SOUTH AMERICA.
“Fall’n nations gaze on Spain; if freed, she frees
More than her fell Pizarros once enchain’d;
Strange retribution! now Columbia’s ease
Repairs the wrongs that Quito’s sons sustain’d.”
--_Childe Harold._
SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE
SOUTH AMERICA
DURING
THE COLONIAL PERIOD.
BY
ROBERT GRANT WATSON,
EDITOR OF “MURRAY’S HANDBOOK OF GREECE,” FOURTH EDITION, 1872.
_IN TWO VOLUMES._
VOL. II.
LONDON:
TRÜBNER & CO., LUDGATE HILL.
1884.
[_All rights reserved._]
Ballantyne Press
BALLANTYNE, HANSON AND CO.
EDINBURGH AND LONDON
CONTENTS OF VOL. II.
PAGE
CHAPTER I.
BRAZIL; THE DUTCH WAR: 1623-1637 1
CHAPTER II.
BRAZIL; THE DUTCH WAR. GOVERNMENT OF COUNT
MAURICE OF NASSAU: 1638-1644 22
CHAPTER III.
BRAZIL; THE DUTCH WAR; RISING OF THE PORTUGUESE: 1644-1645 42
CHAPTER IV.
BRAZIL; CONCLUSION OF THE DUTCH WAR: 1646-1661 53
CHAPTER V.
JESUIT MISSIONS IN NORTHERN BRAZIL: 1652-1662 76
CHAPTER VI.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FRENCH IN SOUTH AMERICA: 1657-1696 95
CHAPTER VII.
BRAZIL; ITS PROGRESS DURING THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY: 1600-1700 112
CHAPTER VIII.
PERU; PROGRESS OF THE VICEROYALTY: 1551-1774 126
CHAPTER IX.
VICEROYALTY OF NEW GRANADA: 1535-179O 146
CHAPTER X.
CHILI; PROGRESS OF THE COLONY: 1604-1792 159
CHAPTER XI.
BRAZIL; DISCOVERY OF THE MINES; ATTEMPT OF THE
FRENCH ON RIO DE JANEIRO: 1702-1720 169
CHAPTER XII.
BRAZIL; DISCOVERY OF THE DIAMOND DISTRICT:
1724-1749 186
CHAPTER XIII.
PROGRESS OF BUENOS AYRES: 1580-1800 203
CHAPTER XIV.
BRAZIL; THE WAR OF THE SEVEN REDUCTIONS:
1750-1761 218
CHAPTER XV.
EXPULSION OF THE JESUITS FROM PORTUGAL AND BRAZIL: 1759-1767 232
CHAPTER XVI.
EXPULSION OF THE JESUITS FROM BUENOS AYRES AND
PARAGUAY: 1749-1805 247
CHAPTER XVII.
BRAZIL IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY; ARRIVAL OF THE
BRAGANZAS: 1776-1806 256
CHAPTER XVIII.
ENGLISH EXPEDITIONS TO LA PLATA, UNDER BERESFORD,
AUCHMUTY, AND WHITELOCKE: 1806-1807 271
APPENDIX 295
SOUTH AMERICA.
Book II.
CHAPTER I.
_BRAZIL; THE DUTCH WAR._
1623-1637.
The appearance of the Dutch as actors on the Brazilian stage arose, as
might be expected, from the connection of the Low Countries with Spain
and from that of Spain with Portugal. Their success in attacking the
sources of their enemy’s supplies in the East led to the establishment
of a West Indian Company, the chief object of which was to make
conquests in _Brazil_. A fleet was fitted out under the command of
Willekens, who had under him the celebrated Peter Heyne. The religious
intolerance from which the Dutch had themselves so terribly suffered at
the hands of their Spanish rulers had taught them to be tolerant in such
matters towards others, and to this circumstance they were now indebted
for much valuable information respecting _Brazil_, which they received
from the Jews who had taken refuge amongst them.
The Dutch fleet sailed at the close of 1623, and when they had crossed
the line, the commander found that his sealed instructions directed him
to attack _S. Salvador_. A storm, however, interrupted this programme;
and Willekens, on reaching the neighbourhood of _Bahia_, was compelled
to delay for some days, awaiting his comrades. On the news of his
approach being communicated to the governor, it was received at first
with Brazilian apathy, which, however, was succeeded by alarm on his
strength being correctly reported. The colonial forces were mustered for
the defence of their possessions; but, as no immediate attack was made,
alarm in time again gave way to apathy, and the colonists dispersed to
attend to their individual concerns. When Willekens had collected his
fleet, he found _S. Salvador_ undefended; and on the following day he
took possession of the place without opposition. In this easy manner the
Dutch, without having had to strike a blow, became masters of the
capital of _Brazil_.
Willekens had with him a soldier of experience, Van Dort, who now took
the command on shore. The fortifications were repaired, and
proclamations were issued offering full possession of their property and
freedom of worship to all such as would submit. Amongst those who were
thus brought under Dutch rule were two hundred Jews. The Brazilian
authorities, who imagined that this was merely a predatory expedition on
the part of the Dutch, such as they had become more or less accustomed
to on the part of Englishmen or Frenchmen, were astonished to find that
the Hollanders meant to keep possession of what they had taken. Their
national spirit revived with the realization of this fact; and as a
consequence measures were concerted to recover their honour and their
property. The governor having been taken prisoner, the bishop and other
chief persons opened his succession papers, by which they found that
their obedience was now due to the governor of _Pernambuco_. Messengers
were accordingly sent to advise him of his new position, and meanwhile
the command was vested in the bishop Teixeira. His force consisted of
fourteen hundred Portuguese and two hundred and fifty natives, with
which he established a fortified camp about a league from the city,
procuring three guns from a vessel which had taken refuge in one of the
rivers of the _Reconcave_.
The bishop, who was at least energetic, if not otherwise qualified for a
military command, was so fortunate at the outset as that the Dutch
general, Van Dort, fell at the hands of one of his skirmishing parties,
while the officer who succeeded him was shot. In the midst of this
undecided situation it seems strange indeed that the invaders should
have been so confident as to admit of Willekens sailing for Holland with
eleven vessels. A few days after his departure, his next in command,
Admiral Heyne, sailed in turn with the remaining vessels for _Angola_,
his object being to secure a supply of negroes for the Dutch colony in
_Brazil_. The admiral was, however, baffled in this object; and,
returning to South America, he met with no more good fortune in an
attempt upon _Espirito Santo_. Proceeding from there to _Bahia_, he
found the Spanish and Portuguese fleets in possession, and, being unable
to oppose them, made sail for Europe.
The loss of _Bahia_ had fallen like a thunderbolt on the court of
Madrid; and orders were given to have a great fleet equipped for the
purpose of recovering that city, whilst immediate succours were sent to
such other ports as were supposed to be most in danger, namely, to
_Pernambuco_, _Rio de Janeiro_, and _Angola_. The Spanish Government
showed on this occasion the spirit by which it was chiefly animated, by
ordering all sorts of religious exercises to be undertaken in connection
with the recent calamity. The authorities of Portugal were instructed to
inquire into and punish the crimes which had drawn down so marked a
manifestation of the Divine vengeance as the delivery of the capital of
_Brazil_ into the hands of heretics. Special prayers, to be repeated
during nine successive days, were ordered throughout the kingdom, whilst
a litany was composed for use at daily mass. In addition to this, a
solemn religious procession was ordered in every town and village. The
Portuguese, to whom the loss of their chief Brazilian town came more
immediately home, showed their concern at the intelligence in a more
worldly fashion; the city of Lisbon giving a donation of one hundred
thousand crowns to the Government towards its recovery, and the Dukes of
Braganza and Caminha twenty and sixteen thousand, respectively. The
nobles generally offered their persons and property in the public
service, whilst men of the highest rank embarked as volunteers,--amongst
them Noronha, who had been Portuguese Viceroy in India. The armament now
sent out to _Brazil_ was so thoroughly a national one on the part of
Portugal that it is said there was not one noble family in the country
which was not represented in it. It consisted of six-and-twenty vessels,
bearing four thousand men, and they were to join the Spanish fleet at
the Cape _de Verds_. The latter fleet, however, had not been equipped
with the breathless haste displayed in the case of that of Portugal; and
the Portuguese had thus to wait during nine weary weeks at the place of
rendezvous for the arrival of the Spaniards. Of the proportions of the
Spanish fleet, however, nothing could be said, since it consisted of
forty sail, bearing eight thousand men.
[Sidenote: 1625.]
Albuquerque, the governor of _Pernambuco_, and who was now governor of
_Brazil_, being unable to muster a sufficient force to cope with the
Dutch, contented himself with harassing them by attacking their outposts
and cutting off their supplies. In March 1625 the united fleets of Spain
and Portugal appeared off _Bahia_, and so intoxicated were the
Brazilians at the sight that they forthwith made an attack on the Dutch
entrenchments. The attack, however, was premature, and they were
repulsed with loss. The city had been fortified with careful science,
and was defended by ninety-two pieces of artillery. The Spanish
commander, _Don_ Fadrique de Toledo, who knew that reinforcements were
expected from Holland, proposed to land three thousand men leaving the
rest on board to intercept the enemy’s succours. It was resolved,
however, to land half of the army; whilst the fleet, by stretching
across the entrance to the bay, should, at the same time, blockade the
ships in port and cut off supplies.
The besieged Hollanders first made a bold attempt with six hundred men
to surprise the camp, by which they effected considerable slaughter; and
next, by means of two fire-ships, to burn the blockading fleet. The
latter attempt, however, recoiled upon themselves, for the Spanish were
so alarmed at the possibility of danger such as that which they had
escaped, that they resolved without loss of time to destroy the Dutch
ships. The Dutch drew their vessels under the forts; but a way was hewn
through the rocks which exposed them to artillery fire, and the greater
number were sunk. Meanwhile a portion of the garrison became mutinous;
the French and English mercenaries, who were sure of quarter, refused
any longer to fight, and nothing was left for the Dutch commander but to
capitulate. He and his men were to receive shipping and stores to convey
them to Holland, and sufficient arms for their defence by the way; but
the city of _Bahia_, which was given up on the 1st of May, suffered
considerably at the hands of those who had come to expel the invaders.
There was, however, some difficulty in executing the terms of
capitulation, for the country round _Bahia_, having been taxed beyond
its resources, was now destitute of provisions, and before these could
be procured from the neighbouring captaincies the state of affairs had
assumed altogether a new aspect.
Tidings at length arrived that the long-expected Dutch fleet, with
reinforcements, had passed the _Canaries_; and a Portuguese prisoner who
had escaped brought intelligence of its approach. Thereupon the two
thousand prisoners were placed on board of dismantled ships, which were
drawn under the guns of the fortress; and it was determined to await
the enemy’s approach within the harbour. On the 22nd of May the Dutch
fleet of thirty-four sail stood into the bay, under the delusion that
_S. Salvador_ was still held by their countrymen. The admiral, Henrik,
however, was soon undeceived; but in his confusion he lost the
opportunity of attacking the Spaniards and Portuguese with advantage. He
stood off to the north and passed _Olinda_ during a gale which carried
him on to the Bay of _Traiçam_, where the natives were disposed to
welcome any one who might deliver them from the hands of the Portuguese.
Here he landed his sick and fortified himself; but he was disturbed by
an expedition from _Pernambuco_ and _Paraïba_, upon which he thought it
better to re-embark his men and depart. Henrik’s fleet met with no
further success. He himself died, and the remains of his unfortunate
expedition found their way back to Holland.
The Spanish general, leaving a sufficient garrison in _Bahia_, now
sailed for Europe, taking the Dutch troops with him. The fleet
encountered storms, and three Spanish and nine Portuguese vessels
foundered; another sank on reaching the island of St. George; whilst two
were taken by a Dutch squadron. Another vessel caught fire from a
captured Dutch ship, together with which it was burned. In short,
Menezes, who had sailed out of the Tagus with six-and-twenty vessels,
returned to that river with his own alone. The Dutch prisoners had
parted from the fleet early enough to escape its disasters.
[Sidenote: 1627.]
In Holland, the recovery of _S. Salvador_ by Spain and Portugal, and the
bad fortune which had attended the expedition of Henrik, had naturally
the effect of considerably damping the public ardour on behalf of the
West India Company; but, the Prince of Orange steadily adhering to a war
policy, his views prevailed. The Spanish Government, warned by their
repeated losses at sea, resolved at length to keep up a strong naval
force in America; but, as was usual with them in all questions great or
small, lost a considerable amount of valuable time discussing whether it
would be better to equip the intended fleet in Europe or in _Brazil_.
Whilst this point was being decided on, the Dutch admiral, Heyne, in
1627, once more entered _Bahia_. As it was known that he was off the
coast, the governor, Oliveira, had made every preparation for its
defence. In particular, two-and-forty large pieces of cannon were placed
so as to bear upon the Dutch should they attempt to enter. In beating up
against the wind, Heyne was so unfortunate as to run his own vessel
between the two largest of the enemy’s floating batteries. But, on the
other hand, he was so placed that the Portuguese could not fire upon him
without endangering their countrymen; and in the course of half an hour
he had sent one of the batteries to the bottom; whereupon the others
struck. The Dutch, coming in boats, cut the cables of the smaller
vessels and carried them out, blowing up Heyne’s ship and another. The
admiral now sent four of his largest prizes to Holland, adding four
others to his own fleet, and destroying the rest.
Heyne, indeed, was as fortunate as Henrik had been the reverse. After a
cruise to the southward he returned to _Bahia_, when he undertook a most
perilous enterprise in attempting to cut out four ships from one of the
rivers of the _Reconcave_. They were some miles up the river, and
although preparations had been made to intercept his return, he brought
one vessel back with him and the lading of the other three. After this
exploit, Heyne, having taken his departure, fell in with and captured
the Spanish fleet from _Mexico_, thereby securing the greatest prize
which has ever been made at sea, and by which the West India Company
were amply reimbursed for all their former losses. As might be expected,
their schemes of conquest now revived. One of their captains took
possession of the island of _Fernando Noronha_, near _Pernambuco_; but
before it was effectually fortified, the Portuguese took the alarm and
sent a sufficient force to crush the new settlement.
[Sidenote: 1629.]
The West India Company lost no time in preparing fresh enterprises
against _Brazil_. This time their efforts were directed on _Pernambuco_,
from which province they estimated that one hundred and fifty vessels
might annually be freighted with sugar; whilst its harbours were
conveniently situated as points of departure whence their cruisers might
sail to intercept more rich prizes from the Spanish Main. In order to
ensure secrecy as far as possible, the preparations for their fleet were
distributed over several ports, and the ships were to rendezvous at the
_Cape de Verds_. Nevertheless, information of what was going on was
brought to Lisbon, and the court of Madrid was duly warned. The governor
of _Brazil_ was accordingly instructed to place both _Bahia_ and
_Olinda_ in a state of defence; whilst Mathias de Albuquerque was sent
out from Madrid, with some men and stores, to the assistance of his
brother, the captain of _Pernambuco_.
[Sidenote: 1630.]
On his arrival at _Olinda_, Mathias found the place almost utterly
undefended; nor did he himself do much to make things better. He had
brought out the news of the birth of a prince and heir of Spain; and
whilst _Olinda_ was occupied in merry-making over this joyous event, a
pinnace arrived from the _Cape de Verds_ announcing the assemblage there
of the Dutch fleet and its departure for _Brazil_. That fleet consisted
of fifty sail, under Henrik Loncq as general and Peter Adrian as
admiral. Eight of these had driven off the Spanish fleet near
_Teneriffe_. On the 15th of February they appeared before _Olinda_,
having on board about seven thousand men. The whole force of the town,
such as it was, was collected to oppose them, and the summons which
Loncq sent in was answered by a discharge of musketry. The entrance to
the harbour had been blocked by sunken vessels, and the sea was so rough
that the Dutch could not use their guns with effect.
But whilst a harmless cannonade was being carried on, Colonel
Wardenburg, taking sixteen ships some miles to the north of the town,
was able to land without opposition. Retaining only a few gunboats with
eleven pieces of artillery, he divided his troops into three divisions,
and on the following morning began his march towards _Olinda_. The news
of his landing had already produced a panic, and all were anxious that
their families and portable property should be placed in security in the
country. Under these circumstances, Wardenburg advanced without any
serious opposition, although it would have been easy in a wooded country
to impede his progress. Indeed, the river _Doce_ was itself an obstacle,
and the Dutch had to delay its passage until low tide, when they forded
it breast-high. At this point some shots from the gunboats caused a
general stampede. The redoubt at the entrance of _Olinda_ checked the
invaders for a moment; but it was soon overcome, and the town was given
up to be plundered.
The Portuguese governor had retreated to _Recife_, which place, however,
he had now not sufficient men to defend. As there was no hope of
preserving it, he set fire to the ships and warehouses, which contained
much valuable property; and there remained only for the invaders to
reduce the two forts of _St. Francisco_ and _St. George_, which
commanded the entrance to the harbour. Five days were suffered to elapse
before the latter was attacked. It was defended by Vieira and a band of
young men who had volunteered with him, with a courage and pertinacity
which formed a bright contrast to the confusion and pusillanimity
displayed by their countrymen. The two forts, however, could not hold
out long, and the Dutch fleet entered the harbour in triumph. Their hold
upon _Pernambuco_ was still further confirmed by the arrival, nine days
later, of another fleet with reinforcements.
When the fugitive inhabitants of _Olinda_, relieved from the actual
presence of the invader, found themselves unpursued in the country, they
began to collect their reason and to recover their composure. Their
general now pointed out to them that the object of the Dutch was gain
rather than glory; that they coveted the sugar and tobacco which
_Pernambuco_ could produce, and that the surest way to frustrate their
plans was to prevent them from cultivating these articles. Works were
accordingly begun at a distance of three miles from _Olinda_ and
_Recife_, and were prosecuted with the utmost alacrity by the population
in general, whilst four pieces of cannon were procured from the wreck of
a Dutch ship. Indeed such was the speed with which the camp was
constructed that it was already in a state of defence when the knowledge
of its existence first came to the ears of the invaders; and an attempt
to gain it by surprise was frustrated by the vigilance of Mathias de
Albuquerque. On this occasion the Dutch fled, leaving forty slain.
Emboldened by this success, the Portuguese now assumed the offensive and
laid an ambush for the Dutch general, who with six hundred men was
proceeding from _Recife_ to _Olinda_. He was taken by surprise, and owed
his safety to the flight of his horse. The danger of passing from one of
these towns to the other was so considerable, and afforded so good an
opportunity for Portuguese attack, that it gave rise amongst these to
the enrolment of a force who from the nature of their duties were called
bush-rangers. They consisted, for the most part, of peasants, who came
to the camp when they could spare time from their proper occupations.
These men, who were only occasional visitors to the camp, were well off;
but the fugitives from _Olinda_, some fifteen thousand in number, who
dwelt at _Bom Jesus_, as the camp was called, suffered excessively from
lack of provisions.
In the above respect the Dutch were no better off, for they could only
hope for relief from the sea, whilst the only water to be found at
_Recife_ was collected from pits dug in the beach, and was scarcely fit
for use. And although forests were before them, these were so well
guarded by the Portuguese that their only fuel was that which they had
brought with them. So pressing were the necessities of the Dutch, that
the high prices which it was worth their while to offer were sure to
tempt some of their mongrel opponents, three of whom were hanged by
Mathias after having been detected in a forbidden traffic with the
invader. The Dutch had nothing better to do but to endeavour to extend
their conquests by sea. Their first expedition was against the island of
_Itamaraca_, which contained twenty-three sugar-works, and was situated
eight leagues to the south of _Olinda_. They did not succeed, however,
in conquering it, and contented themselves with building a fort opposite
the neighbouring shore commanding the entrance of a port. In Fort
_Orange_ they left eighty men with twelve guns before returning to
_Recife_.
Whilst these events were passing, information of which was, of course,
conveyed to the court of Madrid, that Government was not wholly idle.
Nine vessels were despatched for the relief of the camp of _Bom Jesus_,
some of which fell into the hands of the enemy’s cruisers, so that but
little good resulted from their expedition. The inhabitants of the
province of _Pernambuco_ were on the whole left to defend their own
interests, it being hoped that the harassing warfare which they were
prosecuting would prove the best means of inducing the Dutch to withdraw
from the country. When it appeared, however, that the Low Countries were
fitting out a strong fleet to be sent to _Pernambuco_ under the command
of Admiral Hadrian Patry, who was to take out with him many Dutch
families as settlers, the Fabian policy of the court of Madrid was no
longer pursued. Again a fleet was equipped at Lisbon, the command of
which was given to _Don_ Antonio Oquendo. Of this force, which was
ultimately to proceed to Spanish America, ten vessels, with one thousand
men and twelve pieces of cannon, were destined for _Pernambuco_.
The fleet which sailed under Oquendo’s flag, besides the ten vessels
with troops for _Pernambuco_, consisted of twenty ships of war; whilst
four-and-twenty merchantmen, laden with sugar, joined him for the sake
of his convoy at _Bahia_, at which port he had been instructed to call.
This latter instruction gave the Dutch admiral time to reach _Recife_;
and, having landed his troops, he sailed out again, with sixteen ships,
in quest of the enemy. When the fleets came in sight of one another
Oquendo ordered his transports and merchant vessels to fall to leeward.
His own ship then engaged in a desperate struggle with that of his
opponent, whose vessel it grappled. Ere long the Dutch vessel was on
fire, and that of Oquendo narrowly escaped the same fate. It was,
however, towed away in time. The renowned admiral Patry, disdaining to
attempt to save his life, determined at least to preserve his colours
from falling into the hands of the enemy, and plunged with them into the
sea. In this fierce action, which was splendidly fought on both sides,
about three thousand men fell, the loss being pretty equally
distributed. On the morrow, Oquendo, having given orders to the Count of
Bagnuolo to take the succours into _Pernambuco_, proceeded on his way to
the Spanish Main to convoy the homeward-bound galleons.
Bagnuolo gained the port of _Barra Grande_, thirty leagues from the camp
of _Bom Jesus_. The troops were safely landed, and after a difficult
march joined Mathias de Albuquerque. The Dutch commander, knowing that
the Portuguese had received reinforcements, thought it necessary to
concentrate his troops at _Recife_, upon which he set fire to _Olinda_,
the entire city being consumed. But it was not long before the Dutch
discovered the impolicy of this latter measure, for, being concentrated
at _Recife_, the whole Portuguese force was brought to bear on that one
point. In order to make a diversion, three thousand men were despatched
to attack _Paraïba_. This place was defended by a fort which commanded
the bar, and the Dutch therefore determined to attack by land rather
than to enter the river. There was some severe fighting; but _Paraïba_
being reinforced from the camp, the invaders were at length constrained
to retire, leaving their stores behind them. The next attempt of the
Dutch was upon _Rio Grande_, at the entrance of the river _Potengi_; but
here too they were unsuccessful.
Whilst _Olinda_ remained closed, the trade between the province of
_Pernambuco_ and Portugal passed for the most part through a port, about
seven leagues to the north of _Recife_, called _Pontal de Nazareth_, so
named from a celebrated church on a mountain, possessing a
miracle-working image of the Virgin. It was fortified with four guns,
and had a garrison of nearly two hundred men. On this place the Dutch
directed their next attempt; but, not liking its appearance, they
coasted along, meaning to land in a creek some distance beyond. It so
happened that they were received by a sharp fire from a party of
soldiers who were escorting some treasure, and whose numbers were
concealed by the thicket. Thinking that a strong party had been sent
thither from _Nazareth_, the Dutch commander now doubled back on that
place. He was, however, mistaken, and his attack on it was repulsed with
a loss of seventy men.
[Sidenote: 1632.]
The Dutch had now been for two years at _Recife_; but their conquests
were confined to the possession of that place and to a fort on the
island of _Itamaraca_. A gleam of good fortune, however, now awaited
them. A mulatto named Calabar, a native of _Pernambuco_, for some reason
not known, deserted to the invaders. He was possessed of such sagacity
and enterprise, and moreover was so well acquainted with the country,
that his assistance was invaluable. Although he had been the first to
desert, he was soon the means of inducing others to follow his example.
His earliest exploit was to lead the Dutch on an expedition to
_Garrasu_, which place he surprised whilst the inhabitants were at mass.
They plundered and burnt the town, treating the people with much
cruelty.
Before the alarm occasioned by the fate of _Garrasu_ had cooled down,
Calabar next led the Dutch on a second expedition to the south, where
they destroyed another settlement. He then guided them to the river
_Fermoso_, and surprised five ships nearly laden. On the Portuguese
building a little fort here to prevent the recurrence of a similar
disaster, Calabar once more attacked the place, when the commander and
nineteen out of the twenty men of the garrison fell in its defence.
Indeed, Calabar completely embarrassed his late commander, whose every
plan was thwarted, and who was utterly at a loss what to do. His
measures were so uniformly unsuccessful that he did not escape from his
countrymen the suspicion of treachery, though he may be acquitted of
anything further than incapacity.
The results of this warfare were so meagre and its progress so slow,
that the West India Company now resolved upon the step of sending out
two commissioners with full powers to decide as to its continuance or
otherwise. They brought with them fresh stores and three thousand men.
As the chances of the war were now in their favour, they resolved to
pursue it. They did so with vigour; and, having gained some successes,
determined to attack the camp. The attempt was made on Good Friday, when
it was supposed that the Portuguese would be employed in religious
ceremonies. Three thousand men advanced under the Dutch commander
Rimbach; but they were received by a hot fire, by which Rimbach himself
fell, and were forced to retreat in great disorder. The next attempt of
the invaders was upon the island of _Itamaraca_, in which they were this
time successful. The loss which the Portuguese thus repeatedly
sustained was not made up to them by reinforcements, and their whole
force had now dwindled to twelve hundred men. This state of things
suggested to the Dutch commissioners the idea of winning the camp by
siege. The natural difficulties of the country, however, put an end to
this plan so soon as it was attempted to put it into execution.
The indefatigable Calabar next projected an expedition to a greater
distance, namely, to some lagoons forty-six leagues to the south of
_Recife_. The object appears to have been merely to create terror
amongst the inhabitants; and the Dutch ere long perceived the impolicy
of ravaging a country which it was their object to possess. It was their
good fortune to intercept a small squadron and a supply of stores, sent
from Lisbon to the relief of the Portuguese. After a struggle, one of
the Portuguese men-of-war was driven on shore, the men, the guns, and
part of the cargo being saved; but the other man-of-war was sunk. The
commander of the first Portuguese vessel received orders to embark his
men at _Cunhau_, where four vessels would be ready to receive them.
These, however, had scarcely got under weigh when the Dutch were upon
them. Three were burnt; the fourth was taken. This affair proved one of
the greatest losses which the Portuguese suffered during the entire
expedition. Of the six hundred men sent out, but one hundred and eighty
reached the camp.
The next attempt made by the Dutch was against _Rio Grande_, their
guide, as usual, being Calabar. The fortress was defended by thirteen
guns; but it was commanded by a sand-hill, to which Calabar led the
besiegers. _Rio Grande_ fell almost immediately; and five hundred men,
who arrived from _Paraïba_ to its assistance, had the mortification of
seeing the Dutch flag flying over its walls. Indeed, the Dutch were now
victorious on all sides; for they had, by means of emissaries, been
able to rouse against the Portuguese the _Tapuyas_, a barbarous tribe
who had been driven by the latter into the interior, and who now took a
merciless vengeance upon their women and children; and the Portuguese
were still further harassed by a collection of negroes, who had from
time to time escaped from slavery, and who had settled in a tract of
country called the _Palmares_.
[Sidenote: 1634.]
In February 1634 the Dutch commander quitted _Recife_, leaving that
place with so diminished a force that Albuquerque determined to attempt
to surprise it--an attempt which only failed owing to the lukewarmness
with which it was carried out. The Dutch had gone in force to _Paraïba_,
their object being to get possession of _St. Augustines_, the point at
which stores and troops for _Brazil_ usually landed, and whence much of
the produce of _Pernambuco_ was shipped. Having thrown the Portuguese
off their guard by a feint, the Dutch proceeded along the coast to a
place called _Pedras_. Eleven of their vessels ran in across the bar,
whilst they were followed through an opening in the reef by the launches
with Calabar and a thousand men on board. The port of _Pontal_ was now
in the possession of the Dutch, but as the bar was still commanded by
the Portuguese, the former could only communicate with their main force
outside by means of the opening in the reef by which Calabar had
entered.
Albuquerque and his general arrived ere long from the camp with three
hundred men, and, having collected a force of eight hundred, proceeded
to attack the Dutch in the town. The latter were thrown into confusion,
and the Portuguese would have easily regained _Pontal_ but for a party
of their own men who were sent to surprise the Dutch by attacking them
on the flank, but who surprised their comrades instead. The Portuguese,
however, were in such strength that their opponents could not push their
advantage against them. Indeed, the Portuguese general felt confident
that the Dutch ships in port must fall into his hands; but he had not
realized the resources of their ingenuity. Although it was impossible
for them to escape without loss over the bar as they had entered, they
were yet enabled to enlarge the opening in the reef sufficiently to
admit of the egress of their vessels. They, however, left a garrison of
two thousand men to defend the town of _Pontal_.
The Dutch at this time were still further reinforced by three thousand
five hundred men, the first use made of which was to make a renewed
attack upon _Paraïba_, a flourishing town of about a thousand
inhabitants, and having twenty sugar-works in its neighbourhood.
_Paraïba_ is situated some three miles up the river of the same name,
the entrance of which was commanded by Fort _Cabedello_. Before this
place the Dutch appeared with two thousand four hundred men, and
effected their landing without loss. As they were vastly superior to the
Portuguese in numbers, they carried all before them, although much
bravery and devotion was shown on the side of their opponents. Fort
_Cabedello_ fell, and with it Fort _St. Antonio_ on the other side of
the river. The inhabitants of _Paraïba_ were now advised to lose no time
in retiring with their families. Some of them did so, but the greater
number remained, willing to submit to any authority that could protect
them, and thus the province of _Paraïba_ fell into the hands of the
invaders.
Following up this success, the Dutch commander next reduced the
captaincy of _Itamaraca_, lying between _Paraïba_ and _Pernambuco_. Both
the camp of _Bom Jesus_ and the port of _Nazareth_ were now
simultaneously attacked. The former, being inland and cut off from
communication with the latter, suffered greatly from want of provisions.
After a three months’ siege the camp surrendered, on the condition that
the garrison should march out with the honours of war and have a free
passage to the Spanish Indies. No terms were granted to the provincial
force, who now became Dutch subjects, and whose first experience of
their new rule was that they were shamefully ill-used until they paid
the life-ransom which their conquerors demanded. The fortifications of
the camp were razed.
The siege of _Nazareth_ was now pressed. The place was so closely beset
that no supplies could be introduced into it excepting by sea. The Dutch
scoured the country in all directions; but Albuquerque was enabled to
introduce some provisions by means of three dismantled barques. These
stores, however, could only put off the evil day for a time, and the
garrison were reduced to great distress. Many died at their posts from
want of food, and at length Albuquerque, who had taken up his post at
_Villa Fermosa_, about six leagues to the south, determined to give up
the fort, which accordingly capitulated upon the same terms as had been
granted to the camp.
Notice was now given to the inhabitants of _Pernambuco_ of the intention
on the part of the Portuguese authorities to evacuate the portion of the
captaincy which was situated round the capital. Such of the people as
might choose to emigrate were offered protection; but the greater number
preferred to submit to the Dutch. About eight thousand persons
emigrated, not including Indians or slaves. Their way led past _Porto
Calvo_, which was in the hands of the Hollanders. Albuquerque took
precautions against an attack, and a native of the place, who had
submitted to the Dutch, was allowed to go out to reconnoitre. He
contrived to drop a letter in the sight of the sentinels. This was
conveyed to Albuquerque, and informed him that the dreaded Calabar had
entered _Porto Calvo_ on the previous evening with two hundred men. On
the report of the same informer the Dutch commander was easily persuaded
to attack the Portuguese. He fell into an ambuscade, and had to retreat,
leaving fifty men on the field. The victors pursuing, entered the
fortified place and won it after a desperate struggle, more than half
of the garrison being slain. The Portuguese, too, lost heavily; they
were not, however, discouraged, and secured every pass by which the
enemy might send for succours. The Dutch were now deprived of water, and
were closely besieged. After six days they were forced to surrender, and
were offered good terms, namely, to be sent by way of Spain to Holland.
_Porto Calvo_ was the native place of Calabar, and here he ended his
career by being hanged.
Albuquerque now razed the fortifications of _Porto Calvo_ and buried the
guns which he had taken. He then conducted the emigrants to the
_Lagoas_, where they dispersed, some going to _Bahia_ and others to _Rio
de Janeiro_. The Portuguese military force now left at the _Lagoas_
consisted of four hundred men, besides Indians, and it was determined to
fortify the southern settlement.
The Dutch meanwhile were giving the court of Madrid serious cause for
alarm, by building naval arsenals at _Recife_, such as made them no
longer dependent on Europe for the repairs of their fleet. Cornelis Jub,
with fourteen vessels, took possession of _Fernando Noronha_. He thence
sailed to intercept the Mexican fleet, and came up with it at the
_Bahamas_. Owing to the misconduct of some of his captains, he failed to
capture it; but the danger to which it had been exposed caused the king
of Spain to give orders that no efforts should be spared for the
recovery of _Pernambuco_. A force was accordingly prepared for this
purpose, and seventeen hundred men were sent forward in advance under
_Don_ Luiz de Roxas, who was to supersede Albuquerque. Roxas was landed
at the _Lagoas_ with his stores and men.
[Sidenote: 1635.]
[Sidenote: 1636.]
The new Spanish commander displayed no small amount of self-sufficiency,
choosing to disregard the advice given him by those who were acquainted
with the country. The Dutch, finding great inconvenience from the
communication, which it was impossible to prevent, between the
Brazilians who had submitted and the Portuguese authorities, now
ordered all who dwelt in the district of _Porto Calvo_ to move towards
the north. Leaving seven hundred men at _Lagoa_ under the Count of
Bagnuolo, Roxas at the beginning of the year began his march northwards
with twice that number. He was no sooner on the move than information
reached him that the Dutch general had retaken _Porto Calvo_. Upon this,
Rebello was sent forward with two companies to occupy the enemy until
the whole should come up. Schoppe, however, did not wait for their
appearance, but retreated to _Barra Grande_. Roxas then learned that
another Dutch general was advancing to Schoppe’s assistance, and, having
weakened himself by leaving five hundred men at _Porto Calvo_, he set
out in quest of him. The two forces were not long in meeting, but they
had to lie on their arms for the night. In the morning, Roxas, who had
meanwhile sent for his troops from _Porto Calvo_, did not wait for their
arrival, and in the fight which immediately ensued he was himself slain.
The Dutch commander did not pursue his success, but returned to
_Peripueira_.
The command now devolved upon the Count of Bagnuolo. He advanced to
_Porto Calvo_, where eighteen hundred men were collected, and from which
place the portion of the country in the hands of the Dutch was now
molested. The condition of the inhabitants was indeed deplorable, for
they were called upon to serve two masters, whose service was as
difficult to reconcile as that of God and Mammon. They were not even
allowed to practise their religion in peace, for the Dutch did their
best to bring them over to the reformed faith. The conquerors are stated
to have treated the colonists with inexcusable cruelty. They were not
only liable to death on the slightest suspicion of communicating with
the enemy, but were not unfrequently tortured to make them discover
their wealth.
Nor was the position of the Dutch a very happy one. They had won three
captaincies; but it was their object to develop the resources of these,
and as the Portuguese were now in sufficient strength to assume the
offensive in a harassing predatory warfare, this was not very easily
effected. It is not to be wondered at that the inhabitants of Pernambuco
should desire to emigrate, and that four thousand of them should put
themselves, with this end in view, under the convoy of the native chief
Cameram. They were conducted in safety over seventy leagues of a country
subject to the Dutch. Many more, who were unable to join this convoy,
attempted to follow and were cut off in so doing.
It being now evident that it was impossible to develop the resources of
the country until it should be completely subjected, representations
were addressed to Holland with this object in view. The fame and fortune
of the war had for the moment turned in favour of the Portuguese. It is
interesting to know that up to this date the expenses of the Dutch West
India Company amounted to forty-five millions of _florins_. They had
taken from the enemy no fewer than five hundred and forty-seven vessels.
More than thirty million _florins_ of prize-money had gone into the
public stock; and they had brought home from Africa merchandise to the
amount of almost fifteen millions more. Their receipts thus balanced
their expenditure, not to mention, their colonial possessions, and the
fact that they estimated that they had put the Spaniards to an outlay of
nearly two hundred millions. They now resolved to send out Jan Maurice,
Count of Nassau, as a general with unlimited powers, and with a force
sufficient to complete and secure their conquests. He reached _Recife_
in January 1637.