Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Keith Edkins and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
Transcriber's note: In the pronunciation guides [=e] signifies "e macron";
[)e] "e breve"; [a:] "a with diaeresis below"; [.a] "a with dot above";
[n.] "n with dot below"; [:a] "a with diaeresis"; and so forth.
THE
NEW GRESHAM
ENCYCLOPEDIA
VOLUME I
* * * * *
_EDITORS_
ANGELO S. RAPPOPORT, Ph.D., B.es L.
R. F. PATTERSON, M.A.(Cantab.), D.Litt.(Glasgow).
JOHN DOUGALL, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E.; Gold Medallist
of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
* * * * *
ALGAE
[Illustration: 1, The very broad Ulva. 2, Cornucopia. 3, Caulerpa
Cactoides. 4, Acetabularia Mediterranea. 5, Bladder-locks. 6, Long-stalked
Laminaria. 7, Sugared Laminaria. 8, Bladder Wrack. 9, Serrated Wrack. 10,
Gulf-weed. 11, Thalassiophyllum Clathrus. 12, Forked Dictyota. 13,
Medicinal Coralline. 14, Corallina Rubens. 15, Delesseria Lyalii. 16,
Nitophyllum Crosieri. 17, Membrane-leaved Phyllophira. 18, Peacock's-tail
Padina. 19, Banded Taonia.]
THE
NEW . GRESHAM
ENCYCLOPEDIA
VOLUME . I
[Illustration]
_The_ GRESHAM . PUBLISHING
COMPANY . _Limited_
66 CHANDOS STREET . STRAND
LONDON W.C.2.
1922
* * * * *
LIST OF PLATES AND MAPS
* * * * *
VOLUME I
* * * * *
PLATES
Page
ALGAE (_Coloured_) _Frontispiece_
AEROPLANE 44
AIR-SHIPS 72
ANATOMY (Human Skeleton and Muscles) 152
ARCHAEOLOGY (Antiquities of the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages) 220
ARCHITECTURE 224
BACTERIA 348
MAPS IN COLOUR
AFRICA 52
ASIA 274
AUSTRALIA 316
* * * * *
CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME I
ADOLPHE ABRAHAMS, O.B.E., B.A., M.D., late Major, R.A.M.C.
GEORGE E. ALLAN, D.Sc., Lecturer in Electricity, University of Glasgow.
R. E. ANDERSON, Maker of Artificial Limbs.
F. L. ATTENBOROUGH, B.A., Emmanuel College, Cambridge.
F. F. P. BISACRE, O.B.E., M.A., B.Sc., A.M.I.C.E.
R. M. BROWN, B.Sc.
GRENVILLE A. J. COLE, F.R.S., Professor of Geology, Royal College of
Science, Ireland.
ARTHUR O. COOKE, Author of _A Book of Dovecotes_.
J. R. AINSWORTH DAVIS, M.A., F.C.P., former Principal of The Royal
Agricultural College, Cirencester.
MONTAGU DRUMMOND, M.A., Lecturer in Botany, University of Glasgow.
CHARLES J. FFOULKES, B.Litt., Major, R.M.; Curator of the Armouries, Tower
of London.
F. MORLEY FLETCHER, Director, College of Art, Edinburgh.
Rev. WILLIAM FULTON, D.D., B.Sc., Professor of Systematic Theology,
University of Aberdeen.
L. HADEN GUEST, M.C., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.
R. N. HAYGARTH, B.A., B.Sc., Queens' College, Cambridge.
W. A. HISLOP, M.B., late Captain, R.A.M.C.
DONALD A. MACKENZIE, Folklorist; Author of _Egyptian Myth and Legend_, &c.
MAGNUS MACLEAN, M.A., D.Sc., M.Inst.E.E., M.Inst.C.E., Editor of _Modern
Electrical Engineering_, &c.
W. LOCKWOOD MARSH, O.B.E., M.A., A.F.R.Ae.S., Lieutenant-Colonel; late
R.A.F.; Secretary of the Royal Aeronautical Society.
D. J. MACKELLOR, B.Sc., Lecturer in Electrical Engineering, Royal Technical
College, Glasgow.
R. F. PATTERSON, M.A., D.Litt., formerly Charles Oldham Shakespeare
Scholar, Cambridge University.
ANGELO S. RAPPOPORT, Ph.D., B. es L.
JAMES RITCHIE, M.A., M.D., Professor of Bacteriology, University of
Edinburgh.
W. D. ROBIESON, M.A.
JOHN J. ROSS, M.A., F.R.A.S.
GEORGE SMITH, Procurator Fiscal.
G. ELLIOT SMITH, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy, University of
London.
C. S. STOOKS, D.S.O., Major, Indian Army; Instructor in Military
Organization, Royal Military College, Sandhurst.
M. M. J. SUTHERLAND, D.Sc., F.I.C.
THOMAS G. WRIGHT, LL.B., Professor of Mercantile Law, University of
Glasgow.
* * * * *
KEY TO PRONUNCIATION
* * * * *
The method of marking pronunciations here employed is either (1) by marking
the syllable on which the accent falls, or (2) by a simple system of
transliteration, to which the following is the Key:--
VOWELS
[=a], as in f_a_te, or in b_a_re.
[:a], as in _a_lms, Fr. _a_me, Ger. B_a_hn = a of Indian names.
[.a], the same sound short or medium, as in Fr. b_a_l, Ger. M_a_nn.
a, as in f_a_t.
[a:], as in f_a_ll.
_a_, obscure, as in rur_a_l, similar to _u_ in b_u_t, [.e] in h_e_r: common
in Indian names.
[=e], as in m_e_ = _i_ in mach_i_ne.
e, as in m_e_t.
[.e], as in h_e_r.
[=i], as in p_i_ne, or as _ei_ in Ger. m_ei_n.
i, as in p_i_n, also used for the short sound corresponding to [=e], as in
French and Italian words.
_eu_, a long sound as in Fr. j_eu_ne = Ger. long _oe_, as in S_oe_hne,
G_oe_the (Goethe).
eu, corresponding sound short or medium, as in Fr. p_eu_ = Ger. _oe_ short.
[=o], as in n_o_te, m_oa_n.
o, as in n_o_t, s_o_ft--that is, short or medium.
[:o], as in m_o_ve, tw_o_.
[=u] as in t_u_be.
u, as in t_u_b: similar to [.e] and also to a.
[u:], as in b_u_ll.
[:u], as in Sc. ab_u_ne = Fr. _u_ as in d_u_, Ger. _[:u]_ long as in
gr_ue_n, B_ue_hne.
[.u], the corresponding short or medium sound, as in Fr. b_u_t, Ger.
M_ue_ller.
oi, as in _oi_l.
ou, as in p_ou_nd; or as _au_ in Ger. H_au_s.
CONSONANTS
Of the _consonants_, B, D, F, H, J, K, L, M, N, NG, P, SH, T, V, Z, always
have their common English sounds, when used to transliterate foreign words.
The letter C is not used by itself in re-writing for pronunciation, S or K
being used instead. The only consonantal symbols, therefore, that require
explanation are the following:--
ch is always as in ri_ch_.
_d_, nearly as _th_ in _th_is = Sp. _d_ in Ma_d_ri_d_, &c.
g is always hard, as in _g_o.
_h_ represents the guttural in Scotch lo_ch_, Ger. na_ch_, also other
similar gutturals.
[n.], Fr. nasal _n_ as in bo_n_.
r represents both English _r_, and _r_ in foreign words, which is generally
much more strongly trilled.
s, always as in _s_o.
th, as _th_ in _th_in.
_th_, as _th_ in _th_is.
w always consonantal, as in _w_e.
x = ks, which are used instead.
y always consonantal, as in _y_ea (Fr. _ligne_ would be re-written
l[=e]ny).
zh, as _s_ in plea_s_ure = Fr. _j_.
* * * * *
THE NEW
GRESHAM ENCYCLOPEDIA
VOLUME I
A, the first letter in many alphabets. The sound most commonly belonging to
it, as in French, Italian, German, &c., is that which is heard in _father_,
pronounced short or long. In English the letter is made to represent at
least seven sounds, as in _father_, _mat_, _mate_, _mare_, _many_, _ball_,
_what_, besides being used in such digraphs as _ea_ in _heat_, _oa_ in
_boat_.--A, in music, is the sixth note in the diatonic scale of C, and
stands when in perfect tune to the latter note in the ratio of 3/5 to 1.
The second string of the violin is tuned to this note.
A 1, a symbol attached to vessels of the highest class in Lloyd's register
of shipping, A referring to the hull of the vessel, 1 to the rigging and
whole equipment. When A 1 has a number prefixed, as 100 A 1, 90 A 1, the
number denotes that the vessel is built according to certain
specifications. See _Shipbuilding_.
AA ([:a]) (Old Ger. _aha_, water; allied to Lat. _aqua_, water), the name
of a great many streams of Central and Northern Europe.
AACHEN ([:a]'_h_[.e]n). See _Aix-la-Chapelle_.
AALAND ISLANDS. See _Aland Islands_.
AALBORG ([=o]l'bor_h_: 'eel-town'), a seaport of Denmark, in Jutland, on
the Liimfiord, see of a bishop, with iron-founding, distilling, fishing,
&c. Pop. 33,449.
AALEN ([:a]'l[.e]n), a town of Germany in Wuerttemberg, which manufactures
woollen and linen goods. It has important iron-works and tanneries. Pop.
11,347.
AALESUND ([=o]'le-s[u:]nd), seaport and fishing centre on the west coast of
Norway, on a small island. Pop. 13,858.
AALI PASHA. See _Ali Pasha_.
AALST ([:a]lst). See _Alost_.
AAR, or AARE ([:a]r), the name of several European rivers, of which the
chief (180 miles long) is a tributary of the Rhine, next to it and the
Rhone the longest river in Switzerland. It has its origin from the Upper
and Lower Glaciers of the Aar, in the Bernese Alps, traverses Lakes Brienz
and Thun, and receives the Saane, Reuss, Limmat, &c. On it are Interlaken,
Thun, Bern, Solothurn, and Aarau, to which, as to the canton of Aargau, it
gives its name.
AARAU ([:a]'rou), a well-built and finely-situated town in Switzerland,
capital of canton Aargau, on the River Aar. Pop. 9536.
AARD-VARK ([:a]rd'v[.a]rk: earth-pig), Dutch name for a burrowing
insect-eating animal of South Africa, _Orycter[)o]pus capensis_, order
Edentata, resembling the ant-eater and armadillo. It is called also
_ground-hog_ and _Cape pig_.
[Illustration: Aardwolf (_Prot[)e]les crist[=a]tus_)]
AARDWOLF ([:a]rd'w[u:]lf: earth-wolf) (_Prot[)e]les crist[=a]tus_), a
burrowing carnivore of S. and E. Africa, allied to the hyenas and civets.
It feeds on carrion, small mammals, insects, &c.
AARE. See _Aar_.
AARGAU ([:a]r'gou), or ARGOVIE ([.a]r-go-v[=e]), a northern canton of
Switzerland; area, 543 sq. miles; hilly, well wooded, abundantly watered by
the Aar and its tributaries, and well cultivated. Pop. 236,860. German is
almost universally spoken. Capital, Aarau.
AARHUUS ([=o]r'h[:o]s), a seaport and ancient town of Denmark, on the east
coast of Jutland. It has a fine Gothic cathedral, a good harbour, and
manufactures woollens, gloves, hats, tobacco, &c. Pop. 65,858.
AARON ([=a]'ron), of the tribe of Levi, brother of Moses. At Sinai, when
the people became impatient at the long-continued absence of Moses, he
complied with their request by making a golden calf, and thus became
involved with them in the guilt of gross idolatry. The office of
high-priest, which he first filled, was made hereditary in his family. He
died at Mount Hor at the age of 123, and was succeeded by his son Eleazer.
AARON'S BEARD. See _Saint John's Wort_ and _Toad-flax_.
AARON'S ROD. See _Golden-rod_ and _Mullein_.
AASEN ([=o]'zen), Ivar Andreas, Norwegian poet and philologist, was born in
1813 and died in 1896. He wrote miscellaneous poems and a drama, but he is
chiefly known as the originator of the patriotic movement known as the
_Maulstroev_. He endeavoured to give Norway a literary language distinct
from the Danish, which has long served as the literary and official
language of the country. This he attempted to do mainly by the help of the
native dialects, which he studied thoroughly, setting forth their grammar
in special works and embodying their vocabulary in his _Norsk Ordbog med
Dansk Forklaring_ (Norse Dictionary, with Explanations in Danish, 1873),
supplemented by the _Norsk Ordbog_ of Hans Ross (1890-2). Numbers of poems,
tales, &c., have been written in the language, of which Aasen was in a
sense the inventor.
AASVAER ([=o]s'v[=a]r), a group of small islands off the Norwegian coast,
under the Arctic Circle, where there is an important herring-fishery.
AB, the eleventh month of the Jewish civil, the fifth of the
ecclesiastical, year--part of July and part of August.
ABABDA, or ABABDEH (abab'de) (GEBADEI of Pliny), a nomadic African race
inhabiting Upper Egypt and part of Nubia, between the Nile and the Red Sea,
dark-brown in colour. Their language is Arabic and they are Mahommedans in
religion. They number about 40,000.
AB'ACA, or MANILLA HEMP, a strong fibre yielded by the leaf-stalks of a
kind of plantain (_Musa text[)i]lis_) which grows in the Indian
Archipelago, and is cultivated in the Philippines. The outer fibres of the
leaf-stalks are made into strong and durable ropes, the inner into various
fine fabrics.
AB'ACO, GREAT and LITTLE, two islands of the Bahamas group, (q.v.). Pop.
about 4000.
[Illustration: Abacus for Calculations]
[Illustration: Norman Capital--_a_, the Abacus]
AB'ACUS, a Latin term applied to an apparatus used in elementary schools
for facilitating arithmetical operations, consisting of a number of
parallel cords or wires, upon which balls or beads are strung, the
uppermost wire being appropriated to units, the next to tens, &c.--The
uppermost member or division of the capital of a column, immediately under
the architrave.
ABAD'DON (Heb. destruction), the name given in _Rev._ ix. 11 as that of the
angel of the bottomless pit, otherwise called _Apollyon_. In _Job_, xxvi,
6, it designates the underworld, or Hades.
ABAKANSK', a fortified place in Siberia, near the Upper Yenisei, founded by
Peter the Great in 1707.
ABALONE (ab-a-l[=o]'ne), a name in California for a species of ear-shell
(Haliotis) that furnishes mother-of-pearl.
AB'ANA, or AMANAH, one of the two rivers of Damascus mentioned in the Bible
(2 _Kings_, v, 12). See _Barada_.
ABAN'DONMENT, a term of marine insurance, employed to designate the case
where the party insured gives up his whole interest in the property to the
insurer, and claims as for a total loss.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. G. Phillimore,
_Marine Insurance_, in _Encyclopedia of the Laws of England_, vol. viii;
C. R. Tyser, _Law relating to Losses under a Policy of Marine Insurance_.
AB'ANO, a village of North Italy, 5 miles from Padua, famous for its
mud-baths and warm springs. It is supposed to be the birthplace of Livy.
ABA'RIM, a mountain range of Eastern Palestine, including Nebo, on which
Moses died.
ABATEMENT, in law, has various significations. _Abatement of nuisances_ is
the remedy allowed to a person injured by a public or private nuisance, of
destroying or removing it himself. A _plea in abatement_ is brought forward
by a defendant when he wishes to defeat or quash a particular action on
some formal or technical ground. Abatement, in mercantile law, is an
allowance, deduction, or discount made for prompt payment or other reason.
AB'ATTIS, or ABATIS, in field engineering, a mass of trees cut down and
laid with their branches turned towards the enemy in such a way as to form
a defence for troops stationed behind them.
ABATTOIR (ab-at-w[:a]r'). See _Slaughter-house_.
ABAUZIT, Firmin ([.a]-b[=o]-z[=e]), a French Protestant scholar, was born
in 1679 and died in 1767. He lived chiefly at Geneva, but visited England
and was highly esteemed by Newton, who considered him not unfit to be judge
between himself and Leibnitz in the quarrel as to the invention of the
integral and differential calculus. Collections of his works were published
at Geneva (1770) and at London (1773).
ABBA, a Syrian word equivalent to 'father', which, being applied in the
Eastern Church to monks, superiors of monks, and other ecclesiastics, gave
rise to the word _abbot_. In the Syriac and Coptic Churches it is given to
bishops.
ABBADIE ([.a]b-[.a]-d[=e]), Antoine Thomson and Arnaud Michel d', French
travellers, born in Dublin in 1810 and 1815 respectively. They lived for
years in Abyssinia, and published valuable works on that country: Arnaud,
_Douze Ans dans la Haute-Ethiopie_; Antoine, _Geodesie de la
Haute-Ethiopie_, &c. Arnaud died in 1893, Antoine in 1897.
ABBAS I, the _Great_, Shah or King of Persia, born in 1557, ascended the
throne in 1586, at a time when the Turks and hordes of Usbek Tartars had
made great encroachments on the country. Having defeated the Usbeks,
recovered the provinces overrun by them, and reduced a great part of
Afghanistan, he made war against the Turks, and in 1605 defeated them near
Bussorah, thus getting back all the lost provinces. He extended his rule
beyond Persia proper, and at his death in 1628 his dominions stretched from
the Tigris to the Indus. He is looked upon by the Persians as their
greatest sovereign.
ABBAS II, HILMI, ex-Khedive of Egypt, was born in 1874. He is the eldest
son of Tewfik Pasha, and succeeded his father in 1892. During his reign he
adopted an unfriendly attitude towards England, but he failed in his
attempt to form an anti-British Cabinet in 1893. On 19th Dec., 1914, the
British Government issued a proclamation deposing Abbas Hilmi and
conferring the title of Sultan of Egypt upon Hussein Kamil, eldest living
prince of the family of Mohammed Ali-Hussein Kamil, who died in 1917. See
_Egypt_.
ABBAS MIRZA, a Persian prince and soldier, was the son of the shah Feth
Ali; born 1783, died 1833; he greatly distinguished himself in the wars
against Russia.
ABBASIDS, or ABBASSIDES (ab'as-sidz), the name of the second Arabian
dynasty which supplanted the Ommiades. It traced its descent from Abbas
(born 566, died 652), uncle of Mahomet, and gave thirty-seven caliphs to
Bagdad between 749 and 1258. Harun al Rashid was a member of this dynasty.
See _Caliphs_.
ABBATE ([.a]b-b[:a]'t[=a]), the Italian term corresponding to _Abbe_.
ABBE ([.a]b-[=a]), a French word for abbot, or for anyone regularly wearing
the clerical dress. Before the Revolution, all who had studied theology,
either with the view of becoming ordained clergymen or merely of obtaining
some ecclesiastical appointment or benefice, were generally so designated.
Marked out by their special dress, a short, violet-coloured robe, they were
seen everywhere--at court, the ball, the theatre, and in private families,
where they acted sometimes as tutors and sometimes as confidential
advisers. Others, again, adopted the literary profession or became teachers
in the higher educational establishments.
ABBE, Cleveland, American meteorologist and astronomer, born at New York in
1838, and educated at Harvard. He held various positions in connection with
observatories and other institutions in America, and was for some time
chief meteorologist in the United States Weather Bureau. He wrote much on
meteorology and kindred subjects. He died in 1916. His works include: _The
Mechanics of the Earth's Atmosphere_; _Relations between Climates and
Crops_, &c.
ABBEOKU'TA, a town of West Africa, in the Lagos Province of S. Nigeria, on
the Ogun River, and on the railway from Lagos to N. Nigeria, 45 miles north
of Lagos, consists chiefly of mud houses, surrounded by a mud wall. Pop.
50,000 to 100,000.
AB'BESS. See _Abbey_ and _Abbot_.
ABBEVILLE (ancient ABBATIS VILLA), a town of France, department of the
Somme, on the River Somme (which is here tidal), 108 miles N.N.W. of Paris.
The town is first mentioned in the ninth century, when it belonged to the
Abbey of St. Riquier. It has a Gothic church (St. Vulfran) (begun in the
fifteenth century and completed in the seventeenth), which has a
magnificent west front in the Flamboyant style. It manufactures woollens,
sail-cloth, chemicals, &c. Pop. 20,373.
AB'BEY, a monastery or religious community of the highest class, governed
by an _abbot_, assisted generally by a prior, sub-prior, and other
subordinate functionaries; or, in the case of a female community,
superintended by an _abbess_. An abbey invariably included a church. A
priory differed from an abbey only in being scarcely so extensive an
establishment, and was governed by a _prior_. In the English conventual
cathedral establishments, as Canterbury, Norwich, Ely, &c., the archbishops
or bishops held the abbot's place, the immediate governor of the monastery
being called a prior. Some priories sprang originally from the more
important abbeys, and remained under the jurisdiction of the abbots; but
subsequently any real distinction between abbeys and priories was lost. The
greater abbeys formed most complete and extensive establishments, including
not only the church and other buildings devoted to the monastic life and
its daily requirements, such as the refectory or eating-room, the
dormitories or sleeping-rooms, the room for social intercourse, the school
for novices, the scribes' cells, library, &c., but also workshops,
storehouses, mills, cattle and poultry sheds, dwellings for artisans,
labourers, and other servants, infirmary, guest-house, &c. Among the most
famous abbeys on the continent of Europe were those of Cluny, Clairvaux,
and Citeaux in France; St. Galle in Switzerland, and Fulda in Germany; the
most noteworthy English abbeys were those of Westminster, St. Mary's of
York, Fountains, Kirkstall, Tintern, Rievaulx, Netley; and of Scotland,
Melrose, Paisley, and Arbroath.
[Illustration: Plan of Fountains Abbey]
ABBIATEGRASSO ([.a]b-b[=e]-[:a]'t[=a]-gr[.a]s-s[=o]), a town in the north
of Italy, 15 miles W.S.W. of Milan. Pop. 13,148.
AB'BOT (from the Syriac _abba_, father), the head of an abbey (see
_Abbey_), the lady of similar rank being called _abbess_ (_abbatissa_). An
abbess, however, was not, like the abbot, allowed to exercise the spiritual
functions of the priesthood, such as preaching, confessing, &c.; nor did
abbesses ever succeed in freeing themselves from the control of their
diocesan bishop. In the early age of monastic institutions (_circ._ A.D.
300-600) the monks were not priests, but simply laymen who retired from the
world to live in common, and the abbot was also a layman. In the course of
time the abbots were usually ordained, and when an abbey was directly
attached to a cathedral the bishop was also the abbot, but the functions
devolving on the head of a monastery were, in this case, performed by a
prior. At first the abbeys were more remarkable for their numbers than for
their magnitude, but afterwards many of them were large and richly endowed,
and the heads of such establishments became personages of no small
influence and power, more especially after the abbots succeeded (by the
eleventh century) in freeing themselves from the jurisdiction of the bishop
of their diocese. Hence families of the highest rank might be seen eagerly
striving to obtain the titles of abbot and abbess for their members. The
great object was to obtain control over the revenues of the abbeys, and for
this purpose recourse was had to the device of holding them under a kind of
trust, or, as it was called, _in commendam_. According to the original
idea, the abbot _in commendam_, or 'commendator', was merely a temporary
trustee, who drew the whole or part of the revenues during a vacancy, and
was bound to apply them to specific purposes; but ultimately the
commendator or lay abbot in many instances held the appointment for life,
and was allowed to apply the whole or a large portion of the revenues to
his own private use. Many of the abbots vied with the bishops and nobility
in rank and dignity. In England abbots long sat in the House of Lords,
ranking next after barons. Seventeen of them were present on 28th June,
1539, the last occasion when the abbots as a body sat in Parliament. The
Reformation introduced vast changes, not only in Protestant countries,
where abbeys and all other monastic establishments were generally
suppressed, but even in countries which still continued Roman Catholic;
many sovereigns, whilst displaying their zeal for the Roman Catholic Church
by persecuting its opponents, did not scruple to imitate them in the
confiscation of Church property.
ABBOT (or Lord) OF MISRULE, the personage who took the chief part in the
Christmas revelries of the English populace before the Reformation. In
Scotland he was called Abbot of Unreason.
ABBOT, George, Archbishop of Canterbury, was born in 1562 and died in 1633.
He studied at Oxford, assisted in the translation of the Bible, was made
Bishop of Lichfield in 1609, next year Bishop of London, and in 1611
Archbishop of Canterbury. He retained the favour of James I to the last,
but after the accession of Charles I his influence at Court was superseded
by that of Laud. He published several works, chiefly theological, and _A
Brief Description of the Whole World_ (1599).
AB'BOTSFORD, the country-seat of Sir Walter Scott, on the south bank of the
Tweed, in Roxburghshire, 3 miles from Melrose, in the midst of picturesque
scenery, forming an extensive and irregular pile in the Scottish baronial
style of architecture.--_Abbotsford Club_, a club established at Edinburgh
for printing works throwing light on matters of history or literature
connected with the writings of Sir Walter Scott; issued 34 vols. 1835-64.
AB'BOTT, Rev. Edwin, D.D., prolific writer on theological, educational, and
other subjects, born in London, 1838, was educated at the City of London
School and St. John's College, Cambridge, where he highly distinguished
himself; he was head master of the City of London School from 1865 to 1889,
when he retired. His _Shakespearian Grammar_ (1870) is one of his best
contributions to English philology. Among his theological and kindred
writings are: _Through Nature to Christ_; _Bible Lessons_; _Cambridge
Sermons_; _Oxford Sermons_; the elaborate article _Gospels_ in the
_Encyclopaedia Britannica_ (9th edition); _From Letter to Spirit_. Other
works are: _Philochristus_ and _Onesimus_, both romances on the history of
the Early Christian Church; _Francis Bacon, an Account of his Life and
Works_; _St. Thomas of Canterbury, his Death and Miracles_; _The Anglican
Career of Cardinal Newman_ (a very depreciatory estimate); _Flatland, a
Romance of Many Dimensions_. He also wrote: _Johannine Grammar_ (1906),
_The Message of the Son of Man_ (1909), _The Fourfold Gospel_ (1913-7).
AB'BOTT, Jacob, a popular American writer, especially of entertaining and
instructive books for the young. He was born in 1803 and died in 1879. For
a time he was a teacher and later a clergyman.
AB'BOTT, Thomas Kingsmill, D.D., biblical scholar and writer on philosophic
and other subjects, born at Dublin, 1829, died 18th Dec., 1913. He studied
with distinction at Trinity College, and was successively professor in
Dublin University of moral philosophy, 1867-72; of biblical Greek, 1875-88;
and of Hebrew, 1879-1900; he was at one time librarian of the College. He
has written _Sight and Touch_, directed against the Berkeleian theory of
vision; _Elements of Logic_; _Essays, chiefly on the Original Texts of the
Old and New Testaments_; _Notes on some Epistles of St. Paul_; _Elementary
Theory of the Tides_; _Translation of Kant's Theory of Ethics_; _Kant's
Introduction to Logic_; _Commentary on Ephesians and Colossians_; &c.
ABBREVIA'TIONS, devices used in writing and printing to save time and
space, consisting usually of curtailments effected in words and syllables
by the removal of some letters, often of the whole of the letters except
the first. The following is a list of the more important:--
A.B., _artium baccalaureus_, bachelor of arts (more commonly B.A.);
also, able-bodied seaman. Abp., archbishop. A.C., _ante Christum_,
before Christ. Ac., acre. Acc., A/c, or Acct., account. A.D., _anno
Domini_, in the year of our Lord: used also as if equivalent to 'after
Christ', or 'of the Christian era'. A.D.C., aide-de-camp. Ad lib., _ad
libitum_, at pleasure. A.D.O.S., assistant director of ordnance stores.
A.D.V.S., assistant director of veterinary services. Aet. or Aetat.
_aetatis_ (_anno_), in the year of his age. A.G., attorney-general,
adjutant-general. A.H., _anno Hegirae_, in the year of the Hegira.
A.I.A., associate of the Institute of Actuaries. A.Inst.C.E., associate
of the Institution of Civil Engineers. A.I.Mech.E., associate of the
Institute of Mechanical Engineers. A.M., _ante meridiem_, forenoon;
_anno mundi_, in the year of the world; _artium magister_, master of
arts. A.M.I.E.E., associate member of the Institute of Electrical
Engineers. A.M.I.Mech.E., associate member of the Institute of
Mechanical Engineers. A.M.Inst.C.E., associate member of the
Institution of Civil Engineers. Anon., anonymous. A.P.D., army pay
department. A.R.A., associate of Royal Academy (London). A.R.A.M.,
associate of the Royal Academy of Music. A.R.C.O., associate of the
Royal College of Organists. A.R.I.B.A., associate of the Royal
Institute of British Architects. A.R.S.A., associate of the Royal
Scottish Academy. A.U.C., _ab urbe condita_, from the building of Rome
(753 B.C.). A.V., authorized version; artillery volunteers.
B.A., bachelor of arts. Bart, or Bt., baronet. B.C., before Christ.
B.C.L., bachelor of civil law. B.D., bachelor of divinity. B.L.,
bachelor of law. B.M., bachelor of medicine. Bp., bishop. B.S.,
bachelor of surgery. B.Sc., bachelor of science. B.V.M., blessed Virgin
Mary.
C., cap., or chap., chapter. C.A., chartered accountant. Cantab.,
_Cantabrigiensis_, of Cambridge. Cantuar., _Cantuariensis_, of
Canterbury. C.B., companion of the Bath. C.B.E., commander of the
British Empire. C.C., Catholic curate; county councillor. C.D.V.,
_carte de visite_. C.E., civil engineer. Cf., _confer_, compare. Ch.B.,
_chirurgiae baccalaureus_, bachelor of surgery. C.I., order of the
Crown of India. C.I.E., companion of the order of the Indian Empire.
C.J., chief justice. C.M., _chirurgiae magister_, master in surgery;
common metre. C.M.G., companion of the order of St. Michael and St.
George. C.M.S., Church Missionary Society. Co., company or county.
C.O.D., cash on delivery. Col., colonel, colony. Coll., college. Cr.,
creditor. C.S., civil service; clerk to the signet. C.S.I., companion
of the Star of India. C.T.C., Cyclists' Touring Club. Curt., current,
the present month. C.V.O., commander of the Royal Victorian Order.
Cwt., hundredweight.
d., _denarius_, penny or pence. D.C.L., doctor of civil law. D.C.M.,
Distinguished Conduct Medal. D.D., doctor of divinity. Del.,
_delineavit_, drew it. D.F., defender of the faith. D.G., _Dei gratia_,
by the grace of God. D.L., deputy lieutenant. D.Lit., D.Litt., _doctor
litterarum_, doctor of letters or literature. Do., _ditto_, the same.
D.O.M., _Deo Optimo Maximo_, to God, the best and greatest. D.P.H.,
diploma in public health. D.Phil., doctor of philosophy. Dr., doctor,
also debtor. D.Sc., doctor of science. D.S.O., Distinguished Service
Order. D.V., _Deo volente_, God willing. Dwt., pennyweight.
E., east. Ebor., _Eboracensis_, of York. E.C., Established Church.
E.C.U., English Church Union. E.E., errors excepted. e.g., _exempli
gratia_, for example. Etc. or &c., _et cetera_, and the rest.
F. or Fahr., Fahrenheit's thermometer. F.A., Football Association.
F.A.S., fellow of the Antiquarian Society. F.B.A., fellow of the
British Academy. F.C., Free Church. F.C.P., fellow of the College of
Preceptors. F.C.S., fellow of the Chemical Society. F.D., _fidei
defensor_, defender of the faith. Fec., _fecit_, he made or did it.
F.F.A., fellow of the Faculty of Actuaries. F.F.P.S., fellow of the
Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons (Glasgow). F.G.S., fellow of the
Geological Society. F.H.S., fellow of the Horticultural Society.
F.I.A., fellow of the Institute of Actuaries. Fl., flourished. F.L.S.,
fellow of the Linnaean Society. F.M., field-marshal. F.O.B., free on
board (goods delivered). F.R.A.S., fellow of the Royal Astronomical
Society. F.R.C.O., fellow of the Royal College of Organists. F.R.C.P.,
fellow of the Royal College of Physicians. F.R.C.S., fellow of the
Royal College of Surgeons. F.R.G.S., fellow of the Royal Geographical
Society. F.R.I.B.A., fellow of the Royal Institute of British
Architects. F.R.S., fellow of the Royal Society. F.R.S.E., fellow of
the Royal Society of Edinburgh. F.S.A., fellow of the Society of Arts
or Antiquaries. F.S.S., fellow of the Statistical Society. Ft., foot or
feet. F.Z.S., fellow of the Zoological Society.
Gal., gallon. G.B.E., (knight) grand cross of the British Empire.
G.C.B., (knight) grand cross of the Bath. G.C.I.E., (knight) grand
commander of the Indian Empire. G.C.M.G., (knight) grand cross of St.
Michael and St. George. G.C.S.I., (knight) grand commander of the Star
of India. G.C.V.O., (knight) grand cross of the Royal Victorian Order.
G.R., Georgius Rex, King George. G.R.I., Georgius Rex Imperator;
George, King and Emperor. G.P.O., general post office.
H.B.M., his or her Britannic majesty. H.E.I.C.S., honourable East India
Company's service. Hhd., hogshead. H.I.H., his or her imperial
highness. H.M.I.S., his majesty's inspector of schools. H.M.S., his or
her majesty's ship. Hon., honourable. H.Q., Head-quarters. H.R.H., his
(her) royal highness. H.S.H., his (her) serene highness.
Ib. or Ibid., _ib[=i]dem_, in the same place. Id., _idem_, the same.
i.e., _id est_, that is. +I.H.S., _Jesus hominum salvator_, Jesus the
Saviour of men: originally it was [Greek: IES], the first three letters
of [Greek: IESOUS] (_I[=e]sous_), Greek for _Jesus_. Incog.,
_incognito_, unknown. Inf., _infra_, below. I.N.R.I., _Iesus Nazarenus
Rex Iudaeorum_, Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews. Inst., instant, or
of this month; institute. Inv., _invenit_, designed, invented.
I.O.G.T., Independent Order of Good Templars. I.O.U., I owe you.
I.S.O., Imperial Service Order.
J.P., justice of the peace. Jr., junior. J.U.D., _juris utriusque
doctor_, doctor both of the civil and the canon law.
K.B.E., knight commander of the British Empire. K.C., king's counsel.
K.C.B., knight commander of the Bath. K.C.M.G., knight commander of St.
Michael and St. George. K.C.I.E., knight commander of the Indian
Empire. K.C.S.I., knight commander of the Star of India. K.C.V.O.,
knight commander of the Royal Victorian Order. K.G., knight of the
Garter. K.P., knight of St. Patrick. K.T., knight of the Thistle. Kt.
or Knt., knight.
L., l, or L, pounds sterling. L.A., literate in arts. L.A.S.,
licentiate of the Apothecaries' Society. Lat., latitude; Latin. Lb. or
lb., _libra_, a pound (weight). L.C., _loco citato_, in the place
cited. L.C.J., lord chief-justice. L.C.P., licentiate of the College of
Preceptors. Ldp., lordship. L.D.S., licentiate in dental surgery.
Litt.D., _litterarum doctor_, doctor of literature. L.L., Low Latin.
L.L.A., lady literate in arts. LL.B., _legum baccalaureus_, bachelor of
laws. LL.D., _legum doctor_, doctor of laws (that is, the civil and the
canon law). LL.M., _legum magister_, master of laws. Lon. or long.,
longitude. Loq., _loquitur_, speaks. L.R.C.P., licentiate Royal College
of Physicians (with E., of Edinburgh). L.R.C.S., licentiate Royal
College of Surgeons (with E., of Edinburgh). L.R.C.V.S., licentiate of
the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons. L.S., _locus sigilli_, the
place of the seal (on documents). L.S.A., licentiate of the Society of
Apothecaries. L.S.D., _librae, solidi, denarii_, pounds, shillings,
pence.
M.A., master of arts. M.B., _medicinae baccalaureus_, bachelor of
medicine. M.B.E., member of the British Empire. M.D., _medicinae
doctor_, doctor of medicine. M.E., mining engineer. Messrs., messieurs,
gentlemen. M.F.H., master of fox-hounds. M.Inst.C.E., member of the
Institution of Civil Engineers. M.I.E.E., member of the Institute of
Electrical Engineers. M.I.M.E., member of the Institute of Mining and
Mechanical Engineers. M.I.Mech.E., member of the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers. Mlle., mademoiselle. Mme., madame. M.P., member
of Parliament. M.R.C.S., member of the Royal College of Surgeons.
M.R.C.V.S., member of the Royal College of Veterinary surgeons.
M.R.I.A., member of the Royal Irish Academy. MS., manuscript; MSS.,
manuscripts. Mus.D., _musicae doctor_, doctor of music. M.V.O., member
of the Royal Victorian Order.
N., north. N.B., _nota bene_, take notice; also North Britain, New
Brunswick. N.D., no date. Nem. con., _nemine contradicente_, no one
contradicting, unanimously. No., _numero_, number. N.P., notary public.
N.S., new style, Nova Scotia. N.S.W., New South Wales. N.T., New
Testament. N.Y., New York. N.Z., New Zealand.
Ob., _obiit_, died. O.B.E., officer of the British Empire. Obs.,
obsolete. Obt., obedient. O.C., officer commanding. O.H.M.S., on his
majesty's service. O.M., Order of Merit. O.P., out of print. Op. cit.,
_opere citato_, in the work quoted. O.S., old style. O.T., Old
Testament. Oxon., _Oxoniensis_, of Oxford. Oz., ounce or ounces.
P., page; pp., pages. Par., paragraph. P.C., privy-councillor. P.E.,
Protestant Episcopal. Per cent., _per centum_, by the hundred. Ph.D.,
_philosophiae doctor_, doctor of philosophy. Pinx., _pinxit_, painted
(it). P.M., _post meridiem_, afternoon. P.O., post office. P.O.O., post
office order. P.P., parish priest. P.P.C., _pour prendre conge_, to
take leave. Prox., _proximo (mense)_, next month. P.R.A., president of
the Royal Academy. P.R.S.A., president of the Royal Scottish Academy.
P.S., postscript. P.T.O., please turn over (the leaf).
Q., question, queen. Q.E.D., _quod erat demonstrandum_, which was to be
demonstrated. Q.E.F., _quod erat faciendum_, which was to be done.
Q.M., quarter-master. Q.M.G., quarter-master-general. Qu., query.
Quant. suff., _quantum sufficit_, as much as is needful. Q.V., _quod
vide_, which see.
R., _rex, regina_, king, queen. R.A., royal academician; Royal
Artillery. R.A.M., Royal Academy of Music. R.A.M.C., Royal Army Medical
Corps. R.A.O.D., Royal Army Ordnance Department. R.A.S.C., Royal Army
Service Corps. R.C., Roman Catholic. R.C.P., Royal College of
Physicians. R.C.S., Royal College of Surgeons. R.E., Royal Engineers.
Rev., reverend. R.I.P., _requiescat in pace_, may he rest in peace.
R.M., Royal Marines. R.N., Royal Navy. R.S.A., royal Scottish
academician. R.S.E., Royal Society of Edinburgh. R.S.L., Royal Society
of Literature. R.S.V.P., _repondez s'il vous plait_, reply, if you
please. Rt. Hon., right honourable. Rt. Wpful., right worshipful. R.V.,
revised version.
S., south. S. or St., saint. Sc., _scilicet_, namely, viz. S.J.,
Society of Jesus (Jesuits). S.P.C.A., Society for the Prevention of
Cruelty to Animals. S.P.C.C., Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to
Children. S.P.C.K., Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. S.P.G.,
Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. S.P.Q.R., _senatus
populusque Romanus_, the senate and people of Rome. S.S.C., solicitor
before the supreme courts. S.S.M., Society of the Sacred Mission. St.,
saint, street. S.T.D., _sacrae theologiae doctor_, doctor of divinity.
S.T.P., _sacrae theologiae professor_, an old-fashioned equivalent of
D.D.
T.C.D., Trinity College, Dublin. T.O., telegraph office.
U.F.C., United Free Church. U.K., United Kingdom. Ult., _ultimo_, last
(month). U.P., United Presbyterian. U.S., United States. U.S.A., United
States of America. U.S.N., United States Navy.
V., _vide_, see; also _versus_, against. V.C., Victoria Cross. Viz.,
_videlicet_, to wit, or namely. V.P., vice-president. V.S., veterinary
surgeon. W., west. W.I., West Indies. W.L.F., Women's Liberal
Federation. W.O., War Office. W.S.P.U., Women's Social and Political
Union. W.S. writer to the signet (Scotland).
Xmas, Christmas.
Y.M.C.A., Young Men's Christian Association. Y.W.C.A., Young Women's
Christian Association.
In LL.D., LL.B., &c., the letter is doubled, according to the Roman
system, to show that the abbreviation represents a plural noun.
ABD-EL-KA'DER, an Arab chief, born in Algeria, 1807; died at Damascus,
1883. He was the chief opponent of the French in their conquest of Algeria,
but at last surrendered to them in 1847, and was imprisoned till set at
liberty by Napoleon III in 1852. He afterwards resided chiefly at Damascus,
but made various journeys, and visited the Paris exhibition of 1867. He
wrote a religious philosophical work in Arabic which has been translated
into French.
ABDE'RA, an ancient Greek city on the Thracian coast, the birthplace of
Democritus (the laughing philosopher), Anaxarchus, and Protagoras. Its
inhabitants were proverbial for stupidity.
ABDICA'TION, properly the voluntary, but sometimes also the involuntary,
resignation of an office or dignity, and more especially that of sovereign
power. Abdication does not necessarily require the execution of a formal
deed, but may be presumed from facts and circumstances, as in the case of
the English Revolution in 1688, when, after long debate, it was resolved by
both Houses of Parliament that King James II, having endeavoured to subvert
the constitution of the kingdom, had "_abdicated_ the government, and that
the throne is thereby vacant". Yet the sovereign of Great Britain cannot
constitutionally abdicate without the consent of both Houses of Parliament.
The principal abdications in recent years were: Tsar Nicholas II of Russia,
14th March, 1917; King Constantine of Greece, 11th June, 1917; King
Ferdinand of Bulgaria, 6th Oct., 1918; Wilhelm II of Germany, 9th Nov.,
1918; Karl I of Austria, 13th Nov., 1918; and Marie Adelaide, Grand-Duchess
of Luxembourg, 15th Jan., 1919.
[Illustration: Abdominal Regions.]
ABDO'MEN, in man, the belly, or lower cavity of the trunk, separated from
the upper cavity or thorax by the diaphragm or midriff, and bounded below
by the bones of the pelvis. It contains the viscera belonging to the
digestive and urinary systems. What are called the _abdominal regions_ will
be understood from the accompanying cut, in which 1 is the _epigastric_
region, 2 the _umbilical_, 3 the _pubic_, 4 4 the right and left
_hypochondriac_, 5 5 the right and left _lumbar_, 6 6 right and left
_iliac_. The name is given to the corresponding portion of the body in
other animals. In insects it comprises the whole body behind the thorax,
usually consisting of a series of rings. See _Alimentary Canal_.
ABDOM'INAL FISHES (Abdomin[=a]les), a group of the soft-finned (or
malacopterous) fishes, having fins upon the abdomen, and comprising the
herring, pike, salmon, carp, &c.
ABDUC'TION, a legal term, generally applied to denote the offence of
carrying off a female either forcibly or by fraudulent representations.
Such a delinquency in regard to a man is styled _kidnapping_. There are
various descriptions of abduction recognized in criminal jurisprudence,
such as that of a child, of an heiress, or of a wife.
AB'DUL-AZ'IZ, Sultan of Turkey, was born in Feb., 1830, and succeeded his
brother Abdul-Mejid, in June, 1861. He concluded treaties of commerce with
France and England, both of which countries he visited in 1867. Deposed in
May, 1876, he committed suicide, or more probably was assassinated, in June
of the same year. He was succeeded by his son Murad V. See next article.
AB'DUL-HAM'ID, Sultan of Turkey, younger son of Abdul-Mejid, born 22nd
Sept., 1842, succeeded his brother Murad V, who was deposed on proof of his
insanity in 1876. At that time Turkey, which was at war with Serbia, was
compelled to agree to an armistice at the demand of Russia. The persecution
and oppression of the Christian population of Bulgaria had roused
remonstrances from other European countries, and a congress met at
Constantinople to consider a constitution which the Porte had proclaimed.
The conference was a failure, and in April, 1877, war was declared by
Russia. During the sanguinary struggle which ensued the Turks fought with
great bravery, but they had ultimately to sue for peace. A treaty was
signed at San Stefano in Feb., 1878, but its provisions were modified by a
congress of the Great Powers which met at Berlin. The island of Cyprus was
ceded to Britain. Serbia, Rumania, and Montenegro were freed from Turkish
suzerainty altogether; Bulgaria was left in nominal dependence; whilst
Bosnia and Herzegovina were placed under Austrian administration. In 1881
Thessaly was transferred to Greece; in 1885 E. Roumelia became united to
Bulgaria. Ever since the treaty of Berlin, Abdul Hamid saw in Germany the
future friend of Turkey. He therefore entrusted Germans with the
reorganization of his army and finances. Subsequently there were massacres
of Christians, a war with Greece (1897), and troubles in Crete and
Macedonia. In April, 1909, the Sultan was deposed, and his brother, Rashid
Effendi, proclaimed sultan as Mohammed V. Abdul Hamid died in captivity
10th Feb., 1918.
ABD-UL-LAT'IF, an Arab writer and physician, was born at Bagdad in 1161 and
died there in 1231. He was patronized by the celebrated Saladin, and
published an excellent description of Egypt, which is still extant. It was
translated into English by White, Oxford, 1800.
AB'DUL-MEJ'ID KHAN, Sultan of Turkey, born in 1823, succeeded his father,
Mahmud II, 1st July, 1839. At the time of his accession Mehemet, Pasha of
Egypt, had risen a second time against the Turkish yoke; his son Ibrahim
had inflicted a severe defeat on the Turks at Nizib (24th June, 1839), and
was advancing on Constantinople. But the intervention of the leading
European Powers checked the designs of Mehemet Ali, and saved the Turkish
empire. Abdul-Mejid was desirous of carrying out reforms, but most of them
were not enforced, or caused bloody insurrections where attempts were made
to carry them out. Owing to disputes between the Latin and Greek Churches
regarding the rights of precedence and possession of the 'holy places' in
Palestine, and to demands made by the Tsar virtually implying the right of
protectorate over the Christian subjects of the Sultan, war broke out
between Turkey and Russia in 1853. In the following year the Porte effected
an alliance with France and England (hence the Crimean War), and later on
with Sardinia. (See _Crimean War_.) Abdul-Mejid died 25th June, 1861, and
was succeeded by his brother, Abdul-Aziz.
ABECEDA'RIAN, a term formed from the first four letters of the alphabet,
and applied to the followers of Storch, a German Anabaptist (1522), because
they rejected all worldly knowledge, even the learning of the alphabet.
A BECKET, Thomas. See _Becket_.
A BECK'ETT, Gilbert Abbott, English writer, born near London in 1811. He
studied for the bar, and became one of the original staff of _Punch_, was
long a leader-writer to the _Times_ and the _Morning Herald_, and
contributed articles to the _Illustrated London News_. He wrote _Comic
History of England_, _Comic History of Rome_, and _Comic Blackstone_, and
between fifty and sixty plays. In 1849 he was appointed a metropolitan
police magistrate, which office he retained till his death in 1856.
ABEL, properly _Hebel_ (Heb. breath, vapour, vanity), the second son of
Adam. He was a shepherd, and was slain by his brother Cain from jealousy
because his sacrifice was accepted while Cain's was rejected. Several of
the fathers, among others St. Chrysostom and Augustine, regard him as a
type of the new, regenerate man.
ABEL, Sir Frederick Augustus, chemist, was born in London, 1827; died 1902.
Having adopted chemistry as a profession, he studied under Hofmann at the
Royal College of Chemistry, became professor of chemistry at the Royal
Military Academy in 1851, and was chemist to the War Department and
chemical adviser to the Government from 1854 to 1888. He did useful work in
connection with the chemistry of explosives (especially gun-cotton), the
flash-point of petroleum, &c.; was joint-inventor of cordite along with
Dewar; and was also an authority on the manufacture of steel. He was
honoured with a baronetcy, and was also a K.C.B. and a K.C.V.O. He wrote
works on gunpowder, gun-cotton, and explosives generally, and on
electricity as applied to explosive purposes. His works include: _The
Modern History of Gunpowder_; _Electricity applied to Explosive Purposes_,
&c.