SWINE.
The hog is a cosmopolite of almost every zone, though his natural
haunts, like those of the hippopotamus, the elephant, the rhinoceros,
and most of the thick-skinned animals, are in warm climates. They are
most abundant in China, the East Indies, and the immense range of
islands which extends over the whole Southern and Pacific Oceans; but
they are also numerous throughout Europe, from its southern coast to the
Russian dominions within the Arctic.
[Illustration: Fig. 32.
The Wild Boar.]
In the United States, swine have been an object of attention since its
earliest settlement, and whenever a profitable market could be found for
pork abroad, it has been exported to the full extent of the demand. For
near twenty years following the commencement of the general European
wars, soon after the organization of our national government, it was a
comparatively large article of commerce; but from that time, exports
have not been justified to any extent, till within the last two years,
since which, a material reduction in the British import duty on pork,
lard, and hams, has again brought it up as a prominent article of trade
with that country. The recent use which has been made of the carcass in
converting it into lard oil, has still further increased its
consumption.
Swine are reared in very part of the Union, and when properly managed,
always at a fair profit. At the extreme North; in the neighborhood of
large markets; and on such of the Southern plantations as are
particularly suited to sugar or rice, they should not be raised beyond
the number required for the consumption of the coarse or refuse food
produced. Swine are advantageously kept in connection with a dairy or
orchard, as with little additional food besides what is thus afforded,
they can be put into good condition for the butcher. But it is on the
rich bottoms and other lands of the West, where Indian corn is raised in
profusion, and at small expense, that they can be reared in the greatest
numbers and yield the largest profit. The Sciota, Miami, Wabash,
Illinois, and other valleys, and extensive tracts in Kentucky,
Tennessee, Missouri, and some adjoining states, have for many years
taken the lead in the production of swine; and it is probable the
climate and soil, which are peculiarly suited to their rapid growth, as
well as that of their appropriate food, will enable them forever to
remain the leading pork-producers of the North American continent.
Breeds of Swine.
The breeds cultivated in this country are numerous, and like our native
cattle, they embrace many of the best, and a few of the worst to be
found among the species. Great attention has for many years been paid to
their improvement in the Eastern states, and nowhere are there better
specimens than in many of their yards. This spirit has rapidly extended
West and South; and among most of the intelligent farmers who make them
a leading object of attention, on their rich corn grounds, swine have
attained a high degree of excellence. This does not consist in the
introduction and perpetuity of any distinct races, so much as in the
breeding up to a desirable size and aptitude for fattening, from such
meritorious individuals of any breed, or their crosses, as come within
their reach.
Fig. 33, represents an English breed of hogs, a century or more ago:
though coarse and slouch-eared, it is yet the portrait of a tolerable
hog, and far before many of the swine that still maintain their
ascendency in various parts of the European continent. This breed is
nearly extinct, having been crossed successively by the Chinese and
other good breeds, thus diminishing the size and materially improving
its thrift and tendency to fattening. We have few such animals in the
United States, though we have many that are worse.
[Illustration: Fig. 33.
Old English Hog.]
The _Byefield_, some 30 years ago, was a valuable hog in the Eastern
states, and did much good among the species generally. They are white,
with fine curly hair, well made and compact, moderate in size and
length, with broad backs, and at 15 months attaining some 300 to 350
lbs. net.
The _Bedford_ or _Woburn_ is a breed originating with the Duke of
Bedford, on his estate at Woburn, and brought to their perfection,
probably, by judicious crosses of the China hog, on some of the best
English swine. A pair was sent by the duke to this country, as a present
to Gen. Washington, but they were dishonestly sold by the messenger in
Maryland, in which state and Pennsylvania they were productive of much
good at an early day, by their extensive distribution through different
states. Several other importations of this breed have been made at
various times, and especially by the spirited masters of the Liverpool
packet ships, in the neighborhood of New York. They are a large, spotted
animal, well made, and inclining to early maturity and fattening. They
are an exceedingly valuable hog, but are nearly extinct both in England
and this country, as a breed.
The _Leicesters_ are a large, white hog, generally coarse in the bone
and hair, great eaters, and slow in maturing. Some varieties of this
breed differ essentially in these particulars, and mature early on a
moderate amount of food. The crosses with smaller compact breeds, are
generally thrifty, desirable animals. _Other large breeds_ deserving
commendation in this country, are the large _Miami white_, the
_Yorkshire white_, and the _Kenilworth_, each frequently attaining, when
dressed, a weight of 600 to 800 lbs.
[Illustration: Fig. 34.
China Hog.]
The _Chinese_ is among the smaller varieties, and without doubt is the
parent stock of the best European and American swine. They necessarily
vary in appearance, size, shape, and color, from the diversity in the
style of breeding, and the various regions from which they are derived.
The Fig. represents the pure China pig, and is a striking likeness of
many of the imported and their immediate descendants that we have seen
in this country. They are too small an animal for general use, and
require to be mixed with larger breeds to produce the most profitable
carcass for the market. For the purpose of refining the coarse breeds,
no animal has ever been so successful as this. They are fine-boned,
short, and very compact, with bellies almost touching the ground, light
head and ears, fine muzzle, of great docility and quietness, small
feeders, and producing much meat for the quantity of food consumed.
From the rapidity with which generations of this animal are multiplied,
the variety of other breeds on which they are crossed, and the treatment
to which they are subjected, it is not surprising that their descendants
should rapidly assume distinct features. They furnish not only a strong
dash of blood in the best class of large breeds, but in such of the
smaller as have any pretensions to merit, they constitute the greater
part of the improvement. Such are the _Neapolitan_, the _Essex
half-black_, the _Grass breed_, and some others.
[Illustration: Fig. 35.
Berkshire Hog.]
The _Berkshires_ are an ancient English breed, formerly of large size,
slow feeders, and late in maturing. Their color was a buff or sandy
ground, with large black spots, and the feet, lower part of the legs,
and tuft on the tail, buff. The latter color has given place, in most
of the modern age, to white in the same parts. This variation, with the
more important ones of early maturity and good feeding properties, are
by Professor Low ascribed to a Chinese cross, which has added the only
characteristic in which they were before deficient.
They were first introduced and reared as a distinct breed in this
country by Mr. Brentnall, of Orange Co., and Mr. Hawes, of Albany, N.
York. In their hands, and those of other skilful breeders, their merits
were widely promulgated. No other breeds have been so extensively
diffused in the United States, within comparatively so brief a period,
as the Berkshires, since 1832, and they have produced a marked
improvement in many of our former races.
They weigh variously, from 250 to 400 lbs. net, at 16 months, according
to their food and style of breeding; and some full-grown have dressed to
more than 800 lbs. They particularly excel in their hams, which are
round, full, and heavy, and contain a large proportion of lean, tender,
and juicy meat, of the best flavor.
None of our improved breeds afford long, coarse hair or bristles; and it
is a gratifying evidence of our decided improvement in this department
of domestic animals, that our brush-makers are under the necessity of
importing most of what they use from Russia and northern Europe. This
improvement is manifest not only in the hair, but in the skin, which is
soft and mellow to the touch; in the finer bones, shorter head, upright
ears, dishing face, delicate muzzle, and mild eye; and in the short
legs, low flanks, deep and wide chest, broad back, and early maturity.
Breeding.
Swine should not be allowed to breed before 12 or 15 months old, unless
the animals are large and coarse, when they may be put to it somewhat
younger. Not only choice individuals, but such as are well descended,
should be selected for the purpose of breeding. The sow should be in
good condition, but not fat, nor approaching to it; and a proper degree
of exercise is essential to the development of the f[oe]tus and the
health of the parent; for which reason, she should have an extended
range connected with her pen.
The sow goes with young about 114 days. A week before the time comes
round, a comfortable, quiet place should be prepared for her under
cover, and well-protected from cold, if the weather be severe; or if
warm, a range in a pasture with an open shed to retire to, is
sufficient. Too much litter for bedding must be avoided, and no change
or disturbance of the sow permitted, till two or three weeks after
pigging, as the restlessness thereby produced may result in the loss of
the pigs. The sow should be fed only with a small quantity of the
lightest food or thin gruel, for two or three days, nor put on full feed
for a week. If inclined to eat her pigs, she should be fed two or three
times with raw pork or fresh meat. The pigs may be taught to crack oats
or soaked corn after three weeks, and if provided with a trough
inaccessible to the dam, they will soon learn to feed on milk and other
food, preparatory to weaning. This may take place when they are 8 or 10
weeks old; and to prevent injury to the sow, let one or two remain with
her a few days longer, and when finally removed, if her bag appears to
be full, they may be allowed to drain the milk after 20 or 30 hours. The
sow should be restricted to a light, dry diet for a few days at this
period.
Management and Fattening.
There are but two objects in keeping swine, for breeding and for
slaughter, and their management is consequently simple. Those designed
for breeding, should be kept in growing condition, on light food, and
have every advantage for exercise. Such as are destined exclusively for
fattening, ought to be steadily kept to the object.
It is the usual, though a bad practice in this country, to let spring
pigs run at large for the first 15 months, with such food as is
convenient; and if fed at all, it is only to keep them in moderate
growth till the second autumn. They are then put up to fatten, and in
the course of 60 or 90 days are fed off and slaughtered. During this
brief period, they gain from 50 to 100 per cent. more of dressed weight
than in the 15 or 18 months preceding: nor even then do they yield a
greater average weight than is often attained by choice, thrifty pigs,
which have been well-fed from weaning to the age of 8 or 9 months.
Three pigs of the Bedford breed, when precisely 71/2 months old, dressed
230, 235, and 2381/2 lbs. Two of the Berkshire and Leicester breeds, at 9
months, dressed 304 and 310 lbs. Three others of the Berkshire and Grass
breeds, 7 months and 27 days old weighed 240, 250, and 257 lbs. net.
Innumerable instances could be adduced of similar weights, gained
within the same time, with a good breed of animals under judicious
treatment. We have no one accurate account of the food consumed, so as
to determine the relative profit of short or long feeding. But that an
animal must consume much more in 18 or 20 months to produce the same
quantity of dressed meat, which is made by others of 8 or 9 months, does
not admit of a doubt.
We have seen that an ox requires but little more than double the
quantity of food to fatten, that is necessary for supporting existence.
If we apply this principle to swine, and state the quantity of food
which will fatten the pig rapidly, to be three times as great as for the
support of life, we shall find that the pig will fatten in 7 months, on
the same food he would consume to keep him alive for 21. This is based
on the supposition that both animals are of equal size. But the pig that
matures and is slaughtered at 7 months, has only a moderate capacity for
eating. During the early stages of his growth, his size and the
consequent incapacity of the digestive organs, prevent the consumption
of the same quantity which the larger animal requires; and his
accumulating fat, his limited respiration, consequent upon the
compression of his lungs, and his indisposition to exercise, all
conspire to keep the consumption of food within the smallest possible
limit. This result, in the absence of any experiment, must be
conjectural entirely; but we believe that experiments will show, that of
two thrifty pigs from the same litter, one of which is properly fed to
his utmost capacity for 7 months, and the other fed with precisely
double the quantity of similar food for 21 months, the first will yield
more carcass and of a better and more profitable quality than the
latter, which has consumed 100 per cent. the most.
The food is only one item in this calculation. The oldest requires the
most attention, is liable to more accidents and disease, besides the
loss of interest. We are necessarily forced to the conclusion, that by
far the cheapest mode of wintering pigs is in the pork-barrel. We can
readily anticipate one objection to this practice, which is the want of
food at the requisite season of the year to fatten them. This can be
obviated, by reserving enough of the previous year's grain, to keep the
animal in a rapidly thriving state, till the next crop matures
sufficiently to feed.
In the rich corn regions, on its beginning to ripen, as it does in
August, the fields are fenced off into suitable lots, and large herds
are successively turned into them, to consume the grain at their
leisure. They waste nothing except the stalks, which in that region of
plenty are considered of little value, and they are still useful as
manure for succeeding crops; and whatever grain is left by them, leaner
droves which follow, will readily glean. Peas, early buckwheat, and
apples, may be fed on the ground in the same way.
There is an improvement in the character of the grain from a few months'
keeping, which is fully equivalent to the interest of the money and cost
of storage. If fattened early in the season, they will consume less food
to make an equal amount of flesh than in colder weather; they will
require less attention; and generally, early pork will command the
highest price in market.
It is most economical, to provide the swine with a fine clover pasture
to run in during the spring and summer; and they ought also to have
access to the orchard, to pick up all the unripe and superfluous fruit
that falls. They should also have the wash of the house and the dairy,
to which add meal, and sour in large tubs or barrels. Not less than
one-third, and perhaps more, of the whole grain fed to swine, is saved
by grinding and cooking or souring. Yet care must be observed that the
souring be not carried so far as to injure the food by putrefaction. A
mixture of meal and water, with the addition of yeast or such remains of
a former fermentation as adhere to the side or bottom of the vessel, and
exposure to a temperature between 68 deg. and 77 deg. will produce immediate
fermentation.
In this process there are five stages. The _saccharine_, by which the
starch and gum of the vegetables, in their natural condition, are
converted into sugar; the _vinous_, which changes the sugar into
alcohol; the _mucilaginous_, sometimes taking the place of the vinous,
and occurring when the sugar solution, or fermenting principle is weak,
producing a slimy, glutinous product; the _acetic_, forming vinegar,
from the vinous or alcoholic stage; and the _putrefactive_, which
destroys all the nutritive principles and converts them into a poison.
The precise point in fermentation when the food becomes most profitable
for feeding, has not yet been satisfactorily determined; but that it
should stop short of the putrefactive, and probably the full maturity of
the acetic, is certain.
The roots for fattening animals ought to be washed, and steamed or
boiled; and when not intended to be fermented, the meal may be scalded
with the roots. A small quantity of salt should be added. Potatoes are
the best roots for swine; then parsnips; orange or red carrots, white or
Belgian; sugar beets; mangel-wurzel; ruta-bagas; and the white turnips,
in the order mentioned. The nutritive properties of turnips are diffused
through so large a bulk, that we doubt if they can ever be fed to
fattening swine with advantage; and they will barely sustain lift when
fed to them uncooked.
There is a great loss in feeding roots to fattening swine, without
cooking. When unprepared grain is fed, it should be on a full stomach,
to prevent imperfect mastication, and consequent loss of the food. It is
better indeed to have it always before them. The animal machine is an
expensive one to keep in motion, and it should be the object of the
farmer to put his food in the most available condition for its immediate
conversion into fat and muscle.
Swine ought to be kept perfectly dry and clean, and provided with a warm
shelter, to which they can retire at pleasure. This will greatly hasten
the fattening and economize the food. They thrive better and are
generally less subject to disease, when long confined in yards, by
having a clear running stream always accessible, to wallow in. This is
one of the best preventives of vermin and cutaneous diseases. A hog
ought to have three apartments, one each for sleeping, eating, and
evacuations, of which the last may occupy the lowest, and the first the
highest level, so that nothing shall be drained, and as little carried
into the first two as possible. They must be regularly fed three times a
day, and if there is a surplus, it should be removed at once. If they
are closely confined in pens, give them as much charcoal twice a week as
they will eat. This corrects any tendency to disorders of the stomach.
Rotten wood is an imperfect substitute for charcoal.
Graves, scraps, or cracklings, as they are variously called, the
residuum of rough lard or tallow, after expressing the fat, are a good
change and an economical food. Some animal food, although not essential,
is always acceptable to swine. When about to finish them off, many feed
for a few weeks on hard corn. This is proper when slops or indifferent
food has been given, and meal cannot be conveniently procured; but when
fattened on sound roots and meal, it is a wasteful practice, as the
animal thus falls behind his accustomed growth. It is better to give him
an occasional feed of the raw grain, for a change, and to sharpen his
appetite.
_The products furnished by the carcass of swine_ are numerous. Every
part of the animal is used for food, and it admits of a far greater
variety of preparation for the table, than any other flesh. From the
remotest antiquity to the present time, and in every grade of barbarous
and civilized life, it has been esteemed as one of the choicest
delicacies of the epicure.
_Lard-oil_ (_oleine_) has, within a few years, given to pork a new and
profitable use, by which the value of the carcass is greatly increased.
At some of the large pork-packing depots of the West, one-third of the
whole quantity has been thus disposed of. This has withdrawn a large
amount of pork from the market, and prevented the depression which must
otherwise have occurred.
Where the oil is required, the whole carcass, after taking out the hams
and shoulders, is placed in a tub having two bottoms, the upper one
perforated with holes, on which the pork is laid, and then tightly
covered. Steam, at a high temperature, is then admitted into the tub,
and in a short time all the fat is extracted and falls upon the lower
bottom. The remaining mass is bones and scraps. The last is fed to pigs,
poultry, or dogs, or affords the best kind of manure. The bones are
either used for manure, or are converted into animal charcoal, worth
about three cents per pound, which is valuable for various purposes in
the arts. When the object is to obtain lard of a fine quality, the
animal is first skinned, and the adhering fat carefully scraped off. The
oily, viscid matter of the skin is thus avoided. When tanned, the skin
makes a valuable leather. An aggregate weight of 1790 lbs. from four
well-fattened animals, after taking out the hams and shoulders, say
about 400 lbs., gave within a fraction of 1200 lbs. of the best lard.
_Stearine and Oleine._--Lard and all fatty matters consist of three
principles, of which stearine contains the stearic and margaric acids,
both of which, when separated, are solid, and used as inferior
substitutes for wax or spermaceti candles. The other, oleine, is fluid
at a low temperature, and in American commerce, is known as _lard-oil_.
It is very pure, and extensively used for machinery, lamps, and most of
the purposes for which olive or spermaceti oils are used.
Curing Hams and Pork.
After dressing, the carcass should be allowed to hang till perfectly
drained and cool, when it may be cut up and salted. The usual way is to
pack the pork in clean salt, adding brine to the barrel when filled. But
it may be dry salted, by rubbing it in thoroughly on every side of each
piece, with a strong leather rubber firmly secured to the palm of the
right hand. The pieces are then thrown into heaps and sprinkled with
salt, and occasionally turned till cured; or it may at once be packed in
dry casks, which are occasionally rolled to bring the salt into contact
with every part.
Hams and Shoulders
May be cured in the same manner, either dry or in pickle, but with
differently arranged materials. The following is a good pickle for 200
lbs. Take 14 lbs. of Turk Island salt; 1/2 lb. of saltpetre; 2 qts. of
molasses, or 4 lbs. of brown sugar, with water enough to dissolve them.
Bring the liquor to the scalding point, and skim off all the impurities
which rise to the top. When cold, pour it upon the ham, which should be
perfectly cool but not frozen, and closely packed; and if not sufficient
to cover it, add enough pure water for this purpose. Some extensive
packers in Cincinnati and elsewhere, who send choice hams to market, add
pepper, allspice, cinnamon, nutmegs, or mace and cloves.
The hams may remain six or eight weeks in this pickle, then hung up in
the smoke-house, with the small end down, and smoked from 10 to 20 days,
according to the quantity of smoke. The fire should not be near enough
to heat the hams. In Holland and Westphalia, the fire is made in the
cellar, and the smoke carried by a flue into a cool, dry chamber. This
is undoubtedly the best method of smoking. The hams should at all times
be dry and cool, or their flavor will suffer. Green sugar-maple chips
are best for smoke; next to them are hickory, sweet-birch, corn-cobs,
white-ash, or beech.
The smoke-house is the best place to keep hams till wanted. If removed,
they should be kept cool, dry, and free from flies. A canvass-cover for
each, saturated with lime, which may be put on with a whitewash brush,
is a perfect protection against flies. When not to be kept long, they
may be packed in dry salt, or even in sweet brine, without injury. A
common method is to pack in dry oats, baked sawdust, &c.
DISEASES OF SWINE.
Mortifying as the fact may be to human pride, it is nevertheless
certain, that the internal arrangements, the viscera, digestive organs,
omnivorous propensities, and the general physiological structure of the
hog and the bear, more nearly resemble man, than any other animal. Many
of their diseases may therefore be expected to be a modification of
those of the human species, and require a similar treatment.
[Illustration: Fig. 36.
Skeleton of a Pig.
A Maxilla inferior, vel posterior; lower jaw.--B Dentes; the teeth.--C
Ossa nasi; the nasal bones.--D Maxilla superior, vel anterior; upper
jaw.--E Os frontis; the frontal bone.--F Orbiculus; the orbit or socket
of the eye.--G Os occipitis; the occipital bone.--H Atlas; the first
vertebra of the neck.--I Vertebrae colli, vel cervicales; the vertebrae of
the neck.--J Vertebrae dorsi, vel dorsales; the vertebrae of the back.--K
Vertebrae lumborum, vel lumbales; the vertebrae of the loins.--L Ossa
coccygis; the bones of the tail.--_a_ Scapula; the shoulder-blade.--_b_
Humerus; the round shoulder-bone.--_c_ Sternum; the breastbone.--_d_
Ulna; the elbow.--_e_ Radius; the bone of the fore-arm.--_f_ Os
naviculare: the navicular bone.--_g_ Phalanges vel ossa pedis; the first
and second bones of the foot.--_h_ Phalanges, vel ossa pedis; the bones
of the hoof.--_i_ Pelvis, (ossa innorninata;) the haunch bones.--_j_ Os
femoris; the thigh-bone.--_k_ Patella; the stifle-bone.--_l_ Tibia; the
upper bone of the leg--_m_ Tarsus, (one of which is the (N) os calcis;)
the hock-bones.--_n_ Os naviculare; the navicular bone.--_o_ Digiti, vel
phalanges, (ossa pedis;) the first digits of the foot.--_p_ Digiti, vel
phalanges, (ossa pedis;) the second digits of the foot.]
Pulmonary Affections, Colds, Coughs, and Measles.
To each of these, swine are peculiarly liable, and, as with most other
evils, prevention of disease in swine is more easy and economical than
cure. A dry warm bed, free from winds or storms, and suitable food, will
most effectually prevent any injuries, or fatal attacks. The hog has
little external covering to protect him against cold. Nature has
provided this immediately within the skin, in the deep layer of fat
which surrounds the full, plump hog. Fat is one of the best
non-conductors of heat, and the pig which is well-fed bids defiance to
the intense cold, which would produce great suffering, and consequent
disease, in the ill-conditioned animal. By the observance of a proper
medium between too much fat or lean, for the store or breeding swine,
and providing them with comfortable beds and proper feed, nearly all
diseases will be avoided.
For _Coughs and Inflammation of the Lungs_, bleeding should immediately
be resorted to, after which give gentle purges of castor oil, or Epsom
salts; and this should be followed with a dose of antimonial powders--2
grains, mixed with half a drachm of nitre.
For _Costiveness_ or loss of appetite, sulphur is an excellent remedy,
given in a light mess.
_Itch_ may be cured by anointing with equal parts of lard and brimstone.
Rubbing-posts, and a running stream to wallow in are preventives.
The _Kidney Worm_ is frequently fatal; and always produces weakness of
the loins and hind legs, usually followed by entire prostration. A pig
thus far gone, is hardly worth the trouble of recovering, even where
practicable.
_Preventives_, are general thrift, a range in a good pasture, and a dose
of half a pint of wood-ashes every week or fortnight in their food. A
small quantity of saltpetre, spirits of turpentine, or tar, will effect
the same object. When attacked, apply spirits of turpentine to the
loins, and administer calomel carefully; or give half a tablespoonful of
copperas daily for one or two weeks.
Blind Staggers.
This is generally confined to pigs, and manifests itself in foaming at
the mouth, rearing on their hind legs, champing and grinding their
teeth, and apparent blindness. The proper remedies are bleeding and
purging freely, and these frequently fail. Many nostrums have been
suggested, but few are of any utility. It is important to keep the
issues on the inside of the fore-legs, just below the knee, thoroughly
cleansed.
The _tails_ of young pigs frequently _drop_ or _rot off_, which is
attended with no further disadvantage to the animal than the loss of the
member. The _remedies_ are, to give a little brimstone or sulphur in the
food of the dam; or rub oil or grease daily on the affected parts. It
may be detected by a roughness or scabbiness at the point where
separation is likely to occur.
_Bleeding._--The most convenient mode, is from an artery just above the
knee, on the inside of the fore-arm. It may be drawn more copiously from
the roof of the mouth. The flow of blood may usually be stopped, by
applying a sponge or cloth with cold water.
The diseases of swine, though not numerous, are formidable, and many of
them soon become fatal. They have not been the subject of particular
scientific study, and most of the remedies applied, are rather the
result of casual or hap-hazard suggestion, than of well-digested
inference, from long-continued and accurate observation.