(here navigable), 73 miles north-east of Lisbon, with which it carries on
an active trade. Pop. 8000.
ABRANTES, Duke of. See _Junot_.
ABRAX'AS (or ABRASAX) STONES, the name given to stones or gems found in
Syria, Egypt, and elsewhere, cut into almost every variety of shape, but
generally having a human trunk and arms, with a cock's head, two serpents'
tails for the legs, &c., and the mystico-theosophical word Abraxas or
Abrasax in Greek characters engraved upon them. Eventually they came to be
used as charms and amulets. Basilides (A.D. 130) and other gnostics gave
the name of Abraxas to Almighty God, the Supreme Deity, since the numerical
value of its letters in Greek gave the sum of 365, and they believed that
365 orders of spirits emanated from God. Not all abraxas stones, however,
are of gnostic origin, just as the name of abraxas cannot be applied to all
gnostic stones. Cf. King: _The Gnostics and their Remains_, London, 1887.
ABRIN, or ABRINE, a poisonous substance, being the active principle in the
seeds of _Abrus precatorius_ (see _Abrus_). A minute quantity introduced
into the blood is fatal to many animals, but it is employed in ailments of
the eyes, and as a remedy for lupus and certain skin diseases.
ABROGA'TION, the repealing of a law by a competent authority.
ABROLHOS (a-brole'-yoce) a group of rocky islands 50 miles off the east
coast of Brazil, the largest of which is Santa Barbara. Another group
called Abrolhos lies off the west coast of Australia.
ABRO'MA, a genus of small trees, natives of India, Java, &c., one species
of which, _A. augusta_, has a bark yielding a strong white fibre, from
which good cordage is made.
ABRUPT', in botany, terminating suddenly, as if a part were cut short off.
AB'RUS, a genus of papilionaceous plants, order Leguminosae, one species of
which, _Abrus precatorius_, a delicate twining shrub, a native of the East
Indies, and found also in tropical parts of Africa and America, has round
brilliant scarlet seeds, used to make necklaces and rosaries. Its root is
sweetish and mucilaginous, and is used as a substitute for liquorice
_(Indian liquorice_). The seeds yield a strong poison.
ABRUZZI ([.a]-br[u:]t's[=e]), a division of Italy on the Adriatic, between
Umbria and the Marches on the north, and Apulia on the south. It is united
with Molise to form a _compartimento_, comprising the four provinces of
Aquila degli Abruzzi, Campobasso, Chicti, and Teramo. The sea-coast of
about 80 miles does not possess a single harbour. The interior is rugged
and mountainous, being traversed throughout by the Apennines. The lower
parts consist of fertile plains and valleys, yielding corn, wine, oil,
almonds, saffron, &c.; area, 6387 sq. miles. Pop. 1,480,748.
AB'SALON, or AXEL, a Danish prelate, statesman, and warrior, born in 1128,
died 1201. He became the intimate friend and counsellor of his sovereign
Waldemar I, who appointed him Archbishop of Lund. He cleared the sea of the
Slavonic pirates who had long infested it, secured the independence of the
kingdom by defeating a powerful fleet of the Emperor Barbarossa, and built
the castle of Axelborg, the nucleus of Copenhagen. He ultimately became
Primate of Denmark and Sweden. Turning his thoughts to literature he caused
the _History of Denmark_ to be drawn up by Saxo Grammaticus and Svend
Aagesen.
AB'SCESS, any collection of purulent matter or pus formed in some tissue or
organ of the body, and confined within some circumscribed area, of varying
size, but always painful and often dangerous.
ABSENTEEISM, a term applied to landlords who absent themselves from their
estates and live and spend their money elsewhere; in its more extended
meaning it refers to all those whose fixed residence is outside their own
country but who derive their income from sources within it. The social,
economic, political, and moral evils resulting from such a system are
considerable and hurtful to the interests of a region, the absentee being
apt to lose his interest in things and persons and the public welfare
generally. Some economists, however, have adduced arguments in favour of
it, as it may sometimes be for the good of the community that a rich and
luxurious landlord should be absent from his estate.
The absenteeism of the Irish nobility, which became worse after the Union
with Great Britain and the transfer of Parliament from Dublin to London,
has been a constant source of mischief, whilst France before the
Revolution, Russia under the Tsars Alexander I and Nicholas I, and Hungary
in the eighteenth century suffered greatly from the practice. The first
statute concerning absentees was passed in the English Parliament in 1379,
and in 1729 a tax was levied on all moneys paid out of Ireland.
AB'SINTH, French _Absinthe_ ([.a]b-sa[n.]t), a liqueur consisting of an
alcoholic solution strongly flavoured with an extract of several sorts of
wormwood, oil of anise, &c. When taken habitually, or in excess, its
effects are very pernicious. A favourite drink of the Parisians, it was
suppressed entirely throughout France by a law passed on 12th Feb., 1915.
AB'SOLUTE, in a general sense, loosed or freed from all limitations or
conditions. In politics, an _absolute_ monarchy is that form of government
in which the ruler is unlimited or uncontrolled by constitutional checks.
In modern metaphysics _the Absolute_ represents the unconditioned,
infinite, and self-existent.
ABSOLU'TION, remission of a penitent's sins in the name of God. It is
commonly maintained that down to the twelfth century the priests used only
what is called the _precatory_ formula, "May God or Christ absolve thee",
which is still the form in the Greek Church; whereas the Roman Catholic
uses the expression "I absolve thee", thus regarding the forgiveness of
sins as in the power of the priest (the _indicative_ form). This theory of
absolution was confirmed by the Council of Trent. The passages of Scripture
on which the Roman Catholic Church relies in laying down its doctrine of
absolution are such as _Mat._ xvi. 19, xviii. 18; _John_, xx. 23. Among
Protestants absolution properly means a sentence by which a person who
stands excommunicated is released from that punishment.
ABSOLUTISM, a system of government in which the supreme power is vested in
a ruler not controlled or limited by any constitution or laws. It has
prevailed in Oriental countries, including Japan, until the latter part of
the nineteenth century. There are now no absolute monarchies in Europe.
ABSOR'BENTS, the system of minute vessels by which the nutritive elements
of food and other matters are carried into the circulation of vertebrate
animals. The vessels consist of two different sets, called respectively
_lacteals_ and _lymphatics_. The former arise from the digestive tract, the
latter from the tissues generally, both joining a common trunk which
ultimately enters the blood-vessel system. Absorbents in medicine are
substances such as chalk, charcoal, &c., that absorb or suck up excessive
secretion of fluid or gas.
ABSORP'TION, in physiology, one of the vital functions by which the
materials of nutrition and growth are absorbed and conveyed to the organs
of plants and animals. In vertebrate animals this is done by the lymphatics
and lacteals, in plants chiefly by the roots. See _Absorbents_.
In physics, _absorption of colour_ is the phenomenon observed when certain
colours are retained or prevented from passing through transparent bodies;
thus pieces of coloured glass are almost opaque to some parts of the
spectrum, while allowing other colours to pass through freely. In chemistry
absorption is the taking up of a gas by a liquid, or by a porous solid.
AB'STINENCE. See _Fasting, Temperance_.
ABSTRAC'TION, the operation of the mind by which it disregards part of what
is presented to its observation in order to concentrate its attention on
the remainder. It is the foundation of the operation of generalization, by
which we arrive at general conceptions. In order, for example, to form the
conception of a horse, we disregard the colour and other peculiarities of
the particular horses observed by us, and attend only to those qualities
which all horses have in common. In rising to the conception of an animal
we disregard still more qualities, and attend only to those which all
animals have in common with one another.
ABU (a-b[:o]'), a granitic mountain of India in Sirohi State, Rajputana,
rising precipitously from the surrounding plains, its top forming a
picturesque and varied tract 14 miles long and 2 to 4 broad; highest point
5653 ft. It is a hot-weather resort of Europeans, and is the site of two
most beautiful Jain temples, built in 1031 and 1200.
ABU-BEKR, or FATHER OF THE VIRGIN, born 570 died 634, the father-in-law and
first successor of Mahomet. His right to the succession was unsuccessfully
contested by Ali, Mahomet's son-in-law, and a schism took place, which
divided the Mahommedans into the two great sects of Sunnites and Shiites,
the former maintaining the validity of Abu-Bekr's and the latter that of
Ali's claim.
ABUKIR'. See _Aboukir_.
ABU KLEA, a group of wells, surrounded by steep, black mountains, about 120
miles from Khartoum, in the Sudan, where, on the 17th Jan., 1885, Sir
Herbert Stewart, with 1500 men, defeated the Mahdi's troops numbering
10,000.
ABULFARA'GIUS, Gregory, a distinguished scholar, a Jew by birth (hence the
name of _Barhebraeus_, often given him), author of numerous works in Arabic
and Syriac, was born in Armenia in 1226, died in 1286. About 1264 he was
consecrated Bishop of Gubas; he was afterwards translated to Aleppo and was
appointed primate of the Jacobite Christians. His principal work is a
_History of the World_ from the Creation to his own day, written in Syriac,
with an abridged version in Arabic, entitled _The Abridged History of the
Dynasties_.
ABUL'FEDA, Arab writer, Prince of Hamah, in Syria, of the same family as
Saladin, famous as an historian and geographer, was born at Damascus 1273,
died 1331. Amid the cares of government he devoted himself with zeal to
study, drew the learned around him, and rendered his power and wealth
subservient to the cause of science. His most important works are his
_History of the Human Race_ (the portion from the birth of Mahomet to his
own time being valuable), and his geography called _The True Situation of
Countries_.
ABUNDA, a Bantu race of Angola, living on the coastlands and on the
terraces rising towards the interior, and divided into 'highlanders' and
'lowlanders'. They speak Portuguese and Umbunda, a trade language.
ABUSHEHR ([:a]-b[:o]-sh[=a]r'). See _Bushire_.
ABU-SIMBEL. See _Ibsambul_.
ABU'TILON, a genus of plants, order Malvaceae, sometimes called Indian
mallows, found in the East Indies, Australia, Brazil, Siberia, &c. Several
of them yield a valuable hemp-like fibre, as _A. indicum_ and _A.
Avicennae_. The latter, now a troublesome weed in the Middle United States,
has been recommended for cultivation, and is sometimes called American
jute.
ABUT'MENT, the part of a bridge which receives and resists the lateral
outward thrust of an arch; the masonry, rock, or other solid materials from
which an arch springs.
ABY'DOS, 1, an ancient city of Asia Minor, on the Hellespont, at the
narrowest part of the strait, opposite Sestos. Leander, say ancient
writers, swam nightly from Abydos to Sestos to see his loved Hero--a feat
in swimming accomplished also by Lord Byron.--2, an ancient city of Upper
Egypt (Egyptian Abotu), about 6 miles west of the Nile, now represented
only by ruins of temples, tombs, &c. It was celebrated as the burial-place
of the god Osiris, and its oldest temple was dedicated to him. Here, in
1818, was discovered the famous _Abydos Tablet_, now in the British Museum,
and containing a list of the predecessors of Rameses the Great, which was
supplemented by the discovery of a similar historical tablet in 1864. The
tomb of Osiris was discovered in 1898 by Amelinau. Cf. Flinders Petrie,
_The Royal Tombs of the Earliest Dynasties_ (2 vols.), London, 1900-9.
ABYSSIN'IA (Ar. _Habesha_), a country of Eastern Africa, which, with
dependencies, may be said to extend from lat. 5deg to 15deg N. and long.
35deg to 42deg E., having the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan on the W., British E.
Africa on the S., and on the S.E. and E. Somali-land and Eritrea (Italian
Red Sea coast); area, 350,000 sq. miles. Pop. over 8,000,000. The country
is now divided into 9 provinces, the principal being Harrar, Tigre, Amhara
or Gondar. Each province is governed by a ras, or prince, but Ras Michael,
the governor of Wollo and father of the deposed negus, Lij Yasu, was
crowned king on 1st June, 1914. Abyssinia proper is an elevated region,
with a general slope to the north-west. The more marked physical features
are a vast series of tablelands, of various and often of great elevations,
and numerous masses or ranges of high and rugged mountains, dispersed over
the surface in apparently the wildest confusion. Along the deep and
tremendous ravines that divide the plateaux rush innumerable streams, which
impart extraordinary fertility to the plains and valleys below. The
mountains in various parts of the country rise to 12,000 and 13,000 feet,
while some of the peaks are over 15,000 feet (Ras Dashan being 15,160), and
are always covered with snow. The principal rivers belong to the Nile
basin, the chief being the impetuous Tacazze ('the Terrible') in the north,
and the Abai in the south, the latter being really the upper portion of the
Blue Nile. The principal lake is Lake Tzana or Dembea (from which issues
the Abai), upwards of 6000 feet above the sea, having a length of about 45
and a breadth of 35 miles. Round this lake lies a fertile plain, deservedly
called the granary of the country.--According to elevation there are
several zones of vegetation. Within the lowest belt, which reaches an
elevation of 4800 feet, cotton, wild indigo, acacias, ebony, baobabs,
sugar-canes, coffee trees, date palms, &c., flourish, while the larger
animals are lions, panthers, elephants, rhinoceroses, hippopotamuses,
jackals, hyenas, bears, numerous antelopes, monkeys, and crocodiles. The
middle zone, rising to 9000 feet, produces the grains, grasses, and fruits
of southern Europe, the orange, vine, peach, apricot, the bamboo, sycamore
tree, &c. The principal grains are millet, barley, wheat, maize, and teff,
the latter a small seed, a favourite bread-stuff of the Abyssinians. Two,
and in some places three, crops are obtained in one year. All the domestic
animals of Europe, except swine, are known. There is a variety of ox with
immense horns. The highest zone, reaching to 14,000 feet, has but little
wood, and generally scanty vegetation, the hardier corn-plants only being
grown; but oxen, goats, and long-woolled sheep find abundant pasture.--The
climate is as various as the surface, but as a whole is temperate and
agreeable; in some of the valleys the heat is often excessive, while on the
mountains the weather is cold. In certain of the lower districts malaria
prevails.--The chief mineral products are sulphur, copper, coal, and salt,
the last-named serving to some extent as money. Iron is very abundant and
is manufactured into knives, hatchets, and spears. There has been a great
intermixture of races in Abyssinia. Those who may be considered the
Abyssinians proper seem to have a blood-relationship with the Bedouin
Arabs. Their complexion varies from very dark through different shades of
brown and copper to olive, and they are usually well built. Other races are
the black Gallas from the south; the Falashas, who claim descent from
Abraham and retain many Jewish characteristics; the Agows, Gongas, &c. The
great majority of the people profess Christianity, belonging, like the
Copts, to the sect of the Monophysites. The head of the church is called
the Abuna ('our father'), and is consecrated by the Coptic patriarch of
Alexandria. Geez or Ethiopian is the language of their sacred books: it has
long ago ceased to be spoken. The chief spoken language is the Amharic; in
it some books have been published. Mohammedanism appears to be gaining
ground in Abyssinia. A corrupt form of Judaism is professed by the
Falashas.--The bulk of the people are devoted to agriculture and
cattle-breeding. The trade and manufactures are of small importance. A good
deal of common cotton cloth and some finer woven fabrics are produced.
Leather is prepared to some extent, silver filagree-work is produced, and
there are manufactures of common articles of iron and brass, pottery, &c.
Trade is carried on through Zeila and Djibouti (French Ethiopian Railway
was completed in 1915) on the Gulf of Aden, and Massowa on the Red Sea
(Italian), exports being hides, coffee, wax, gum, ivory, &c., imports
textile fabrics, &c. The Abyssinians were converted to Christianity in the
fourth century, by some missionaries from Alexandria. In the sixth century
the power of the sovereigns of their kingdom, which was generally known as
Ethiopia, had attained its height; but before another had expired the Arabs
had invaded the country, and obtained a footing. For several centuries
subsequently the kingdom continued in a distracted state, being now torn by
internal commotions and now invaded by external enemies (Mahommedans and
Gallas). To protect himself from the latter the Emperor of Abyssinia
applied, about the middle of the sixteenth century, to the King of Portugal
for assistance, promising, at the same time, implicit submission to the
Pope. The solicited aid was sent, and the empire saved. The Roman Catholic
priests endeavoured to induce the emperor and his family to renounce the
tenets and rites of the Coptic Church, and to adopt those of Rome. This
attempt, however, was resisted by the ecclesiastics and the people, and
ended, after a long struggle, in the expulsion of the Catholic priests
about 1630. The kingdom gradually fell into a state of anarchy, and was
broken up into several independent States. An attempt to revive the power
of the ancient kingdom of Ethiopia was made by King Theodore about the
middle of the last century. He introduced European artisans, and went to
work wisely in many ways, but his cruelty and tyranny counteracted his
politic measures. In consequence of a slight, real or fancied, which he had
received at the hands of the British Government, he threw Consul Cameron
and a number of other British subjects into prison, in 1863, and refused to
give them up. To effect their release an army of nearly 12,000 men, under
Sir Robert (afterwards Lord) Napier, was dispatched from Bombay in 1867.
The force landed at Zoulla on the Red Sea, and marching up the country came
within sight of the hill-fortress of Magdala in April, 1868. After being
defeated in a battle, Theodore delivered up the captives and shut himself
up in Magdala, which was taken by storm on the 13th April, Theodore being
found among the slain. After the withdrawal of the British, fighting
immediately began among the chiefs of the different provinces, but at last
the country was divided between Kasa, who secured the northern and larger
portion (Tigre and Amhara) and assumed the name of King Johannes, and
Menelek, who gained possession of Shoa. Latterly Johannes made himself
supreme and in 1881 assumed the title of emperor (_negus negusti_--king of
kings), having under him the Kings of Shoa and Gojam. Debra Tabor, about 30
miles east of Lake Dembea, was his chief residence. During the troubles in
Abyssinia the Egyptians annexed Massowa and the region adjacent, Abyssinia
being thus shut out from the sea. Afterwards the Italians gained and still
hold Massowa and the Red Sea littoral (Eritrea). Johannes fell at Metemmeh
in 1889, whilst fighting against the Mahdists, and was succeeded by Menelek
II. In 1916 Lij Yasu, who succeeded Menelek II in 1913, was deposed and
Waizeru Zauditu (born 1876) became empress.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. P. Skinner,
_Abyssinia of Today_. A. B. Wylde, _Modern Abyssinia_.
[Illustration: Acacia arabica, showing leaves, flowers, and fruit]
ACA'CIA, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Leguminosae, sub-order Mimoseae,
consisting of trees or shrubs with compound pinnate leaves and small
leaflets, growing in Africa, Arabia, the East Indies, Australia, &c. The
flowers, usually small, are arranged in spikes or globular heads at the
axils of the leaves near the extremity of the branches. The corolla is
bell- or funnel-shaped; stamens are numerous; the fruit is a dry unjointed
pod. Several of the species yield gum-arabic and other gums; some having
astringent barks and pods, used in tanning. _A. Catechu_, an Indian
species, yields the valuable astringent called catechu; _A. dealb[=a]ta_,
the wattle tree of Australia, from 15 to 30 feet in height, is the most
beautiful and useful of the species found there. Its bark contains a large
percentage of tannin, and is exported in large quantities. Some species
yield valuable timber; some are cultivated for the beauty of their flowers.