child. Among the ancient Greeks and Romans, and also some modern nations,
adoption is placed under legal regulation. In Rome the effect of adoption
was to create the legal relation of father and son, just as if the person
adopted was born of the blood of the adopter in lawful marriage. The
adopted son took the name of his adopter, and was bound to perform his new
father's religious duties. Adoption is not recognized by the law of England
and Scotland; there are legal means to enable a person to assume the name
and arms, and to inherit the property of another. In some of the United
States adoption is regulated by laws not very dissimilar to those which
prevailed among the Romans.
ADOUR ([.a]-d[:o]r), a river of France, rising in the Hautes Pyrenees, and
falling into the sea a little below Bayonne; length about 200 miles; partly
navigable.
ADO'WA, a town of Abyssinia, in Tigre, at an elevation of 6270 feet; the
chief commercial depot on the caravan route from Massawa to Gondar. Pop.
about 4000. Here the Italians suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of
the Abyssinians, 1st March, 1896.
ADRA ([:a]'_d_r[.a]), a seaport of Southern Spain, in Andalusia, near the
mouth of the Adra, on the Mediterranean; with marble quarries and lead
works. Pop. 9000.
ADRAMIT'TI (ancient ADRAMYTTIUM; Turk. _Edremid_), a town of Turkey in
Asia, near the head of the gulf of the same name, 80 miles north of Smyrna.
Pop. about 5000.
ADRAR', a district in the Western Sahara, peopled by Berbers possessing
camels, sheep, and oxen, and cultivating dates, wheat, barley, and melons.
Chief towns, Wadan and Shingit, which has inexhaustible beds of rock-salt.
ADREN'ALIN, or SUPRARENIN, a crystalline substance obtained from the
adrenals or suprarenal capsules of cattle and sheep, which possesses the
property of checking bleeding by its styptic or contractive powers, and is
used in medical practice, more especially in the case of bleeding at the
nose and nervous catarrh.
ADRIA ([:a]'dri-[.a]), a cathedral city of Northern Italy, province of
Rovigo, between the Po and the Adige, on the site of the ancient town of
same name, whence the Adriatic derives its appellation. Owing to alluvial
deposits the sea is now 17 miles distant. Pop. 11,878.
A'DRIAN, the name of six Popes. The first, a Roman, ruled from 772-795; a
contemporary and friend of Charlemagne. He expended vast sums in rebuilding
the walls and restoring the aqueducts of Rome.--ADRIAN II, a Roman, was
elected Pope in 867, at the age of seventy-five years. He died in 872, in
the midst of conflicts with the Greek Church.--ADRIAN III, a Roman, elected
884, was Pope for one year and four months only. He was the first Pope who
changed his name on the occasion of his exaltation.--ADRIAN IV, originally
named NICOLAS BREAKSPEAR, the only Englishman who ever occupied the papal
chair, was born about 1100, and died 1159. He is said to have been a native
of Hertfordshire, studied in France, and became abbot of St. Rufus in
Provence, cardinal and legate to Norway. Chosen Pope in 1154, his reign is
chiefly remarkable for his almost constant struggle for supremacy with
Frederick Barbarossa, who on one occasion had been forced to hold his
stirrup, and had been crowned by him at Rome (1155). He issued the famous
bull (1158) granting the sovereignty of Ireland, on condition of the
payment of Peter's pence, to Henry II.--ADRIAN V, previously called
OTTOBUONO FIESCHI, of Genoa, settled, as legate of the Pope, the dispute
between King Henry III of England and his nobles, in favour of the former;
but died a month after his election to the papal chair (1276).--ADRIAN VI
(the last pontifice barbaro), born at Utrecht in 1459, was elected to the
papal chair, 9th Jan., 1522. He tried to reform abuses in the Church, but
opposed the zeal of Luther with reproaches and threats, and even attempted
to excite Erasmus and Zuinglius against him. Died 1523, after a reign of
one year and a half.
A'DRIAN, a town of the United States, in Michigan, 70 miles W.S.W. of
Detroit. Its extensive water-power is employed in works of various kinds.
Pop. 9654.
A'DRIAN, Publius Aelius Hadrianus. See _Hadrian_.
ADRIANO'PLE (Turk. _Edreneh_), an important city in the Balkans, about 135
miles W.N.W. from Constantinople, on the Maritza (ancient _Hebrus_), at its
junction with the Tundja and the Arda. It has a great mosque, among the
most magnificent in the world; a palace, now in a state of decay; a grand
aqueduct, and a splendid bazaar; manufactures of silk, woollen, and cotton
stuffs, otto of roses, leather, &c., and an important trade. Adrianople
received its present name from the Roman emperor Adrian (Hadrian). In 1361
it was taken by Amurath I, and was the residence of the Turkish sovereigns
till the conquest of Constantinople in 1453. In 1829 it was taken by the
Russians, and here was then concluded the peace of Adrianople, by which
Russia received important accessions of territory in the Caucasus and on
the coast of the Black Sea. The Russians occupied it also in 1878.
Adrianople was bombarded by the Balkan allied forces in Feb., 1913, and
fell 28th March; it was recaptured by the Turks, under Enver Bey, 20th
July. Pop. 83,000.
ADRIAN'S (or HADRIAN'S) WALL. See _Roman Walls_.
ADRIAT'IC SEA, or GULF OF VENICE, an arm of the Mediterranean, stretching
in a north-westerly direction from the Straits of Otranto, between Italy
and the Balkan Peninsula (Yugo-Slavia). Length, about 480 miles; average
breadth, about 100; area, about 60,000 sq. miles. The rivers which it
receives, particularly the Po, its principal feeder, have produced, and are
still producing, great geological changes in its basin by their alluvial
deposits. Hence Adria, between the Po and the Adige, which gives the sea
its name, though once a flourishing seaport, is now 17 miles inland. An
oceanographic investigation of the Adriatic Sea took place in Feb. and
March, 1911. The principal trading ports on the Italian side are Brindisi,
Bari, Ancona, Sinigaglia, and Venice; on the east side Ragusa, Fiume,
Pirano, Pola, and Trieste (Italian).
ADSCRIPTI GLEBAE (Lat., persons attached to the soil), a term applied to a
class of Roman slaves attached in perpetuity to and transferred with the
land they cultivated. Colliers and salt workers in Scotland were in a
similar position till 1775.
ADULA'RIA, a very pure, limpid, translucent variety of the common felspar,
called by lapidaries _moonstone_, on account of the play of light exhibited
by the arrangement of its crystalline structure. It is found on the Alps,
but the best specimens are brought from Ceylon. It is so called from
_Adula_, one of the peaks of St. Gothard, where fine specimens are got.
ADUL'LAM, CAVE OF, a cave to which David fled when persecuted by Saul, and
whither he was followed by "every one who was in distress, in debt, or
discontented" (1 _Sam._ xxii, 1, 2).--The name _Adullamites_ was given to
an English political party, consisting of R. Lowe, Lord Elcho, and other
Liberals, who opposed the majority of their party on the Franchise Bill of
1866. The term originated from a speech of John Bright on 13th March, 1866.
ADULTERA'TION, a term applied to the fraudulent mixture of articles of
commerce, foods, drugs, beverages, seeds, &c., with inferior ingredients,
and also to any accidental impurity found in a substance. The chief objects
of adulteration are to render a substance more pleasing in appearance, to
increase the weight, to make an inferior article appear as good as the
article of superior quality. Any substance added to an article to increase
its bulk, weight, colour, &c., is spoken of as an adulterant. Milk is often
adulterated with water and with colouring-matter. Butter may be adulterated
by mixing with it other fats or by the addition of colouring-matter. Nearly
every article of food can be adulterated in some way to make it appear of
finer quality. _Preservatives_ added to foods and drugs generally may be
classed as adulterants. Thus cream is preserved by adding small quantities
of boric acid. Beer sometimes contains salicylic acid added as a
preservative. Chloroform contains a small quantity of alcohol to prevent
decomposition. Methylated spirits is alcohol adulterated in several ways to
render it unfit for human consumption. Tobacco contains benzoic acid as
preservative, and sometimes saltpetre to aid burning. Many of these
adulterants are harmful, so that such added to foods and beverages must be
present only in very small quantities. Food and Drug Acts lay down the
limits of the quantities of foreign matter permitted either as preservative
or impurity. Practically every article of commerce is adulterated in some
way, and pure substances are seldom used. Cf. Walker, _The Food Inspector's
Encyclopaedia_.
ADUL'TERY, the voluntary sexual intercourse of a married person with any
other than the offender's husband or wife; when committed between two
married persons, the offence is called double, and when between a married
and single person, single adultery. The Mosaic, Greek, and early Roman law
only recognized the offence when a married woman was the offender. By the
Jewish law it was punished with death. In Greece the laws against it were
severe. By the laws of Draco and Solon adulterers, when caught in the act,
were at the mercy of the injured party. In early Rome the punishment was
left to the discretion of the husband and parents of the adulteress. The
punishment assigned by the Lex Julia, under Augustus, was banishment or a
heavy fine. Under Constantius and Constans, adulterers were burned or sewed
in sacks and thrown into the sea; under Justinian the wife was to be
scourged, lose her dower, and be shut up in a monastery; at the expiration
of two years the husband might take her again; if he refused she was shaven
and made a nun for life. By the ancient laws of France this crime was
punishable with death. In Spain personal mutilation was frequently the
punishment adopted. In several European countries adultery is regarded as a
criminal offence, but in none does the punishment exceed imprisonment for a
short period, accompanied by a fine. In England formerly it was punishable
with fine and imprisonment, and in Scotland it was frequently made a
capital offence. In Great Britain at the present day, however, it is
punishable only by ecclesiastical censure. The aggrieved husband, however,
can obtain damages against his wife's seducer. In England a man can obtain
a dissolution of his marriage on the ground of his wife's adultery, and a
wife can obtain a judicial separation on the ground of her husband's
adultery, or a dissolution of the marriage if the offence is coupled with
cruelty, desertion, or bigamy. In Scotland it is not necessary to prove
cruelty. In the United States the punishment of adultery has varied
materially at different times. It is, however, very seldom punished
criminally in the States. A person divorced for adultery is by the laws of
France and Scotland prohibited from intermarrying with the co-respondent.
AD VALO'REM (Lat., according to the value), a term applied to customs or
duties levied according to the worth of the goods, as sworn to by the
owner, and not according to number, weight, measure, &c.
ADVANCE-NOTE, a draft on the owner of a vessel, generally for one month's
wages, given by the master to the sailors on their signing the articles of
agreement. The granting of such notes to British sailors was made illegal
by an Act passed in 1880.
AD'VENT (Lat. _adventus_, an arrival, 'the coming of our Saviour'), the
name applied to the holy season which occupies the four or, according to
the Greek Church, six weeks preceding Christmas, and which forms the first
portion of the ecclesiastical year, as observed by the Anglican, the Roman
Catholic, and the Greek Church.
AD'VENTISTS, a group of six American religious sects who believe in the
speedy coming of Christ, and generally practise adult immersion. The first
sect of Adventists was founded by William Miller in 1831.--There is also a
sect called _Seventh-day Adventists_, who hold that the coming of Christ is
at hand, and maintain that the Sabbath is still the seventh day of the
week.
AD'VERB, one of the parts of speech used to limit or qualify the
signification of an adjective, verb, or other adverb; as, _very cold_,
_naturally brave_, _much more clearly_, _readily agreed_. Adverbs may be
classified as follows: (1) Adverbs of time, as, _now_, _then_, _never_,
&c.; (2) of place, as, _here_, _there_, _where_, &c.; (3) of degree, as,
_very_, _much_, _nearly_, _almost_, &c.; (4) of affirmation, negation, or
doubt, as, _yes_, _no_, _certainly_, _perhaps_, &c.; (5) of manner, as,
_well_, _badly_, _clearly_, &c.
ADVERTIS'ING. Advertising on a small scale is a practice as old as
commerce; but modern advertising on a large scale cannot be dated further
back than 1785, when the _Times_ was founded. The last thirty years have
witnessed a great increase in the importance of advertisements as part of
the policy of a progressive business. Much more intelligence and vastly
more money is now spent on advertising than ever was before. America led
the way, but the British are not now far behind in the number and ingenuity
of their advertisements.
There are roughly speaking five distinct types of advertisement:--
(1) Press advertising, under which heading is included daily and weekly
newspapers, monthly magazines and year books, directories, &c.
(2) Mail-order advertising, which comprises form-letters, catalogues.
(3) Poster and showcard advertising. This includes large and small posters,
on hoardings, in railway stations or tubes, &c.
(4) Illuminated signs either outside buildings on a large scale or in
frames of various sizes inside business premises, theatres, &c.
(5) Cinema advertising--a recent development which has proved extremely
effective.
Advertising to be successful must be carefully organized. A firm wishing to
advertise must first of all settle how much money it is willing to spend on
this object. A common practice is to devote a fixed proportion of the
profits--at least five per cent--to advertising. The firm must then
carefully consider the period of time over which the expenditure agreed
upon is to be spread. Occasional or spasmodic advertising does not produce
satisfactory results; advertising must be constant and must move with the
times in order to be effective. A firm not uncommonly reviews the results
of its advertising every six months, when it also arranges its plans for
future advertisements. Mistakes in policy can thus be corrected and
successful schemes can be readopted or improved upon. Advertising on any
large scale must be handled by experts. Many thousands of pounds are wasted
yearly by firms which hand over this work to a director who has no
knowledge of how to advertise. The proper way for a firm to act, if it
wishes to enter upon a campaign of publicity, is to engage an efficient
advertising staff or to employ a reliable advertising agent. These agents
in many cases obtain their profits from the commission given to them by
newspapers--this often being about ten per cent of the cost of the space
booked. In return for this they give their advice and copy--everything,
indeed, except blocks and sketches.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Henry Sampson, _A
History of Advertising_; _Edinburgh Review_, Feb., 1843, _On the
Advertising System_. A good account of the more recent developments of
advertising is to be found in H. G. Wells's novel _Tono-Bungay_; T.
Russell, _Commercial Advertising_.
AD VITAM AUT CULPAM (Lat., for life or till a fault), a formula often used
in regard to appointments to posts or offices, intimating that they are
held for life or till the person forfeits his position by some fault or
misdeed.
AD'VOCATE (Lat., _advocatus_--_ad_, to, _voco_, to call), a lawyer
authorized to plead the cause of his clients before a court of law. It is
only in Scotland that this word seems to denote a distinct class belonging
to the legal profession, the advocates of Scotland being the pleaders
before the supreme courts, and corresponding to the _barristers_ of England
and Ireland. These advocates all belong to the _Faculty of Advocates_,
Edinburgh, to whom the oral pleadings in the Court of Session are for the
most part limited, while they are also competent to plead in all the
inferior Scottish courts and in the House of Lords in cases of appeal from
the Court of Session. The supreme judges in Scotland, as well as the
sheriffs of the various counties, are always selected from among them.
Candidates for admission must undergo two separate examinations, one in
general scholarship and the other in law.--The _Lord-Advocate_, called also
the _King's_ or _Queen's Advocate_, is the principal law officer of the
crown in Scotland. He is the public prosecutor of crimes in the Supreme
Court, and senior counsel for the crown in civil causes. Being appointed by
the crown, he goes out of office with the administration to which he
belongs. As public prosecutor he is assisted by the solicitor-general and
by four junior counsel called advocates-depute. The lord-advocate and the
solicitor-general, in addition to their official duties, accept of ordinary
bar practice.
ADVOCATES' LIBRARY, the chief library in Scotland, located in Edinburgh,
and founded about 1682 by the Faculty of Advocates. It was increased by
donations and by sums granted by the Faculty from time to time. As the
donations were not confined to advocates the library was considered a kind
of public library, and it has continued to retain this character. In 1709
it obtained, along with eight other libraries, the right to demand a copy
of every new book published in Britain, which right it still possesses. The
number of volumes is over 600,000 and MSS. over 3200.
ADVOCA'TUS DIAB'OLI (Devil's advocate), in the Roman Catholic Church, a
functionary who, when a deceased person is proposed for canonization,
brings forward and insists upon all the weak points of the character and
life of the deceased, endeavouring to show that he is not worthy of
sainthood. The first formal mention of such an officer occurs under Pope
Leo X (1513-21). The opposite side is taken by the _Advocatus Dei_ (God's
advocate).
ADVOW'SON, in English law, a right of presentation to a vacant benefice,
or, in other words, a right of nominating a person to officiate in a vacant
church. Those who have this right are styled _patrons_. Advowsons are of
three kinds--_presentative_, _collative_, and _donative_: _presentative_,
when the patron presents his clerk to the bishop of the diocese to be
instituted; _collative_, when the bishop is the patron, and institutes or
_collates_ his clerk by a single act; _donative_, when a church is founded
by the king, or any person licensed by him, without being subject to the
ordinary, so that the patron confers the benefice on his clerk without
presentation, institution, or induction. An advowson cannot be held by
either a Roman Catholic or an alien.
AD'YTUM, a secret place of retirement in the ancient temples, esteemed the
most sacred spot; the innermost sanctuary or shrine. From this place the
oracles were given, and none but the priests were permitted to enter it.
The Holy of Holies or Sanctum Sanctorum of the Temple at Jerusalem was of a
similar character.
ADZE, a cutting instrument used for chipping the surface of timber,
somewhat of a mattock shape, and having a blade of steel forming a portion
of a cylindrical surface, with a cutting edge at right angles to the length
of the handle.
AEDILES ([=e]'d[=i]lz), Roman magistrates who had the supervision of the
national games and spectacles; of the public edifices, such as temples (the
name comes from _aedes_, a temple); of private buildings, of the markets,
cleansing and draining the city, &c.
AE'DUI, one of the most powerful nations of Gaul, between the Liger (Loire)
and the Arar (Saone). On the arrival of Julius Caesar in Gaul (58 B.C.)
they were subject to Ariovistus, but their independence was restored by
Caesar. Their chief town was Bibracte (Mont Beuvray, near Autun).
AEGADE'AN ISLANDS, a group of small islands lying off the western extremity
of Sicily, and consisting of Maritimo, Favignana, Levanso, and Le Formiche.
[Illustration: Grecian Ibex (_Capra aegagrus_)]
AEGAG'RUS, a wild species of ibex (_Capra aegagrus_), found in herds on the
Caucasus, and many Asiatic mountains, believed to be the original source of
at least one variety of the domestic goat.
AEGEAN CIVILIZATION, a term applied to the pre-Hellenic civilization of
south-eastern Europe, including Crete, Greece and the Cyclades, and the
Danubian or Mid-European area. See _Crete_ and _Danubian Civilization_.
AEGEAN SEA ([=e]-j[=e]'an), that part of the Mediterranean which washes the
eastern shores of Greece, and the western coast of Asia Minor. See
_Archipelago_.
AE'GILOPS, a genus of grasses, very closely allied to wheat, and somewhat
remarkable from the alleged fact that by cultivation one of the species
becomes a kind of wheat.
AEGINA ([=e]-j[=i]'na), a Greek island in the Gulf of Aegina, south of
Athens, triangular in form; area about 32 sq. miles; pop. 8500. It forms
part of the nomarchy of Attica and Boeotia. Except in the west, where the
surface is more level, the island is mountainous and unproductive. The
inhabitants are chiefly engaged in trade, seafaring, and agriculture, the
chief crops being almonds, olives, and grain. The greater number of them
reside in the seaport town of Aegina. Aegina was anciently colonized by
Dorians from the opposite coast of Peloponnesus. In the latter half of the
sixth century B.C. it had a flourishing commerce, a large navy, and was the
seat of a distinct school of art. At the battle of Salamis (480 B.C.) the
Aeginetans behaved with great valour. In 456 the island fell under the
power of the Athenians, and in 431 the Aeginetans were expelled to make
room for Athenian settlers, but were afterwards restored. On a hill are the
remains of a splendid temple of Athena (Minerva), many of the columns of
which are still standing. Here was found in 1811 a considerable amount of
sculpture from the pediments (the _Aeginetan marbles_), which is now at the
Glyptothek at Munich, and is prized as throwing light on the early history
of Greek art. Though in these figures there is a wonderfully exact
imitation of nature, yet there is a certain stiffness about them and an
unnatural sameness of expression in all. They should probably be assigned
to the period 500-480 B.C.
AEGIS ([=e]'jis), the shield of Zeus, according to Homer, but according to
later writers and artists a metal cuirass or breastplate, in which was set
the head of the Gorgon Medusa, and with which Athena (Minerva) is often
represented as being protected. In a figurative sense the word is used to
denote some shielding or protecting power.
AEGLE ([=e]'gl[=e]), a genus of plants. See _Bel._
AEGOSPOT'AMI ('goat-rivers'), a place on the Hellespont, of some note in
Greek history, the Athenian fleet being here completely defeated in 405
B.C. by the Spartan Lysander, thus ending the Peloponnesian war.
AELFRIC (al'frik), Abbot, called _Grammaticus_ (the grammarian), was a
celebrated English author of the eleventh century. He became a monk of
Abingdon, was afterwards connected with Winchester, and died Abbot of
Eynsham. His principal works are two books of homilies, a _Treatise on the
Old and New Testaments_, a translation and abridgment of the first seven
books of the Bible, a _Latin Grammar and Glossary_, &c. He has been
frequently confounded both with Aelfric, Archbishop of Canterbury, and
Aelfric, Archbishop of York, surnamed Putta, who lived about the same time.
There was also an Aelfric of Malmesbury.
AELIA'NUS, Claudius, often called simply AELIAN, a Roman author who lived
about A.D. 221, and wrote in Greek a collection of stories and anecdotes
and a natural history of animals.
AELIA'NUS TACTICUS, so called to distinguish him from Claudius Aelianus,
lived at Rome, and wrote a work _On the Military Tactics of the Greeks_,
which he dedicated to the Emperor Hadrian, who was emperor from A.D. 117 to
138. This book was closely studied by soldiers of the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries.
AELST ([:a]lst), Belgian town, same as ALOST.