_BRAZIL; THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY._
1600-1700.
At the close of the seventeenth century the Portuguese race had
established themselves along the whole extent of the coasts of the vast
region which now forms the Brazilian Empire,--from _Pará_ in the north
to _Rio Grande Do Sul_ at the other extremity. Of the interior of these
immense provinces, extensive spaces--equal, indeed, to the size of
European kingdoms--were then, and are still, uninhabited. The clouds
driven westward by the periodical winds which prevail at certain seasons
on the Southern Atlantic, meeting the huge and unbroken barrier of the
_Andes_, are forced to discharge their contents in continuous deluges
over the entire area of Central _Brazil_, thus giving birth to the most
voluminous water-systems which the world contains. But this is not the
only result of the almost incessant downfall of waters which is
witnessed on the eastern slopes of the _Andes_. Another result is that
the superabundant moisture, falling upon a soil under the influence of a
burning sun, produces an extent and luxuriance of tropical vegetation
such as is nowhere else to be seen on the surface of the earth. This
vegetation has hitherto, throughout all ages, baffled the efforts of man
to contend with it; and ages will elapse ere the increase of the world’s
population will force mankind to bend themselves to the huge effort of
subduing this teeming virgin forest.
To give any clear idea of the mere extent of the region which now forms
the Empire of _Brazil_ is no trifling task. It is easy to say that it
extends from the fourth degree of northern latitude to about the
thirty-fourth degree of southern latitude, and that at its widest extent
it covers the space between the thirty-fourth and the seventy-third
degrees of western longitude. But it will give a far more accurate
estimate of the superficies of _Brazil_ if we compare its area with
something which we can realize. Its area is estimated at 8,515,848
geographical square _kilometres_, or 3,275,326 English square
miles,--the area of British India being 899,341 English square
miles;--that is to say, _Brazil_ has an extent equaling about three and
two-thirds that of British India. The area of France is 208,865 English
square miles, being considerably less than one-fifteenth of that of
_Brazil_. But perhaps the best way of estimating the extent of the
Brazilian provinces is to spread out a map of South America and compare
their united bulk with that of one of the adjoining countries even of
that colossal continent. The contiguous state of _Uruguay_, for
instance, covers 73,500 English square miles, being double the area of
Portugal; yet Uruguay would scarcely seem to add materially to the
superficies of the adjoining empire, of which in extent it forms less
than a forty-fourth part. Thus the little kingdom of Portugal annexed in
America alone an empire almost ninety times larger than itself.
It may be of interest to give a general idea of the progress which the
Portuguese race had made in effecting the conquest and civilization of
the regions lying along the immense line of coast indicated above during
the seventeenth century. _Maranham_ had now been in their undisputed
possession for seventy years, its seat of government being placed in the
island of the same name. The capital boasted three churches and four
convents; the European population of the State was estimated at the
middle of the century at about four hundred, a number which in ten years
had increased to seven hundred, whilst in 1685 there were more than a
thousand Portuguese in the city of _St. Luiz_ alone. The rank and
privileges of nobles were conferred upon all who had held a commission
even for a few months in the local militia; indeed at one place the
brotherhood of the _Misericordia_, which consisted of men of inferior
rank, could find no recruits, since, with their exception, the whole
population had become ennobled.
In order to reward the services of the inhabitants of _Maranham_ and
_Pará_, it was decreed that none of them should be put to the torture,
excepting in such cases as rendered torture applicable to _Fidalgos_;
they were likewise not to be imprisoned; but to be held on parole. They
received the privileges of the citizens of Lisbon, and were not liable
to be impressed either for land-service or for sea-service.
The revenue consisted for the most part of the tenths, which, about the
middle of the century, might average five thousand _cruzados_.[7] There
was a duty on wine; but little was imported, as the natives prepared a
spirit extracted from maize and from the sugar-cane. A fifth of the
slaves taken in lawful war belonged to the Crown. Some idea of the
vastness of these provinces may be conceived from the fact that the
voyage from _S. Luiz_ to _Belem_ occupied thirty days. In 1685 the
latter city contained about five hundred inhabitants, with a clerical
and monastic establishment out of all proportion to its numbers. The
tenths of _Pará_ and its subordinate captaincies amounted to about four
thousand _cruzados_; whilst the saltworks produced two thousand more,
and the fisheries an equal amount.
The salary of the Governor-General was three thousand _cruzados_; but on
the whole the salaries to the various public officers were so small as
almost to compel them to have recourse to other means of living. The
priests were said to be of the very lowest order, being chiefly engaged
in securing gain and in exciting discontent against the Jesuits, whose
mental acquirements and whose manner of life were alike a reproach to
their inferior brethren. The natives of _Brazil_ held in the utmost
horror and detestation the lot of slavery to which so many of them fell
heirs. It is even said that many captives preferred death to being
ransomed for the purpose of being thrown into perpetual captivity; and
instances are on record when slave-hunters in vain set fire to the
dwellings of Indians with a view to inducing them to come out and be
captured.
Slave-hunting in _Brazil_, independently of the miserable lot of the
captured victims, was attended by an enormous waste of life. Almost all
slaves were kidnapped; and great numbers perished before reaching the
Portuguese settlements. On their capture they were penned like cattle
until a sufficient number were collected, being shut up for months
together and exposed to the varying action of the elements. Such being
the case, it is not surprising that often but half their number arrived
at their destination. The Indians likewise who took part in the hunt, in
the service of the slave-dealers, suffered greatly in the expeditions;
while the Portuguese themselves returned in a wretched condition, after
having penetrated more than two thousand miles into the interior,
carrying devastation before them. The object of all this inhuman
exertion was, of course, gain--gain to be derived in the first instance
from the sale of the slaves, who were to become the means of gain to
others. The sole pretext which could be urged on behalf of the
slave-hunting was that it was a necessary evil, if such an expression
may be used with reference to what may be avoided, since it was
impossible for Europeans to perform the work of tilling the earth in
such a climate; but, as Southey very justly remarks, that men of
European stock are perfectly capable of all the labour which in such
climates is required for the well-being of man is abundantly proved by
the prodigious fatigues which the Portuguese underwent in seeking slaves
to do this “necessary” labour for them.
In _Maranham_ and _Pará_ the colonists occupied one of the numerous
islands per family, the country being so intersected by streams of all
descriptions that these became natural and convenient landmarks.
Inter-communication was carried on by water; and each family relied on
its own means for subsistence. Vegetation being too luxuriant to admit
of land for pasturage, game became the only animal food within reach of
the colonists, and this, as well as fish, was procured by means of their
Indians. This, however, formed but the smallest part of the slaves’
occupation, and it is stated that at this period the slaves in
_Maranham_ and _Pará_ were, literally, worked to death,--a statement
which is borne out by the fact of depopulation.
In addition to slave-hunting, there were other inducements for traders
in the interior. Sarsaparilla and other drugs were found in abundance,
as were cinnamon and nutmeg, the vanilla and indigo. Cacao grew in
plenty. Of the cultivated produce, cotton was the most important; the
cotton of _Maranham_ was at this time accounted the best in America.
Mandioc supplied the inhabitants with a satisfactory substitute for
wheat-flour. Tobacco was one of the branches of agriculture chiefly
cultivated in _Brazil_ from the first. At the time in question this
industry had grown into disuse in _Maranham_ from want of hands. As such
persons as were without a trade could only procure subsistence by means
of slaves, many families in _Maranham_ fell into distress owing to their
not being able to procure the latter. The Portuguese had grown so
accustomed to depend on slave-labour, that they allowed themselves to
fall into destitution rather than work for their families; it was
thought dishonourable for free men to cultivate the soil.
In strange contradistinction to the apathy of the Portuguese with
respect to engaging in agriculture, was the eagerness with which they
embarked in commerce. It was found necessary to restrain the civil and
judicial officers by means of statute; whilst the clergy showed equal
readiness to join in speculations. Still, in spite of every
disadvantage, the provinces of _Pará_ and _Maranham_ gradually, though
slowly, acquired population and importance. Such, however, could not be
said of the adjoining captaincy of _Ceará_, which possesses neither
river nor harbour, and is the least fertile portion of _Brazil_, being
subject to fatal droughts. Owing, nevertheless, to the disadvantages
which this captaincy possessed for colonization, its native inhabitants
were free from the molestations which beset those of _Maranham_ and
_Pará_.
The settlement of the neighbouring captaincy of _Rio Grande do Norte_
dates from the commencement of the seventeenth century. In this
province, whilst it was under the Dutch, great efforts were made for
exploring the country, civilizing the _Tapuyas_, and improving the
general condition of the people. The palace of Maurice of Nassau,
together with the buildings and public works erected under his auspices,
are solid mementoes of his administration, which is still further
commemorated in the history of _Barlæus_. During the government of this
Viceroy an attempt was undertaken to discover the vestiges of some
people who had possessed the country before the race of savages then
existing, an attempt which has left the race in question a subject of
curious speculation to the learned in such matters.[8]
Great efforts were made during the administration of Count Maurice to
promote the reformed religion throughout the territories under his
government. The Protestant missionaries were, it is said, regarded with
much jealousy by Vieyra and his brethren. They are reputed to have
succeeded to a considerable extent in imparting to the Indians the arts
of civilization; but the efforts of the Dutch towards civilizing and
humanizing the natives and negroes was confined entirely to the
government and the clergy. Nothing could exceed the barbarity of these
invaders, on the whole, towards both races. Their privateers freely
seized such Indians as they could entrap on the rivers or on the coasts,
and sold them as slaves; whilst of their imported negroes the excessive
mortality was imputed by Nassau himself to unwholesome food and physical
suffering. It was no unusual thing for these slaves to commit suicide
after attempting in vain to kill their masters.
The Dutch conquerors introduced into their Brazilian provinces that
almost excessive domestic cleanliness for which their country is
remarkable; whilst they increased the pleasures of life by the attention
which they, in accordance with their national habits, did not fail to
bestow upon horticulture. They reared vines with great success, and from
which a wine was made that was much esteemed. Being accustomed to plains
and swamps, they did not take advantage of the higher lands in forming
their settlements; but the malaria and damp had less evil consequences
than might have been anticipated, from the fact of the men being
addicted to the free use of wine and tobacco. The Dutch women, however,
who were without these counteractants, suffered much from the climate.
The country possessed by Holland was only cultivated to an extent of
some twelve or fifteen miles inland from the shore. The native industry
of the Dutch had not sufficient time to display itself; and the almost
continuous hostilities prevented the development of the fisheries.
Although the invaders from Holland were in _Brazil_ for five-and-twenty
years there was very little mixture of races between them and the
Portuguese; the difference of religion was an almost insuperable
barrier; and when they departed they left little or no trace behind them
either in religion, language, or manners.
The population of _Bahia_ and the surrounding coast is said to have
numbered, in the middle of the seventeenth century, some three thousand
five hundred souls, not including a garrison of two thousand five
hundred. A few years later, however, _Bahia_ is described as having fine
streets, grand squares, well-built houses, and splendid churches. At the
close of the century it is said to have possessed two thousand houses,
built of stone. It owed its prosperity, amongst other causes, to its
being a place of safety for the new-Christians, who were persecuted with
such cruelty in Portugal and Spain. Superstitious as were the
Brazilians, even they successfully resisted the establishment of the
Inquisition amongst them. If the new Christians were, in _Brazil_, a
despised race, they could at any rate count on opportunities of gaining
wealth and of retaining it when gained. _Bahia_ possessed abundant
sources of riches; amongst others its whale fishery, which at one time
was considered the most important in the world. At the close of the
century it was rented by the Crown for thirty thousand dollars. The
staple commodity was sugar.
In general, a scanty population was scattered along the shores and in
the islands; and here and there we read of a place, such as _Porto
Seguro_, possessing a population of fifty inhabitants. The numbers, on
the whole, are so scanty that it seems strange that the Portuguese could
have at the same time contended successfully with a foreign invader and
with hostile tribes in the interior. _Espirito Santo_ had five hundred
Portuguese in its district; whilst the population of _Rio de Janeiro_
was estimated at five times that number, exclusive of a garrison of six
hundred. As a city it was inferior to _Bahia_; it was, however,
advancing rapidly in wealth. It owed the eminence which it soon
attained, and which it retains amongst the cities of _Brazil_, to its
situation relatively to the mines which were soon to be discovered.
_Ilha Grande_ and the island of _S. Sebastian_ possessed, in the middle
of the century, no more than one hundred and fifty inhabitants each; the
population of _Santos_ was rather greater. _S. Paulo_ boasted some seven
hundred inhabitants; its neighbourhood, however, must have contained a
considerable number, amongst whom were enlisted the terrible bands of
freebooters, who carried desolation and destruction to the frontiers of
_Paraguay_, and one band of whom penetrated as far as to the province of
_Quito_, where, having encountered the Spaniards, they escaped down the
_Amazons_ on rafts. The earliest gold found in _Brazil_ was gathered at
_S. Vicente_ in 1655, where it was coined. _S. Vicente_, at this time,
had two thousand inhabitants. To the south of this place there was a
small settlement at _Cananea_, and a still smaller one at _Santa
Catalina_.
It was commonly reported that Indian spices were indigenous in _Brazil_,
and that their culture had been prohibited by the Government, lest it
should interfere with the Indian trade. Whether this were so or not, an
order was given by Joam IV. that every ship touching at _Brazil_ on its
way from India should bring with it spice plants. These were placed in
the garden of the Jesuits at _Bahia_, and two persons were brought from
_Goa_ who understood the management of cinnamon and pepper plants. But,
although the attempt promised success, it was not persevered in; and the
subsequent discovery of mines diverted attention from this possible
source of wealth. Previously to the finding of the precious metals, the
production of sugar was the main object of the inhabitants of the coast.
A sugar-producing _engenho_ implied the presence of various artisans,
necessary for the continuous work of the machinery belonging to it. That
is to say, it was a village-community in itself, more populous than many
of the towns so-called then existing. It comprised in general an area of
some eight square miles, the condition attached to the holding of this
land being settlement and the cultivation of the necessary canes, which
were to be sold at a fair price. From fifty to a hundred negroes were
employed in each _engenho_; a circumstance which, owing to the great
cultivation of sugar in the province, had a marked influence on the
population of _Bahia_. A French traveller[9] estimated the proportion of
negroes to the white population as twenty to one; but this is probably
the highest proportion which it assumed in _Brazil_. The negroes,
according to his account, were exposed to purchase, exactly like beasts
at our own cattle fairs, being entirely naked, being handled, as animals
are, to test their muscle, and being obliged to show their paces.
The costume of the inhabitants of _civilized Brazil_ during the period
of which we treat comprised every conceivable variety, from that of the
almost entirely nude slave to that of the lady dressed according to the
latest fashion from Lisbon. In the more flourishing settlements, such as
_Olinda_ and _Bahia_, nothing could exceed the luxury of the female
costume, the wives of the planters being attired in silks and satins
covered with the richest embroidery, with pearls, rubies, and emeralds.
Black was the prevailing colour, and the use of gold and silver lace was
forbidden by a sumptuary law. In describing the results of holding
slaves, it is necessary for the historian to state, with whatsoever
reluctance, that the ladies of _Bahia_, even those the most
distinguished amongst them, and who passed for being the most virtuous,
did not, according to the direct statement of the French traveller above
referred to, scruple to adorn their female slaves to the utmost extent,
with the object of participating with them in the profits of their
prostitution. This particular form of highborn depravity is, in so far
as I am aware, peculiar to _Brazil_ in the annals of history. The ladies
of _Bahia_ were so indolent of habit that on going abroad they had to
lean on their pages lest they should fall. Even the men,--if men they
might be called,--were unable to descend the declivity on which _Bahia_
stands, and were carried down on a contrivance called the serpentine,
that is to say, a hammock suspended from a pole, a slave attending
meanwhile with a parasol. Each lady on going from home was attended by
two negresses.
The Portuguese in _Brazil_ were exceedingly prone to jealousy, and it
has been concluded that, as the punishment for convicted unfaithfulness
was assured death, it is impossible to believe the often-repeated
statement that connubial infidelity on the part of women was remarkably
common; but the experience of many countries has shown that neither
certainty of punishment nor the probability of detection can be relied
upon as preventives of a breach of the marriage law; whilst it is
likewise not the less certain that the risk incurred may add to the zest
of the crime.
As might be anticipated from the fact that criminals were, from an early
period, sent to _Brazil_ to swell the ranks of the settlers, the police
records of the various settlements are not gratifying reading. In the
first place, the courts of justice were, in certain quarters,
notoriously corrupt; robberies were committed in open day; whilst
quarrels not unfrequently terminated in death. In short, the lives of
the Christian settlers were certainly, as a whole, the reverse of being
calculated to serve as examples to the heathen whom their missionaries
were employed in converting. The very ships which brought out the
Fathers too often carried out a supply of criminals whose lives serve as
a practical antidote to their doctrines.
Much has been written, and probably with justice, concerning the apathy,
the corruption, the extreme superstition, and the dissolute nature of
the lives of the clergy in _Brazil_; but, taking them as they were, it
is somewhat difficult to realize the picture of what the Portuguese
transatlantic possessions would have become had they possessed no Church
establishment. From the King down to the lowest peasant, the Portuguese
of that age were deeply imbued with faith in the doctrines of
Christianity; and, however much they might, in their practice, diverge
from its precepts, they were ever ready to compound for their sins by
liberal donations to the Church and to charitable establishments. The
Church, on its side, however irregular might be the lives of the clergy
in general, was bound to keep up a certain degree of outward discipline
and of attention to the good works for which it sought donations;
whilst, from time to time, a luminary, such as Nobrega and Vieyra, arose
in its ranks, stimulating to good works.
We have endeavoured in the preceding pages faithfully to record in so
far as our limits permitted, the devotion and extraordinary achievements
of such men as Nobrega, Anchieta, and Vieyra: it is but fitting to
complete the picture of the remarkable ecclesiastics of the century by
taking one from an opposite category. The Father Joam de Almeida, who
had sat at the feet of Anchieta, is said originally to have been called
John Martin, and to have been a subject of Queen Elizabeth; but, in the
seventeenth year of his age, he found himself under the care of the
Jesuits in _Brazil_. We are told of an Indian captive, who not only
showed no impatience under the torments inflicted upon him by his
captors, but who, when offered to be relieved of them, replied that he
wished they were greater, in order that his enemies might see how
thoroughly he despised them. In somewhat of a similar spirit John
Martin, or Almeida, seemed not only to be indifferent to pain, but
almost to revel in it. Such a character is not unfamiliar to Portuguese
ecclesiastical annals. Those who have visited Cintra will remember the
cave of the hermit Honorius, in which he dwelt for fourteen years, and
which was of such dimensions as not to admit of his standing
upright.[10] The unfortunate person of Almeida was regarded by him, in
his mental capacity, as a natural enemy, which was only to be kept in
subjection by perpetual scourgings, which were inflicted by a liberal
assortment of implements; but notwithstanding which, he survived to the
age of eighty-two. From this fact it must not be inferred that there was
anything of evasiveness in his self-inflicted castigations. His
constitution had grown accustomed to a form of suffering which his
abstemious manner of living rendered possible, and which won for him the
reverence of the superstitious population amongst whom he dwelt. On his
demise, everything in any way connected with him became inordinately
precious. The possession of portions of his autograph was almost too
much good fortune to befall any one; but the porter of his convent was
enabled to benefit himself and others by distributing drops of his blood
and such articles as might have come in contact with the body of the
dying saint. Nobrega and Vieyra, having done their work, had been
allowed to sink into their rest, comparatively unobserved; but the death
of the ascetic Martin created as much agitation as would have been
produced by an earthquake. His funeral was attended by the whole
population, from the governor downwards, and the multitude would not be
persuaded to disperse until each one of them had kissed and embraced the
corpse. Here it might have been thought his adoration might have been
allowed to end; but it was even found necessary to set a guard over him
at night, in order to protect his remains from the depredation of his
pious votaries. The guard, however, would seem to have been insufficient
for the purpose; since it was ascertained in the morning that one of the
shoes of the anchorite was no longer to be found, whilst his pillow had
likewise disappeared.
When the corpse of Martin had been committed to its coffin and confined
to the grave, it might have been reasonably hoped that it would be
allowed to rest in peace, or at least that the devotion of his admirers
would cease to be expressed by aggressive acts. Such an idea, however,
would betray ignorance of the inventiveness of superstition; since by
night the grave was opened, and, the body having been removed, the
precious hair was shaved off by a razor, whilst the remaining shoe and
stockings were secured.