ALD'RICH, Henry, Dean of Christ Church, Oxford; born in 1647, died in 1710;
distinguished as a philosopher, an architect, and as a musician. His
_Compendium of Logic_ was a textbook till long past the middle of last
century. He adapted many of the works of the older musicians, such as
Palestrina and Carissimi, to the liturgy of the Church of England, and
composed many services and anthems, some of which are still heard in
English cathedrals.