CHAPTER XIX.--APPLICATION OF THE FORMS.

APPLICATION OF THE SEVERAL DESIGNS IN PRACTICAL COMPOSITION

AFTERWORD

LESSONS IN MUSIC FORM.

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION.

THE NECESSITY OF FORM IN MUSIC.--So much uncertainty and diversity of

opinion exists among music lovers of every grade concerning the

presence of Form in musical composition, and the necessity of its

presence there, that a few general principles are submitted at the

outset of our studies, as a guide to individual reflection and judgment

on the subject.

Certain apparently defensible prejudices that prevail in the minds of

even advanced musical critics against the idea of Form in music,

originate in a very manifest mistake on the part of the "formalists"

themselves, who (I refer to unimpassioned theorists and advocates of

rigid old scholastic rules) place too narrow a construction upon Form,

and define it with such rigor as to leave no margin whatever for the

exercise of free fancy and emotional sway. Both the dreamer, with his

indifference to (or downright scorn of) Form; and the pedant, with his

narrow conception of it; as well as the ordinary music lover, with his

endeavor to discover some less debatable view to adopt for his own

everyday use,--need to be reminded _that Form in music means simply

Order in music_.

Thus interpreted, the necessity of form, that is, Order, in the

execution of a musical design appears as obvious as are the laws of

architecture to the builder, or the laws of creation to the astronomer

or naturalist; for the absence of order, that is, Disorder, constitutes

a condition which is regarded with abhorrence and dread by every

rational mind.

A musical composition, then, in which Order prevails; in which all the

factors are chosen and treated in close keeping with their logical

bearing upon each other and upon the whole; in which, in a word, there

is no disorder of thought or technique,--is music with Form (_i.e._

good Form). A sensible arrangement of the various members of the

composition (its figures, phrases, motives, and the like) will exhibit

both agreement and contrast, both confirmation and opposition; for we

measure things by comparison with both like and unlike. Our nature

demands the evidence of _uniformity_, as that emphasizes the

impressions, making them easier to grasp and enjoy; but our nature also

craves a certain degree of _variety_, to counteract the monotony which

must result from too persistent uniformity. When the elements of Unity

and Variety are sensibly matched, evenly balanced, the form is good.

On the other hand, a composition is formless, or faulty in form, when

the component parts are jumbled together without regard to proportion

and relation.

Which of these two conditions is the more desirable, or necessary,

would seem to be wholly self-evident.

The error made by pedantic teachers is to demand _too much_ Form; to

insist that a piece of music shall be a model of arithmetical

adjustment. This is probably a graver error than apparent

formlessness. Design and logic and unity there must surely be; but any

_obtrusive_ evidence of mathematical calculation must degrade music to

the level of a mere handicraft.

* * * * * *

Another and higher significance involved in the idea of Form, that goes

to prove how indispensable it may be in truly good music, rests upon

the opposition of Form to the material.

There are two essentially different classes of music lovers:--the one

class takes delight in the mere sound and jingle of the music; not

looking for any higher purpose than this, they content themselves with

the purely sensuous enjoyment that the sound material affords. To such

listeners, a comparatively meaningless succession of tones and chords

is sufficiently enjoyable, so long as each separate particle, each beat

or measure, is euphonious in itself. The other class, more

discriminating in its tastes, looks beneath this iridescent surface and

strives to fathom the underlying _purpose_ of it all; not content with

the testimony of the ear alone, such hearers enlist the higher, nobler

powers of Reason, and no amount of pleasant sounds could compensate

them for the absence of well-ordered parts and their logical

justification.

This second class is made up of those listeners who recognize in music

an embodiment of artistic aims, an object of serious and refined

enjoyment _that appeals to the emotions through the intelligence_,--not

a plaything for the senses alone; and who believe that all music that

would in this sense be truly artistic, must exhibit "Form" as the end,

and "Material" only as a means to this end.

* * * * * *

Still another, and possibly the strongest argument of all for the

necessity of form in music, is derived from reflection upon the

peculiarly vague and intangible nature of its art-material--tone,

sound. The words of a language (also sounds, it is true) have

established meanings, so familiar and definite that they recall and

re-awaken impressions of thought and action with a vividness but little

short of the actual experience. Tones, on the contrary, are not and

cannot be associated with any _definite_ ideas or impressions; they are

as impalpable as they are transient, and, taken separately, leave no

lasting trace.

Therefore, whatever stability and palpability a musical composition is

to acquire, _must be derived from its form, or design_, and not from

its totally unsubstantial material. It must fall back upon the network

traced by the disposition of its points and lines upon the musical

canvas; for this it is that constitutes its real and palpable contents.

THE EVIDENCES OF FORM IN MUSIC.--The presence of form in music is

manifested, first of all, by the disposition of tones and chords in

symmetrical measures, and by the numerous methods of tone arrangement

which create and define the element of Rhythm,--the distinction of

short and long time-values, and of accented and unaccented (that is,

heavy and light) pulses.

This is not what is commonly supposed to constitute form in music, but

it is the fundamental condition out of which an orderly system of form

may be developed. As well might the carpenter or architect venture to

dispense with scale, compass and square in their constructive labors,

as that the composer should neglect beat, measure and rhythm, in his

effort to realize a well-developed and intelligible design in the

whole, or any part, of his composition. The beats and measures and

phrases are the barley-corn, inch and ell of the musical draughtsman,

and without these units of measurement and proportion, neither the

vital condition of Symmetry nor the equally important condition of

well-regulated Contrast could be clearly established.

The _beat_ is the unit of measurement in music. The _measure_ is a

group of beats,--two, three, four, or more, at the option of the

composer. The bounds of the measures are visibly represented (on the

written or printed page) by vertical lines, called bars; and are

rendered orally recognizable (to the hearer who does not see the page)

by a more or less delicate emphasis, imparted--by some means or

other--to the _first_ pulse or beat of each measure, as accent, simply

to mark where each new group begins. Those who play or sing can

imagine how vague, and even chaotic, a page of music would look if

these vertical bars were omitted; and how much more difficult it would

be to read than when these (not only accustomed, but truly necessary)

landmarks are present. Precisely the same unintelligible impression

must be, and is, conveyed to the hearer when _his_ landmarks, the

accents, are not indicated with sufficient emphasis or clearness to

render him sensible of the beginning of each new measure.

* * * * * *

The same primary system of measurement and association which is

employed in enlarging the beats to measures, is then applied to the

association of the measures themselves in the next larger units of

musical structure, the Motive, Phrase, Period, and so forth. Unlike

the measures, which are defined by the accents at their _beginning_,

these larger factors of form are defined chiefly at their _end_, by the

impression of occasional periodic interruption, exactly analogous to

the pauses at the end of poetic lines, or at the commas, semicolons and

the like, in a prose paragraph. These interruptions of the musical

current, called Cadences, are generally so well defined that even the

more superficial listener is made aware of a division of the musical

pattern into its sections and parts, each one of which closes as

recognizably (though not as irrevocably) as the very last sentence of

the piece.

Cadences serve the same purpose in music, then, as do the punctuation

marks in rhetoric; and an idea of the senselessness and confusion of a

musical composition, if left devoid of cadences in sufficient number

and force, may be gleaned from an experimental test of the effect of a

page of prose, read with persistent disregard of its commas, colons,

and other marks of "cadence."

* * * * * *

Another evidence of Form in music, that is at once subtle and powerful,

rests upon what might be termed the _linear_ quality of melody. The

famous old definition of a line as a "succession of points," tallies so

accurately with that of melody (as a "succession of single tones"),

that it is not only proper, but peculiarly forceful, to speak of

melodies as _tone-lines_. Our conception of a melody or tune, our

ability to recognize and reproduce it, depends far more upon its

undulations, its rising, falling, or resting level, than upon its

rhythmic features (the varying lengths of its tones). These movements

trace a resonant line before our mind's eye as surely, though perhaps

not as distinctly, as the pencil of the artist traces the lines of an

image upon the paper; and this process is going on constantly, from

beginning to end, in every piece of music. In a portrait it describes

the contours of face and figure,--in a word, the _Form_; in the musical

composition it fulfils, to a great extent, the self-same mission, that

of defining the Form. One clear, predominating tone-line traces the

"air" or tune of the piece; and this is often the only line that

arrests the hearer's attention; but there are other tone-lines, less

prominent and less extended and coherent, gliding along harmoniously

beside the Melody proper, which (something like the shading in a

picture) contribute to the richness of the design, and perform their

share in proving and illuminating the Form of the whole.

This is most salient in music for orchestra, where each player

describes an individual tone-line, rendered all the more distinct and

recognizable by the specific "color" of his instrument; and that is the

chief, perhaps the sole, reason why the orchestra is esteemed the most

complete and perfect medium of musical expression.

UNITY AND VARIETY.--As much as opinions and beliefs may differ, among

music critics, as to the necessity of Form in music, and the conditions

of its existence, no reasonable objection can be taken to the

hypothesis that _Clearness and Attractiveness_ are the two vital

requisites upon which the enjoyment of any art depends. The artist's

utterances or creations must be intelligible, and they must be

interesting. The lack, partial or total, of either of these qualities

neutralizes the force of the intended impression, in precise proportion

to the default.

In musical composition these two requisites are embodied in the

principles of Unity and Variety.

_Unity_--in its various technical phases of Uniformity, Regularity,

Similarity, Equality, Agreement, or whatever other synonym we may find

it convenient to use--is the condition out of which the composer must

secure intelligibility, clearness, definiteness of expression. Glance

at Ex. 2, and note the evidences of unity (similarity) in the rhythmic

and melodic formation of the first four measures.

_Variety_--in its most comprehensive application--is the medium he must

employ to arouse and sustain the hearer's interest. Glance again at

Ex. 2, and note the contrast between the two halves of the first four

measures, and between these and the following two measures.

These conditions are, of course, squarely opposed to each other, though

their interaction is reciprocal rather than antagonistic; and, from

what has been said, it is obvious that they are of equal importance.

Hence, as was declared on the second page, the great problem of the

art-creator consists in so balancing their operations that neither may

encroach upon the domain of the other. For too constant and palpable

Unity will inevitably paralyze interest; while too much Variety will as

surely tend to obscure the distinctness of the design.

* * * * * *

The workings of the principle of Unity (to which attention must first

be given, because it appears to come first in the order of creation)

are shown in the following elementary details of composition:--

(1) Music is not an art that deals with space, but with Time; therefore

the units of its metrical structure are not inches and the like, but

divisions of time, the basis of which is the _beat_. The principle of

Unity dictates that the beats which are associated in one and the same

musical sentence shall be of equal duration. Every musician admits the

necessity of keeping "strict time"--that is, marking the beats in

regular, equal pulses. The sub-divisions of the beats (for example,

the eighth or sixteenth notes within a beat) must also be symmetric.

So imperative is this law that it generally prevails through the entire

piece, with only such temporary elongations or contractions (marked

_ritardando_ or _accelerando_) as may be introduced for oratorical

effects.

(2) The beats are grouped in _measures_ of uniform duration; that is,

containing equal numbers of beats.

(3) The natural _accent_ falls upon the corresponding beat, namely, the

first, of each measure; therefore it recurs regularly, at uniform

intervals of time.

(4) The _melodic contents_ of the first measure, or measures, are

copied (more or less literally) in the next measure, or measures; and

are encountered again and again in the later course of the piece, thus

insuring a fairly uniform melodic impression from which the character

and identity of the composition are derived. Turn to the 8th Song

Without Words of Mendelssohn, and observe how insistently the figure

[Illustration: first fragment of 8th Song]

and its inversion

[Illustration: second fragment of 8th Song]

run through the whole number.

(5) The specific figure of the _accompaniment_ is usually reproduced

from measure to measure (or group to group) throughout whole sections

of the piece. Observe, in the 37th Song Without Words, how constantly

the ascending figure of six tones recurs in the lower part (left hand).

Glance also at No. 30; No. 1; No. 25. Many other evidences of Unity

are invariably present in good music, so naturally and self-evidently

that they almost escape our notice. Some of these are left to the

student's discernment; others will engage our joint attention in due

time.

* * * * * *

In every one of these manifestations of unity there lies the germ of

the principle of Variety, which quickens into life with the action of

the former, always following, as offspring and consequence of the

primary unity. Thus:--

(1) The _beats_, though uniform in duration, differ from each other in

force. The first pulse in each measure (or metric group of any size)

is heavier, stronger, than the following. It--the first--is the

"impulse," and is what is called the accent. This dynamic distinction

it is that gives rise to the two fundamental classes of rhythm, the

duple and triple. In duple rhythm the accent is followed by one

unaccented or lighter beat, so that regular alternation of heavy and

light pulses prevails incessantly. In triple rhythm the accent is

followed by _two_ lighter beats, creating similarly constant, but

_irregular_ alternation of heavy and light pulses.

[Illustration: Duple and Triple Rhythm]

This distinction is so significant and so striking, that the music

lover who is eager to gain the first clues to the structural purpose of

a composition, should endeavor to recognize which one of these two

rhythmic species underlies the movement to which he is listening. It

is fairly certain to be one or the other continuously. Of duple

measure, the march and polka are familiar examples; of triple measure,

the waltz and mazurka. The "regularity" of the former rhythm imparts a

certain stability and squareness to the entire piece, while triple

rhythm is more graceful and circular in effect.

(2) The same dynamic distinction applies also to whole _measures_, and

(3) to _accents_. The first of two successive measures, or of two or

more accents, is always a trifle heavier than the other.

(4) The _melodic contents_ of the first measure may be exactly

reproduced in the succeeding measure; but if this is the case, they are

very unlikely to appear still again in the next (third) measure, for

that would exaggerate the condition of Unity and create the effect of

monotony.

[Illustration: Example 1. Fragment of Folk-song.]

The measure marked _b_ is exactly like _a_. But _c_ is all the more

contrasting, on account of this similarity.

Or, the melodic contents of a measure may be thus reproduced, as far as

the rhythm and direction of the tones are concerned, but--for

variety--they may be shifted to a higher or lower place upon the staff,

or may be otherwise modified.

[Illustration: Example 2. Fragment of Beethoven.]

Compare the groups marked _a_ and _b_, and observe how the principles

of unity and variety are both active in these four measures, and how

their effect is heightened by the formation of _c_.

(5) The figures of the accompaniment, though reproduced in uniform

rhythmic values and melodic direction, undergo constant modifications

in pitch and in shape, similar, to those shown in Ex. 2. See, again,

No. 37 of the Songs Without Words and note the changes in the formation

of the otherwise uniform six-tone groups.

LESSON 1.--The student is to study this chapter thoroughly, and write

answers to the following questions; if possible, without reference to

the text:--

1. What does Form in music mean?

2. Define the conditions which constitute good form.

3. When is a composition faulty in form?

4. What do discriminating listeners recognize in music?

5. What is the difference between the sounds of music and those of

language?

6. How does this prove the necessity of form?

7. By what is the presence of form in music shown?

8. What is the beat?

9. What is the measure?

10. By what means are the measures indicated, (1) to the reader; (2) to

the listener?

11. To what does the further multiplication of the beats give rise?

12. What are cadences?

13. What purpose do they serve in music?

14. What is the best general name for a melody?

15. What object does it fulfil in music form?

16. What are the two vital requisites upon which the enjoyment of an

art creation depends?

17. What purpose does Unity serve?

18. What purpose does Variety serve?

19. What is the great problem of the art-creator?

20. Define the conditions that confirm the principle of unity in music.

21. Define the evidences of variety in music.

CHAPTER II. FUNDAMENTAL DETAILS.

TIME.--Time is the same thing in music that it is everywhere else in

nature. It is what passes while a piece of music is being played,

sung, or read. It is like the area of the surface upon which the

musical structure is to be erected, and which is measured or divided

into so many units for this, so many for that, so many for the other

portion of the musical Form. Time is that quantity which admits of the

necessary reduction to units (like the feet and inches of a yardstick),

whereby a System of Measurement is established that shall determine the

various lengths of the tones, define their rhythmic conditions, and

govern the co-operation of several melodies sung or played together.

Time is the canvas upon which the musical images are drawn--in melodic

_lines_.

TEMPO.--This refers to the degree of motion. The musical picture is

not constant, but panoramic; we never hear a piece of music all at

once, but as a panorama of successive sounds. Tempo refers to the rate

of speed with which the scroll passes before our minds. Thus we speak

of rapid tempo (_allegro_, and the like), or slow tempo (_adagio_), and

so forth.

BEATS.--The beats are the units in our System of Measurement,--as it

were, the inches upon our yardstick of time; they are the particles of

time that we mark when we "count," or that the conductor marks with the

"beats" of his baton. Broadly speaking, the ordinary beat (in moderate

tempo) is about equivalent to a second of time; to less or more than

this, of course, in rapid or slow tempo. Most commonly, the beat is

represented in written music by the quarter-note, as in 2-4, 3-4, 4-4,

6-4 measure. But the composer is at liberty to adopt any value he

pleases (8th, 16th, half-note) as beat. In the first study in

Clementi's "Gradus ad Parnassum," the time-signature is 3-1, the whole

note as beat; in the 8th Sung Without Words it is 6-16, the sixteenth

note as beat; in the last pianoforte sonata of Beethoven (op. 111),

last movement, the time-signatures are 9-16, 6-16, and 12-32, the

latter being, probably, the smallest beat ever chosen.

MEASURES.--A measure is a group of beats. The beats are added

together, in measures, to obtain a larger unit of time, because larger

divisions are more convenient for longer periods; just as we prefer to

indicate the dimensions of a house, or farm, in feet or rods, rather

than in inches.

Measures differ considerably in extent in various compositions,

inasmuch as the number of beats enclosed between the vertical bars may

be, and is, determined quite arbitrarily. What is known as a Simple

measure contains either the two beats (heavy-light) of the fundamental

duple group, or the three beats (heavy-light-light) of the triple

group, shown in the preceding chapter. Compound measures are such as

contain more than two or three beats, and they must always be

multiplications, or groups, of a Simple measure; for whether so small

as to comprise only the fundamental groups of two or three beats (as in

2-4, 3-8, 3-4 measure), or so large as to embrace as many as twelve

beats or more (as in 4-4, 6-4, 6-8, 9-8, 12-8 measure), the measure

represents, practically, either the duple or triple species, Simple or

Compound. Thus, a measure of four beats, sometimes called (needlessly)

quadruple rhythm, is merely twice two beats; the species is actually

_duple_; the alternation of heavy and light pulses is regular; and

therefore the third beat is again an accent, as well as the first,

though _less heavy_. A measure of 6-8 is triple species, with accents

at beats one and four, precisely as if an additional vertical bar were

inserted after the third beat. In a word, then, the size of the

adopted measure is of no consequence, as long as it is retained

uniformly through the section to which it belongs; and there is no

_real_ difference between 2-4 and 4-4 measure, excepting in the number

of bars used.

A curious and rare exception to this rule of the compound measure

occurs when five or seven beats are grouped together. This involves a

mingling of the duple and triple species, and, consequently, an

irregular disposition of the accents; for instance, 5-4 measure is

either 3+2 or 2+3 beats, with corresponding accentuation:

[Illustration: Beat accentuation]

RHYTHM.--This word signifies arrangement,--a principle applied, in

music, to the distribution or arrangement of the tones according to

their various _time-values_. The system of measurement (or metric

system) furnishes tone material with all the details of division,

proportion and comparison; but this, alone, is not rhythm. The metric

system affords the basis for rational and definable rhythm, but

"rhythm" itself does not enter into the proposition until

differentiated factors are associated and opposed to each other.

[Illustration: Example 3. Rhythm.]

The first measure of this hymn is, by itself, merely an exponent of the

metric principle, for it consists of three uniform quarter-notes. The

second measure, however, is a rhythmic one, because, by dotting the

first of the three beats, three different time-values are obtained

(dotted quarter, eighth, and quarter). Further, by association and

comparison with each other, both measures assume a collective rhythmic

significance.

The rhythmic disposition of the tones is to a certain extent optional

with the composer, but by no means wholly so; the rules of rhythm are

probably the most definite and obvious of all the rules of music

writing. They do not concern the analytical student intimately, but at

least the general distinction between regular and irregular rhythm

should be understood:--We have seen that the natural accent (the

"heavy" pulse) is invariably represented by the first beat of a

rhythmic group; and that one or two lighter pulses intervene before the

next accent appears. Further, it is self-evident that the rhythmic

weight of a tone is proportionate to its length, or time-value; longer

tones produce heavier, and shorter tones lighter, impressions. The

deduction from these two facts is, then, that the rhythmic arrangement

is _regular_ when the comparatively longer tones occupy the accented

beats, or the accented fractions of the beats; and _irregular_ when

shorter tones occupy the accents, or when longer tones are shifted to

any comparatively lighter pulse of the measure or group.

The rhythm of the second measure in Ex. 3 is regular, because the

longest tone stands at the beginning of the measure, thus confirming

(and, in fact, creating) the accent. The rhythm in Ex. 1 is also

regular, throughout, the light eighth-notes occupying the light third

beat, and the heavy dotted-quarter the heavy pulse (in the third

measure). Ex. 2 is strikingly definite in rhythm, because the

time-values are so greatly diversified; and the arrangement is regular.

On the other hand, the following is an example of irregular rhythm:

[Illustration: Example 4. Fragment of Beethoven.]

The longer (heavier) tones are placed in the middle of the measure,

between the beats; the tie at the end of measure 3 places the heavy

note at the end, instead of the beginning, of the measure, and cancels

the accent of the fourth measure. These irregular forms of rhythm are

called syncopation. See also Ex. 6, second Phrase.

MELODY.--Any succession of _single_ tones is a melody. If we strike

the keys of the piano with two or more fingers of each hand

simultaneously, we produce a body of tones, which--if they are so

chosen that they blend harmoniously--is called a Chord; and a series of

such chords is an illustration of what is known as Harmony. If,

however, we play with one finger only, we produce a melody. The human

voice, the flute, horn,--all instruments capable of emitting but one

tone at a time,--produce melody.

Melody constitutes, then, a _line of tones_. If, as we have said, Time

is the canvas upon which the musical images are thrown, Melodies are

the lines which trace the design or form of these images. This

indicates the extreme importance of the melodic idea in music form.

Without such "tone-lines" the effect would be similar to that of daubs

or masses of color without a drawing, without the evidence of contour

and shape.

A _good_ melody, that is, a melody that appeals to the intelligent

music lover as tuneful, pleasing, and intelligible, is one in which,

first of all, each successive tone and each successive group of tones

stands in a rational harmonic relation to the one before it, and even,

usually, to several preceding tones or groups. In other words, the

tones are not arranged haphazard, but with reference to their

harmonious agreement with each other. For a model of good melody,

examine the very first sentence in the book of Beethoven's pianoforte

sonatas:--

[Illustration: Example 5. Fragment of Beethoven.]

The tones bracketed _a_, if struck all together, unite and blend in one

harmonious body, so complete is the harmonic agreement of each

succeeding tone with its fellows; the same is true of the group marked

_c_. The tones bracketed _b_ and _d_ do not admit of being struck

simultaneously, it is true, but they are all parts of the same key (F

minor), and are closely and smoothly connected; hence their

concurrence, though not one of harmony (chord), is one of intimate tone

relation and proximity. Further, the whole group marked 2 corresponds

in its linear formation, its rising, poising and curling, exactly to

the preceding group, marked 1. This, then, is a _good_

melody,--tuneful, interesting, intelligible, striking and absolutely

definite.

In the second place, the tones and groups in a good melody are measured

with reference to harmony of time-values; that is, their metric

condition, and their rhythmic arrangement, corroborate the natural laws

already defined:--uniformity of fundamental pulse, uniform recurrence

of accent, and sufficient regularity of rhythmic figure to insure a

distinct and comprehensible total impression. This also may be

verified in the time-values of Ex. 5. Scrutinize also, the melodic and

rhythmic conditions of Exs. 1 and 2,--and the examples on later

pages,--and endeavor to vindicate their classification as "good"

melodies. Ex. 4, though an exposition of irregular rhythm, is none the

less excellent on that account; on the contrary, this irregularity,

because wisely balanced by sufficient evidence of harmonious and

logical agreement, only heightens the beauty and effectiveness of the

melody.

* * * * * *

Whenever whole bodies of tone are played successively, a number of

melody lines are being described,--as many, in fact, as there are tones

in each body. For example, in playing a hymn-tune we describe (on the

keyboard) the four separate melodies known as the soprano, alto, tenor

and bass voices. In a duet, unaccompanied, there are two melodic

lines; if accompanied, other melodic lines are added to these. Thus we

recognize the same system of associated lines in music as in

architecture or drawing. Very rarely indeed does one single unbroken

line portray a complete image.

But in music, as in drawing, the lines differ in their degrees of

importance and prominence; and, very commonly, one line over-shadows

all, or nearly all the rest. This strongest tone-line is therefore apt

to be designated, somewhat unfairly, _the_ melody (the "tune" or "air"

is more just). But, at all events, _this predominating melodic line is

the most important factor of the form, the one upon which the

definition and recognition of the "form" depend_; and it is therefore

necessary that the student learn to distinguish it, to acquire the

habit of centring his attention upon it,--in reading, listening to, or

analyzing music; and, in playing, to give it the emphasis it requires.

The importance of a tone-line depends solely upon its conspicuousness.

The principal melody--_the_ Melody--is the one which is most salient,

which most attracts the hearer's attention. For this reason the

composer is induced to place his chief melody _above the rest of the

tone-lines, because the uppermost tone strikes the ear more acutely

than the lower ones_, and therefore the succession of highest tones

constitutes a conspicuous line that attracts and impresses the sense

most keenly.

Here then, at the top of the harmonic tone-complex, we look for the

chief melody; and here it will be found,--excepting when arbitrary

emphasis (by accentuation) is imparted to some lower tone-line, so that

it, for the time being, assumes a prominence equal, or superior, to

that of the uppermost line. (This divided prominence is seen in the

18th Song Without Words--the _duet_.)

LESSON 2.--Write careful and complete answers to the following

questions:--

1. What is Time, as applied to music?

2. What is _tempo_?

3. Give a full definition of the beat.

4. By what time-value is it most commonly indicated?

5. Give a full definition of the measure.

6. Why do measures differ in size?

7. What is a simple measure?

8. What is a compound measure?

9. Define duple and triple rhythms. (See also Chap. I.)

10. What does the term rhythm signify?

11. How is it applied in music?

12. When is the rhythm regular?

13. When is the rhythm irregular?

14. Define the difference between melody and harmony.

15. Give a full definition of melody.

16. What are the conditions of a good melody?

17. In what respect does music resemble architecture or drawing?

18. Are the tone-lines in a composition of equal importance?

19. What significance is to be attached to the principal tone-line?

20. Upon what does the importance of a tone-line depend?

21. Where is the chief melody usually placed?

CHAPTER III. FIGURE AND MOTIVE.

THE MELODIC FIGURE.--The smallest unit in musical composition is the

single tone. The smallest cluster of successive tones (from two to

four or five in number) that will convey a definite musical impression,

as miniature musical idea, is called a Figure. Assuming the single

tone to represent the same unit of expression as a letter of the

alphabet, the melodic figure would be defined as the equivalent of a

complete (small) word;--pursuing the comparison further, a series of

figures constitutes the melodic Motive, equivalent to the smallest

group of words (a subject with its article and adjective, for example);

and two or three motives make a Phrase, equivalent to the complete,

though comparatively brief, sentence (subject, predicate, and object).

This definition, amply illustrated in the following examples, serves

also to point out the significant resemblance between the structure of

language and of music. The principal melody is, as it were, the voice

of the speaker, whose message is framed wholly out of the primary

tones, or letters of the musical alphabet. The association of primary

tone-units, in successive order, results first in the figure, then in

the motive, then the phrase, period, and so forth, in the manner of

natural growth, till the narrative is ended. The following example,

though extending beyond our present point of observation, is given as

an illustration of this accumulative process (up to the so-called

Period):--

[Illustration: Example 6. Fragment of Beethoven.]

[Illustration: Example 6 continued.]

The tones bracketed _a_ are the Figures; two (in the last measures,

three) of these are seen to form Motives; two of these motives make the

Phrase; and the whole sentence, of two phrases, is a Period. See also

Ex. 1 and Ex. 2, in which the formation of figures is very distinct.

The pregnancy and significance of each of these tiny musical "words"

(or figures, as we are to call them),--small and apparently imperfect

as they are,--can best be tested by concentrating the attention upon

each as if it stood alone upon the page; it is such vitality of the

separate particles that invests a musical masterwork with its power and

permanency of interest.

* * * * * *

DEFINING THE FIGURES.--It is not always easy to distinguish the figures

in a melodic sentence. While they are unquestionably analogous to the

words in speech, they are by no means as concrete, nor are they

separated as distinctly, as the words upon a written or printed sheet.

This is in keeping with the intangible quality of music, and the

peculiar vagueness of its medium of expression; the quality which veils

its intrinsic purport from the mass of music admirers, and lends it

such exquisite and inexplicable charm to all hearers alike.

In a word, it is not the common practice for a composer to cut up his

melodic sentences into separately recognizable small particles, by

distinctly marking each component _figure_. Here and there it is done,

by way of contrast, or emphasis, or for a definite rhythmic effect,--as

shown in Ex. 2 and Ex. 6. But more generally the figures are so

closely interlinked that the whole sentence may impress the hearer as

one coherent strain, with an occasional interruption. The very minute

"breaks" between figures are often nearly or quite imperceptible; and

in many cases it is possible to define the figures of a motive in

various, equally plausible ways, simply because the "breaks" (which are

of course surely present, and become more and more apparent between the

larger members of a composition) are likely to be too inconsiderable

among these, smallest factors of the melodic form.

The following three guides may serve to indicate the extremities of the

melodic figures:--

(1) A brief rest, or a longer tone, usually marks the end of a figure.

This is fully illustrated in Ex. 6. See also Ex. 10, Ex. 12.

(2) Similarity of formation (rhythm and melodic direction) almost

invariably defines the mutually opposed, and therefore separable,

divisions of the melody,--both small and large. For example (the

figures are bracketed _a_):--

[Illustration: Example 7. Fragments of Czerny, Mendelssohn, and

Schumann.]

See also Ex. 1. The operation of this exceedingly important rule of

"corresponding formation" (about which more will be said later on) is

seen--on a larger scale--in Ex. 2, Ex. 5, and Ex. 6, where it defines

the whole _motive_.

(3) In default of more definite signs, the figures may be found to

correspond to the metric groups (that is, in lengths of whole or half

measures). Thus:--

[Illustration: Example 8. Fragments of Beethoven.]

This example illustrates the interlinking of the figures, and suggests

the difficulty that may be encountered in the effort to define melodic

figures. The difficulty is probably greatest in melodies of a lyric

character, where it is necessary to sustain the coherency of the

sentence; for instance, in many of the Songs Without Words,--see No.

40, No. 22, and others, in which an entirely definite separation of the

figures is well-nigh a hopeless task.

For this reason,--that is, because the melodic divisions are so minute

and vague between these smaller particles of the musical sentence,--it

is advisable _to give no heed to any factor smaller than the "motive,"_

and to undertake the analysis of nothing less than the latter; for even

the most scrupulous "phrasing," in the playing of a composition, must

avoid the risk of incoherency almost certain to result from distinctly

separating all the figures. The melodies in Ex. 8 should not betray

the secret of their formation.

THE MELODIC MOTIVE OR PHRASE-MEMBER.--This, as has already been stated,

is a somewhat longer section, compounded of two or more figures. Being

thus longer, the "breaks" or spaces between motives are generally more

emphatic and recognizable than those between the figures, and therefore

it is easier, as a rule, to define the extremities of motives.

Melodic motives differ in length from one to four measures; by far the

most common extent, however, is two measures, and the student will do

wisely to accept this dimension and analyze accordingly, unless there

is unmistakable evidence to the contrary. The indications are

precisely the same as those illustrated in the preceding two examples

as guides for the definition of figures.

For example:--

[Illustration: Example 9. Fragments of Beethoven, Mendelssohn, and

Mozart.]

In the first of these examples the extent of the motives is proven by

each of the three given guides: the rest, which marks the end of the

first member; the similarity of melodic and rhythmic formation, which

proclaims the beginning of the second member, parallel with that of the

first; and the regular (two-measure) dimension. In Nos. 2 and 3 there

are no rests between the motives, and the melodic formation differs;

here it is the standard of two measures that defines the members.

Ex. 3 is a two-measure motive. In Exs. 2, 5, and 6, the motives are

all two measures in length.

In the following:--

[Illustration: Example 10. Fragment of Beethoven.]

one is tempted to call each _single_ measure a motive, because of the

number of tones it contains, and the weight (length) of the final tone,

which makes a much more emphatic interruption than commonly occurs

between figures.

And in the following, on the other hand:--

[Illustration: Example 11. Fragment of Beethoven.]

the entire four-measure sentence is evidently one motive, for there is

no recognizable indication of an interruption at any point. The same

is true of the two melodies given in Ex. 8.

The following illustrates an irregular (uneven) association of

members:--

[Illustration: Example 12. Fragment of Mozart.]

Here again, there may be a disposition to adopt the upper line of

brackets, assigning a single measure to each motive. But both here,

_and in Ex. 10_, the student is advised to adhere to the two-measure

standard; he will avoid much needless confusion by so doing,--at least

until he shall have so developed and sharpened his sense of melodic

syntax that he can apprehend the finer shades of distinction in the

"motion and repose" of a melody. Adopting the lower line of brackets,

we discover successive members of unequal length, the first one

containing two, the next one three measures.

PRELIMINARY TONES.--It is a singularly effective and pregnant quality

of the element of musical rhythm, that its operations are not bounded

by the vertical bars which mark off the measures. That is to say, a

rhythmic figure (and, in consequence, a melodic figure or motive) does

not necessarily extend from bar to bar, but may run from the middle (or

any other point) of one measure, to the middle (or corresponding point)

of the next; precisely as prosodic rhythm comprises poetic feet which

begin either with an accented or with an unaccented syllable. See Ex.

10. Hence the significant rule, _that a melodic member may begin at

any part of a measure_, upon an accented or an unaccented beat, or upon

any fraction of a beat. For example:--

[Illustration: Example 13. Fragments of Mendelssohn.]

[Illustration: Example 13 continued. Fragments of Mendelssohn and

Mozart.]

In No. 1, the motive begins squarely with the measure, upon the

accented beat. In No. 2, the same motive is enlarged by two tones at

the outset, which locates its beginning upon the fourth 8th--the second

half of the second beat. In No. 3 the motive begins upon an accented

beat, but it is the lighter (secondary) accent of the 3d beat. The

various conditions of unaccented beginnings in Nos. 4, 5 and 6 are

easily recognizable. In No. 7 quite a large fraction of a measure

precedes the first accent (at the beginning of the full measure).

Examine, also, all the preceding examples, and note the different

accented or unaccented locations of the first tone, in each figure and

motive.

When a figure or motive starts at the accented beat, it begins, so to

speak, in the right place; _any tone or tones which precede the accent

are merely preliminary or introductory tones_. While they are very

desirable and necessary, in the fulfilment of certain purposes, they

are not an _essential_ part of the motive; they appear to represent the

ornamental rather than the stable element of the melodic sentence, and

their employment is therefore a matter of option and taste rather than

of absolute necessity. The accent indicates the point where the body

of the motive begins; the accent is the point where the stake is

driven; all that goes before is simply preparatory,--the changeable

material which flutters about the fixed center. Therefore the

preliminary tones do not indicate the _essential_ or actual beginning

of the motive, but its apparent or conditional beginning only; or what

might be called its _melodic_ beginning. For this reason, also, the

actual "first measure" of a motive or phrase or sentence of any kind is

always the first FULL measure,--the measure which contains the first

primary accent; that is to say, the preliminary tone or tones do not

count as first measure. For this reason, further, it is evident that

preliminary tones are invariably to be regarded as borrowed from the

final measure of the preceding motive or phrase; they must be accounted

for in someway,--must derive their metric pulse from some group,--and

as they cannot be a part of the first measure, they obviously form a

borrowed portion of the (preceding) last measure. This will be better

understood by reference to Ex. 14, No. 3; the two 16ths at the end of

the 4th measure (preliminary tones of the following phrase) are

borrowed from the _f_ which precedes,--the final tone of the first

phrase, that would, but for this reduction, have been the full

half-note necessary to complete the four measures (like the final _g_).

Perhaps the most striking feature of this rule of preliminary tones is

the absolute freedom of its application. It is _always_ wholly

optional with the composer to begin his figure or motive at whatever

part of the measure he may elect; at the accent or not; with or without

preliminary tones; to borrow beats from the preceding ending or not, as

his judgment or taste, or possibly some indirect requirement, may

decide. So valid is this license, that it is by no means unusual to

find consecutive members of the same phrase beginning at different

points in the measure. This results, apparently, in motives of

irregular, unsymmetric lengths; but no confusion is possible if the

student will recollect and apply the rule that the objective point (the

heart, so to speak) of each motive is the first primary accent it

contains; counting from these points, all irregularities of melodic

extent become purely accidental and harmless. For illustration (the

preliminary tones are marked _a_):--

[Illustration: Example 14. Fragments of Mozart, Beethoven, and

Mendelssohn.]

In No. 1, the first motive evidently ends with the longer tone,

_g_-sharp. In No. 2, each one of the four motives differs from the

others in length; the sum of them is, however, exactly 24 beats, or 8

measures; hence, each one is _actually_ a two-measure motive, counting

from accent to accent. The upper numbers indicate the _actual, vital_

beginning of each motive.

This very natural, and fairly common, inequality increases the

difficulty of analysis somewhat. A knowledge of the principal chords,

and familiarity with their manner of employment in composition, greatly

facilitates the task, because the harmonic design furnishes in many

cases the only unmistakable clue to the extremities of the melodic

members. The difficulty finally vanishes only when the student has

learned to appreciate the declamatory quality of all good melody, and

can detect its inflections, its pauses; can _feel_ which (and how many)

of its tones are coherent and inseparable, and where the points of

repose interrupt the current, and thus divulge the sense of the melodic

sentence.

LESSON 3.--Analyze the third Song Without Words of Mendelssohn (A

major, the so-called Hunting Song); first of all, locate the principal

melody,--it is not always the uppermost line of tones; then divide this

melody into its melodic motives, marking the "breaks" which separate

each from the following one; the figures may be noted, also, but only

mentally. No. 35 may also be analyzed in the same manner.

CHAPTER IV. THE PHRASE.

THE PHRASE.--It is not altogether easy to give a precise definition of

the phrase. Like so many of the factors which enter into the

composition of this most abstract, ideal, and intangible of the arts,

the phrase demands considerable latitude of treatment, and will not

readily submit to strict limitations or absolute technical conditions.

Perhaps the most correct definition is, that the term phrase is

equivalent to "sentence," and represents the smallest musical section

that expresses a _complete_ idea; not necessarily wholly finished, and

therefore independent of other adjoining phrases, but at least as

complete _in itself_ as is an ordinary brief sentence in grammar, with

its subject, predicate, and object. It should be sufficiently long to

establish the sense of tonality, the consciousness of beginning,

course, and ending, and should exhibit a certain (though limited)

amount of palpable and satisfying melodic and harmonic contents. For

this reason, the Phrase, and nothing smaller, should be regarded as the

structural basis of musical form.

The factors defined in the preceding chapter (the figure and motive)

are, as a rule, decidedly less than is demanded of a complete phrase,

which--as has been intimated--usually consists in the union of two

(possibly more) motives,--just as the motive is compounded of figures,

and the latter of single tones.

In some, comparatively rare, cases the composer gives a phrase an

independent place upon his page, as complete miniature sentence, not

directly connected with other phrases. This may be seen, very plainly,

at the beginning (the first four or five measures) of the Songs Without

Words, Nos. 28, 41, 35, 3, 4, 16. Examine each, carefully, and the

nature of the phrase in its most definite form will become apparent.

Such independent phrases are most likely to be found, like the above,

at the beginning or end of a larger composition, to which they are

related indirectly, as isolated introduction, or postlude. Thus, the

following complete phrase appears at the beginning of a song:

[Illustration: Example 15. Fragment of Schubert.]

Its division into two melodic motives, and the subdivision of these

into figures, is plainly marked.

When the phrase assumes such a conspicuous position, and is so complete

and definite in its effect as the ones just seen, there is naturally no

difficulty in recognizing and defining its extremities. But the task

of phrase analysis is by no means always thus easy.

LENGTH OF THE REGULAR PHRASE.--Fortunately for the work of analysis,

there are certain established landmarks of forms, so conscientiously

observed, and so firmly grounded in the practices of classic writing

(because the necessary consequences of natural law), that it is

generally practicable to fix fairly regular and plausible boundaries to

the phrase, notwithstanding the freedom and elasticity which

characterize the application of the syntactic principle in music.

Therefore the student will find that a phrase, in the great majority of

cases, covers exactly _four measures_, and will seldom be misled if he

looks for the end of his phrase four measures beyond its beginning.

This refers, be it understood, only to measures of average size (in the

ordinary time denominations, 3-4, 4-4, 6-8 measure). If the measures

are uncommonly large (9-8, 12-8), the phrase will probably cover no

more than two of them; or, if small (2-4, or 3-4 in rapid tempo), the

phrase may extend to the eighth measure. The operation of this

four-measure rule is exhibited with striking regularity and persistence

in the _Jugend Album_ of Schumann (op. 68); throughout its forty-three

numbers there are probably no more than a half-dozen phrases whose

length differs from this standard. For example:

[Illustration: Example 16. Fragment of Schumann, Op. 68, No. 11.]

It will be observed that the first (and also the third) of these

phrases consists of two exactly similar two-measure motives. This

seems to lend some confirmation to the idea of a two-measure phrase;

but the student is warned against deviating from his four-measure

standard, upon such evidence as this. Many instances will be found,

like these, in which the impression of a complete phrase is not gained

until the motive of two measures has been thus repeated; _the

repetition is necessary_, in order to finish the sentence, and this

proves that the two measures alone do not constitute the "complete

idea" which we expect the phrase to represent.

The same regularity of dimension will usually be found in all kinds of

dance music; in technical exercises (for instance, the études of Czerny

and others); and in all music of a simple or popular character.

* * * * * *

EXCEPTIONS.--In its ordinary, normal condition the phrase is a musical

sentence four measures in length. But this rule has its necessary

exceptions; necessary because, as we have learned, the principle of

Variety is quite as vital as that of Unity or symmetry. The phrase is

not always regular; by various means and for various reasons, it

occasionally assumes an irregular form. When such irregular phrases

are encountered (phrases of less or more than four measures) the

student will best distinguish them by defining their extremities, their

beginning and ending--as "beginning" and "ending," without reference to

their length. This should not be attended with any serious difficulty;

at least not to the observant student who reads his musical page

thoughtfully, and attaches some meaning to the figures and motives of

the melody; who endeavors to recognize the extent to which the

successive tones appear to cling together (like the letters in a word)

and constitute an unbroken melodic number,--and, in so doing, also

recognizes the points where this continuity is broken, and a new number

is announced. Much assistance may be derived from the fact--striking

in its simplicity--that the ending of one phrase defines, at the same

time, the beginning of the next, and _vice versa_. The locating of

one, therefore, serves to locate the other. There is, usually,

something sufficiently indicative about a "beginning," to render it

noticeable to a careful observer, and the same is true of an "ending."

This is illustrated in the following:

[Illustration: Example 17. Fragments of Beethoven.]

No. 1 is from the pianoforte sonata, op. 10, No. 3, second movement;

see the original. This phrase exhibits an ending, unmistakably, in the

_fifth_ measure, and not in the fourth. Its form is therefore

irregular.

In No. 2 (from the first pianoforte sonata), the first phrase ends with

the fourth measure, obviously, for the evidence of a new "beginning" in

the following measure is perfectly clear; the phrase is therefore

regular. But the next phrase runs on to the _sixth_ measure from this

point (the tenth from the beginning of the whole), because there is no

earlier evidence of an "ending." Observe that the first phrase has a

preliminary quarter-note, the second phrase none. Turning to

Mendelssohn's Songs Without Words, the very first (introductory) phrase

of No. 3 is five measures in length; the first one in No. 35 also

contains five measures; the first one in No. 16, and in No. 9, contains

three measures. The irregular phrase will be again considered (in a

different aspect) in a later chapter.

The recognition of these syntactic traits of the melodic sentence is of

great moment to the player, for they constitute the information upon

which conscious, intelligent, effective _phrasing_ depends; and without

intelligent phrasing, without a clear exposition of the formation and

arrangement of the members and phrases, full comprehension and adequate

enjoyment of a musical composition is impossible.

* * * * * *

CONTENTS OF THE PHRASE.--The question may arise, what is it that makes

a phrase,--the rhythm, harmony, or melody? Strictly speaking, all

three; for music subsists in the ceaseless co-operation of these three

primary elements of composition, and no phrase is wholly complete

without the evidence of each and all. Generalizing the definitions

already given, the function of each of these primary elements may be

thus described: The element of harmony regulates the choice of the

tones that are to sound together; the upright shafts of tone (chords)

which determine the _body_, or framework, of the music. The element of

melody regulates the choice of single tones, selected from the

successive shafts of harmony, that are to form a connected line or

strand of tones (in horizontal order, so to speak),--something like a

chain or chains stretched from harmonic post to post, which describe

the figure or _outline_ of the musical image. The element of rhythm

gives the whole body its _life_,--regulates the choice of varying

lengths, defining the infinitely varied "tapping" of the musical

mechanism.

It is evident, from this, that no vivid, satisfying musical impression

can be created in the absence of any one of these essential elements.

But, for all that, they are not of equal importance; and, in

determining the extremities of the phrase (and of all other factors of

musical structure), the melody takes precedence over harmony and

rhythm. That is to say, that in his analysis of figures, motives,

phrases, periods, and so forth, the student's attention should be

centered upon the melody,--that chain of successive single tones which,

as repeatedly stated, usually describes the _uppermost_ line of the

harmonic and rhythmic body. That is the reason why the illustrations

given in this book are so frequently limited to the melody alone; it is

the pencil point which traces the design, describes the form, of the

musical composition.

LESSON 4.--Procure the _Jugend Album_, op. 68, of Schumann, and mark

the phrases in Nos. 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 13, 18, 20, and others. In

the given numbers the phrases are all regular,--four measures in length.

Analyze in the same manner Mendelssohn's Songs Without Words, Nos. 27,

22 (first phrase, five measures), 48, 28, 35, and others; occasional

irregularities may be encountered.

Also Beethoven, pianoforte sonata; op. 14, No. 2, second movement (C

major, _andante_); and op. 26, first movement.

A few cautious experiments may also be made in analyzing any

composition which the student may chance to be studying, especially if

not too elaborate. The necessary safeguard consists in simply passing

over every confusing point, limiting the analysis to those phrases that

are self defining, for the present,--until greater experience and

fuller information shall have been gained.

CHAPTER V. CADENCES.

CADENCES IN GENERAL.--A cadence is the ending of a phrase. Strictly

speaking, every interruption or "break" between figures, and between

all melodic members, is a cadence; but the term "cadence" is applied to

nothing smaller than entire phrases.

The cadence is the point of Repose which creates the necessary contrast

with the condition of Action that prevails more or less constantly

during the phrase; and the effect of this point of repose is,

therefore, to separate one phrase from the next. The cadential effect

is generally produced by two or three chords, the last one of which is

called the cadence-chord, and stands, when the cadence is perfectly

regular, upon an accented beat of the final measure. This, according

to our definition of the phrase, will most commonly be the fourth

measure.

For example:

[Illustration: Example 18. Fragment of Schumann.]

The first chord in the fourth measure, on the accented beat, is the

"cadence-chord"; but the preceding chord (and possibly the one before

that, also) is naturally inseparable from the final one, and therefore

the entire cadence would be defined technically as embracing both (or

all three) of these chords. The effect of repose is obtained _by the

length of the final chord_, which exceeds that of any other melody tone

in the phrase; its time-value is a dotted quarter, because of the

preliminary tone (_e_, before the first accent) which, in the original

(op. 68, No. 28), precedes the next phrase in exactly the same manner.

Illustrations of the regular cadence will be found, also, in Ex. 15 and

Ex. 16; in the latter,--consisting as it does of four consecutive

phrases, four cadences occur, distinctly marked by the _longer tone_ on

the accented beat of each successive fourth measure.

MODIFICATION OR DISGUISING OF THE CADENCE.--The most natural and

characteristic indication of a cadence is the _longer tone_, seen in

the examples to which reference has just been made; for a tone of

greater length than its fellows is, in itself, the most conclusive

evidence of a point of repose, as compared with the shorter tones in

the course of the sentence, whose more prompt succession indicates the

action of the phrase. (See Ex. 29.)

From this the student is not to conclude that every long tone marks a

cadence. The rhythmic design of a melody is obtained by a constant

interchange of long and short tones, without direct reference to the

cadence alone; and numerous examples will be found in which tones of

equal, or even greater, length than the cadence-tone occur in the

course of the phrase. We have already seen that the end of a motive,

or even of a figure, may be marked by a longer tone, or its equivalent

in rests; and have been taught to expect a cadence in the fourth

measure only, as a rule.

But the direct evidence of a cadence afforded by a longer tone is

considered not only unnecessary, but in many cases distinctly

undesirable. While cadences are indispensable, in music of clearly

recognizable form, it is equally true that they must not be so emphatic

as to check the current of melody and harmony too frequently or

completely, or destroy the continuity and coherence of the members.

And it is therefore an almost invariable practice, especially in music

of a higher order, to modify and disguise the cadences by some means or

other; that is, to diminish the weight of the characteristic "longer

tone,"--to counteract, partially or entirely, the impression of actual

cadential cessation, by continuing (instead of interrupting) the

rhythmic pulse. This is so very common, and so confusing a device,

that the effect of the various methods employed to conceal or disguise

a cadence must be thoroughly understood.

It is necessary to remember, always, the rule that governs the actual

body of the phrase, and its possible preliminary tones; namely, that

the vital, essential starting-point of a phrase (and other factors of

musical form) is _the first primary accent_, the first beat of the

first _full_ measure. The length of the phrase is reckoned from this

point, and consequently, the cadence-chord is entitled to all the beats

that remain, from its accent to the very end of the final measure. For

example:

[Illustration: Example 19. Fragment of Mozart.]

In this case the cadence-chord is not modified or disguised in the

least, but takes full advantage of the six beats that make the sum of

the fourth measure.

This important fact concerning the actual value of the cadence-chord

remains unchanged, through all the licenses taken in disguising or

(apparently) diminishing its value. Whatever means may be resorted to,

in modifying the cadence, they do not alter the fact that _the

cadence-chord is always entitled to this full sum of beats_; and these

beats virtually represent the cadence-chord, either in its unchanged

form (as in Ex. 19 and Ex. 16) or in any of the manifold disguised

forms illustrated in the following examples.

One of the simplest forms is shown in Ex. 15:--The cadence-chord, on

the accented beat of the fourth measure, is entitled to the six beats

contained in that final measure. One beat is borrowed for the

preliminary tone of the next phrase (that does not appear in our

example, but corresponds to the preliminary tone at the beginning); and

three beats are represented by rests, which cancel the resonance of the

melody-tone _g_, but do not actually negate the effect of the

cadence-chord. In consequence of these two reductions, the time-value

of the _cadence-tone_ is diminished to two beats, and the whole cadence

assumes a lighter, less obstinate and stagnant character. Of the six

beats belonging to the cadence-chord, four are occupied by the tones of

the accompaniment, which thus serves to bridge over the measure of

repose without destroying the impression of a cadence.

The treatment of the cadence is similar to this in Ex. 18.

In Ex. 17, No. 1, the cadence-chord falls, properly, upon the primary

accent (first beat) of the final measure--in this instance the fifth

measure, as we have learned. The six beats to which it is entitled are

all occupied by the simple reiteration of the final melody tone, while

the sense of "interruption" is imparted by the long rest in the lower

parts.

It is by thus sustaining the rhythmic pulse, during the measure

allotted to the cadence-chord, that the desired dual impression,--that

of cadential interruption without actual cessation,--is secured. It is

like rounding off a corner that might otherwise be too angular or

abrupt.

* * * * * *

The question naturally arises: What tones are chosen to provide

material for this continuation of the rhythm? They are usually derived

from the cadence-chord, or its auxiliary embellishments; and the

methods employed may be classified as follows:

(1) The rhythmic pulse is marked in the accompanying (subordinate)

parts, as seen in Ex. 15, Ex. 18, and the following:--

[Illustration: Example 20. Fragment of Mendelssohn.]

[Illustration: Example 20 continued.]

The point of repose is marked by the longer melody tone _f_, on the

accent of the fourth measure. The value of the cadence-chord is

recorded, however, in the living tones of the accompanying figure,

which here (as in almost every similar case in composition) continues

its rhythmic movement undisturbed.

(2) The cadence-chord, or, more properly, the _cadence-tone_ in the

melody, is shifted to some later beat in the cadence measure. Thus:

[Illustration: Example 21. Fragment of Mozart.]

In this example there is in reality no irregularity, because the

cadence-tone rests upon an _accented beat_ (the fourth, in 6-8

measure), and the conditions of a cadence are fulfilled by _any_

accent, primary or secondary, of the final measure. But it belongs,

nevertheless, to this class of disguised cadences; for whatever

results, thus, in abbreviating the value of the cadence-chord, lightens

the effect of the cadence, and serves the desirable purpose so

persistently pursued by all good writers. Further:--

[Illustration: Example 22. Fragment of Beethoven.]

[Illustration: Example 22 continued. Fragments of Mendelssohn,

Schumann, and Mozart.]

Nos. 2 and 3 illustrate the method most commonly adopted in shifting

the cadence-tone forward to a later beat; namely, by placing an

embellishing tone (usually the upper or lower neighbor) of the

cadence-tone upon the accented beat belonging properly to the latter.

Nos. 4 and 5 are both extreme cases; the actual cadence-tone is shifted

to the very end of the measure, so that the effect of cadential

interruption is very vague and transient,--and will be quite lost

unless the player is intelligent enough to emphasize, slightly, the

phrasing (by making a distinct, though very brief, pause before

attacking the following measure). See also Ex. 17, No. 2, the first

phrase; here, again, the melody runs on (through tones which embellish

the cadence-chord, _f-a-c_) to the last 8th-note of the fourth measure.

(3) A certain--entirely optional--number of tones are borrowed from the

value of the cadence-chord, as _preliminary tones_ of the following

phrase. An illustration of this has already been seen in Ex. 14, No. 2

and No. 3. It is the employment of such preliminary tones, that, as

thoroughly explained in Chapter III, creates a distinction between the

_melodic_ beginning and the actual vital starting point of the phrase;

or that gives the phrase an apparently shifted location in its measures.

Further (the actual cadence-tone is marked):--

[Illustration: Example 23. Fragments of Beethoven and Mendelssohn.]

[Illustration: Example 23 continued. Fragment of Mendelssohn.]

No. 1 illustrates, again, the absence of preliminary tones in one

phrase, and their presence in the next. In each of these examples

(excepting, perhaps, No. 2) the cadence is so thoroughly disguised that

there is little, if any, evidence left of the "point of repose." In

No. 4, particularly, the cadence-measure is rhythmically the most

active one in the phrase. And yet the presence of a genuine cadence at

each of these places, marked *, is as certain and indisputable as in

Ex. 19. The ear will accept a cadence upon the slightest evidence _in

the right place_,--where a cadence is expected. See, also, Mozart

pianoforte sonata No. 10 (in D major), first 12 measures; measure 8 is

a _cadence-measure_.

Here follow a few more examples which illustrate the most extreme

application of this principle of borrowed tones,--a mode of treatment

very common in the music of Mozart, Haydn, and, in fact, all classic

writers:--

[Illustration: Example 24. Fragments of Mozart.]

[Illustration: Example 24 continued. Fragment of Beethoven.]

It is difficult to believe that in each of these cases the long array

of 16th-notes should not constitute the actual beginning of the phrase,

but are only preliminary; and yet this is the only correct view to take

of it, and it is the view which will simplify all analysis, when

thoroughly comprehended. It must be seen that the cluster of

16th-notes in the cadence-measure (of the preceding phrase) is

_one-sixteenth short of a full measure_, and, therefore, it does not

represent the first measure of the next phrase, because our inviolable

rule is that the first measure of a phrase is its first _full_ measure.

The above examples emphasize the correct manner of counting the

measures; and they simply illustrate possible methods of _disguising

the cadence_.

In some cases it is difficult to determine whether the tones which thus

disturb the "repose" of the cadence-measure belong to the cadence-chord

(that is, to the _present_ phrase), or, as preliminary tones, to the

following phrase. Upon careful scrutiny, however, it will be found

possible to decide, by examining their melodic bearing, to which phrase

they pertain. In Example 22, they are manifestly (even in No. 5) a

part of the present phrase; in Example 23 and 24 they are as certainly

preliminary to the phrase which follows. In the following example they

seem to constitute an entirely independent little "interlude," without

direct reference to either phrase:

[Illustration: Example 25. Fragment of Mozart.]

* * * * * *

THE ELISION.--Finally, there are some (very rare) instances where the

composer appears to yield to the seductive influence of such extensive

preliminary groups as those seen in Example 24, and by setting aside

the trifling discrepancy, permits the apparent preliminary tones to

represent the _actual first measure of the next phrase_. This is

easily accomplished, when, as in Example 24, No. 2, it is only one

16th-note short of a full measure. And although this 16th, being the

cadence-chord, is actually equivalent to the whole measure, it is

sometimes less confusing to the hearer to silence it. This is called

stifling the cadence (or Elision); and its presence depends simply upon

sufficient proof that what was supposed to be the cadence-measure (and

to a certain extent is such) is at the same time _really the first

measure of the next sentence_. The following contains an illustration

of the elision of a cadence:

[Illustration: Example 26. Fragment of Mozart.]

[Illustration: Example 26 continued.]

The proofs of this very singular and apparently untrustworthy analysis

are: (1) That there is absolutely no doubt about the first cadence,

marked *; (2) that a cadence is consequently due, and expected, four

measures later,--this proving the measure in question to be the

"cadence-measure of the old phrase," as it is marked and as it appeals

to our sense of cadence; (3) that the last four measures unmistakably

represent a regular, compact phrase,--this proving that the

"cadence-measure of the old phrase" is unquestionably _at the same time

the first measure, or actual beginning, of the new phrase_. In a word,

one measure is lost--not in effect, for the elements of the expected

cadence are all present,--but in the counting. This lost measure is

the stifled cadence-measure, omitted by Elision.

Such cases are, as stated, very rare; so rare that the student will do

wisely to leave them quite out of his calculations.

In order to elucidate the embarrassing matter still more fully, we

shall take two more examples of a very misleading character, which the

superficial observer would probably define as elisions, but which are

almost certainly regular cases of disguised cadence merely:

[Illustration: Example 27. Fragment of Mozart.]

Here again there is no doubt of the presence of a cadence at the first

*; but this "cadence-measure" appears almost as certainly to be at the

same time the initial measure of a new phrase. This, however, proves

not to be the case, because _there are four measures left, without this

one_. That is, counting backward from the final cadence, we locate the

"first measure" after, not _with_, the cadence-measure. And this is

the way the passage was meant to sound by its author, and the way it

will and must sound to the student who has properly cultivated his

sense of cadence.

[Illustration: Example 28. Fragment of Beethoven.]

This case is extremely misleading; it is hard to believe (and feel)

that the characteristic onset of the 16th-triplet figure does not

herald the new phrase; but all the indications of strict, unswerving

analysis (not to be duped by appearances) point to the fact that this

is one of the common cases of disguised cadence, and not an elision of

the cadence. The _sforzando_ marks of Beethoven confirm this view,

and, as in Example 27, we have our four measures to the next cadence,

without this "cadence-measure."

The characteristic traits of all these various phases of cadence

formation are:--

(1) That the actual cadence-tone in the melody may be of any

time-value, from the full extent of the cadence-measure down to the

smallest fraction of that measure. In Ex. 19 it was the former,

unbroken; in Ex. 17, No. 1, also, but broken into the six pulses of the

measure; in Ex. 20 it was shortened, by a rest, to one-half its real

value; in Ex. 26 it was reduced to one-quarter of its true value; in

Ex. 25, to one 8th-note; and in Ex. 24, No. 3, to one 16th-note.

(2) That the cadence-tone in the melody may be shifted forward to

almost any point beyond its expected position upon the primary accent.

In Ex. 20 (and many other of the given illustrations) it stands in its

legitimate place, at the beginning of the measure; in Ex. 21 it stands

upon the _second_ accent of the measure; in Ex. 22, No. 1, on the

second beat in 3-4 measure; in Ex. 22, No. 5, on the third beat of the

triple-measure; in Ex. 22, No. 4, on the last eighth note in the

measure.

(3) That in almost every case the effect of absolute cessation is

softened by marking the rhythm of the cadence-measure; in no case is

the rhythm permitted to pause (not even in Ex. 19, where the

accompaniment, not shown, is carried along in unbroken 8th-notes). In

some part or other, by some means or other, the cadence-measure is kept

alive; either by continuing the accompaniment, as in Exs. 18 and 20, or

by quickly picking up a new rhythm, as in Exs. 27 and 28. Conspicuous

exceptions to this rule will be found, it is true, in hymn-tunes and

the like; though occasionally even there, as the student may recall,

the rhythm, in some cadence-measures, is carried along by one or more

of the inner voices; for example, in the hymn-tune "Lead, Kindly

Light," of J. B. Dykes. (See also Ex. 29.)

SPECIES OF CADENCE.--In text-books and musical dictionaries several

varieties of the cadence are distinguished, but they are chiefly

distinctions without any more than one essential point of difference,

namely, difference in force or weight. It is therefore feasible to

reduce all these varieties to two,--the heavy cadence and the light

cadence. The former is represented by the so-called Perfect cadence,

the latter by the many grades of Semicadence.

PERFECT CADENCE.--There is one method of checking the current of the

melodic phrase with such emphasis and determination as to convey the

impression of finality; either absolute finality, as we observe it at

the very end of a composition, or such relative finality as is

necessary for the completion of some independent section of the

piece,--conclusive as far as that section is concerned, though not

precluding the addition of other sections to this, after the desired

degree of repose has been felt. This is known as the perfect cadence,

or full stop. It is always made upon the _tonic harmony_ of some key

as cadence-chord, with the _keynote itself in both outer parts_,

and--when desired in its strongest form (without such disguising as we

have seen)--upon an _accented_ beat, and of somewhat longer duration

than its fellow tones. For illustration:--

[Illustration: Example 29. Fragment of Schubert.]

At the end of this four-measure phrase there is a perfect cadence,

exhibited in its strongest, most conclusive form. It is practically

undisguised, though the cadence-chord is reduced to three beats (from

the four to which it is entitled) to make room for the preliminary beat

of the next phrase (calculated to correspond to the one at the

beginning of this phrase).

The cadence-chord is the tonic harmony of C minor; upon the primary

accent of the 4th measure; it is considerably longer than any other

tone in the phrase; and the keynote _c_ is placed both at the top and

at the bottom of the harmonic body. See also Ex. 15; the cadence is

perfect, because the cadence-chord, on the accent of the 4th measure,

is the tonic harmony of G major, with the keynote as highest and as

lowest tone. It is abbreviated by rests, which very slightly diminish

its weight. Ex. 17, No. 2, closes with a perfect cadence; it is the

tonic harmony of C major, on an accent, and with the keynote in the two

extreme parts. See also Ex. 20.

In the following:

[Illustration: Example 30. Fragment of Schumann.]

the cadence-chord stands upon the secondary accent (3d beat) of the

final measure. This method of shifting the cadence forward is

generally adopted in large species of measure (6-8, 9-8, and the like),

and has been defined among the devices employed in disguising or

_lightening_ the cadence. In Ex. 22, No. 5, the cadence-chord is

shifted to the last beat (unaccented) of the final measure; this

lightens the cadence very materially, but it does not affect any of its

essential properties as perfect cadence. The following is similar:--

[Illustration: Example 31. Fragment of Schumann.]

The cadence-chord occupies the unaccented (2d) beat, and is no longer

than any other chord in the phrase. Despite its striking brevity, it

is nevertheless a perfect cadence, disguised; it is the tonic chord of

C major, with the keynote at top and bottom. See also Ex. 23, No. 1.

The following illustrations come under the head of the disguised

cadences seen in Ex. 24:--

[Illustration: Example 32. Fragments of Mendelssohn and Schubert.]

In No. 1 the cadence is perfect, for it is the tonic chord of G major,

keynote _g_ at top and bottom, and on the primary accent of the fourth

measure; but the uninterrupted continuation of the movement of 16ths,

in the right hand, shortens the uppermost keynote to a single

16th-note, and would entirely conceal the cadence, were it not for the

distinct evidence of repose in the lower part.

In No. 2 the movement in the upper part appears to shatter the cadence;

the keynote does not appear on the accent, and its announcement at the

end of the first triplet is very brief. For all that, it is an

unmistakable perfect cadence; the chord thus shattered (or "broken,"

technically speaking) is the tonic harmony of the key, and the keynote

_does_ appear as uppermost (and therefore most prominent) tone, in the

same order of percussion as that given to each of the preceding melody

tones.

* * * * * *

At the end of an entire piece of music, or of some larger section of

the piece, the cadence-chord, on the other hand, is often lengthened

considerably, for the sake of the greater weight and decision of

cadential interruption required at that place. Thus:--

[Illustration: Example 33. Fragment of Schubert.]

The last two measures are merely the prolongation of the final

cadence-chord. See also, Mendelssohn, Songs Without Words, No. 4, last

five measures; No. 8, last eight measures; and others.

Another peculiarity of the final cadence is, that sometimes the

_uppermost_ tone is the 3d or 5th of the tonic chord, instead of the

keynote,--a significant device to counteract the dead weight of the

cadence-chord, especially when prolonged as just seen. See No. 10 of

the Songs Without Words, last six measures; it is the tonic chord of B

minor, but the tone _d_ (the 3d) is placed at the top, instead of _b_.

Also No. 16, last chord; No. 38, last chord; No. 6, last three measures

(the 5th of the tonic chord as uppermost tone). At any other point in

the piece this default of the keynote would, as we shall presently see,

almost certainly reduce the weight of the cadence from "perfect" to

"semicadence"; at the very end, however, it cannot mislead, because it

does not affect the condition of actual finality.

SEMICADENCE.--Any deviation from the formula of the perfect

cadence--either in the choice of some other than the tonic chord, or in

the omission of the keynote in either (or both) of the outer

parts--weakens the force of the interruption, and transforms the

cadence into a lighter, more transient, point of repose, for which the

term semicadence (or half-stop) is used. The semicadence indicates

plainly enough the end of its phrase, but does not completely sever it

from that which follows.

It is these lighter, transient forms of cadence to which a number of

different names are given; for the student of analysis (and the

composer, also, for that matter) the one general term "semicadence," or

half-cadence, is sufficient, and we shall use no other.

If, then, a cadence is final in its effect, it is a perfect one; if

not, it is a semicadence. The harmony most commonly chosen as the

resting-place of a semicadence is the chord of the _dominant_,--the

fifth step of the momentary key,--that being the harmony next in

importance to that of the tonic (the one invariably used for the

perfect cadence). The following example illustrates the dominant

semicadence:--

[Illustration: Example 34. Fragment of Brahms.]

The cadence-chord is the dominant harmony (root _e_) in the key of A

minor; neither of the two upper tones on the first and second beats is

the root of the chord; it is quite sufficient that the root appears as

lowermost tone, and even this is not necessary. The "point of repose"

is shifted to the second beat, in the manner so amply illustrated in

the examples of the disguised cadence; the methods we have seen may be

applied to _any_ kind of cadence.

See also Ex. 18; the key, and therefore the chord, at the semicadence

is the same as that of the above example (simply major instead of

minor).

Also Ex. 23, No. 4; the semicadence chord is the dominant harmony of

E-flat major; it is skillfully disguised. Ex. 25, dominant harmony of

A major. Ex. 26, last four measures; the semicadence is made upon the

dominant of C minor.

In the following:

[Illustration: Example 35. Fragment of Schumann.]

the semicadence in the fourth measure is made with the dominant harmony

of C major (the tones _g-b-d-f_); it is so disguised as to remove all

signs of interruption; but the chord _prevails_ throughout the measure,

and (as may be seen by reference to the original, op. 68, No. 3) the

next measure--the fifth--exactly corresponds to the first; this

indicates another "beginning," and proves our "ending."

But though the dominant is thus generally employed at the semicadence,

it is by no means the only available chord. It must be remembered that

every cadence which does not fulfil the definite conditions of the

perfect cadence, is a semicadence. Examine each of the following, and

determine why the point of repose is each time a semicadence:--Ex. 1;

Ex. 9, No. 3; Ex. 14, No. 2, fourth measure; Ex. 14, No. 3, fourth

measure; Ex. 19; Ex. 22, Nos. 3 and 4; Ex. 23, No. 2, fourth measure.

The distinction between the two species of cadence becomes most subtle

when the _tonic harmony_ is chosen for the semicadence, _but with some

other part of the chord than the keynote as uppermost (or lowermost)

tone_. This might appear to lighten the perfect cadence too

immaterially to exercise so radical an influence upon the value

(weight) of the interruption. The _keynote_, however, is so decisive

and final in its harmonic and melodic effect--everywhere in music--that

its absence more or less completely cancels the terminating quality of

the cadence-chord; in other words, the force of a tonic cadence depends

upon the weight and prominence of the _keynote_.

For example:

[Illustration: Example 36. Fragment of Schubert.]

The first, second, and third of these cadences is made upon the tonic

harmony, on the accent of each successive fourth measure. But they are

only _semicadences_, as the melody (uppermost part) rests upon the

Third of the chord, _c_, instead of the keynote; this substitution of

_c_ for _a-flat_ is sufficient to frustrate the perfect cadence and

diminish it to a transient interruption. The final cadence is perfect,

however, because there the uppermost tone _is_ the keynote. See also

Ex. 21; and Ex. 17, No. 2, fourth measure (semicadence, with _a_

instead of _f_ as principal tone in upper part, and disguised by the

continuation of rhythmic movement to the end of the cadence-measure).

In Ex. 17, No. 1, the cadence is made with the tonic harmony of G

minor, but with the Third (_b-flat_) at the top.

LOCATING THE CADENCES.--Next to the recognition and comparison of the

different melodic sections of a composition (in a word, the _melodic

delineation_ of the whole), the most significant task in music analysis

is the locating and classifying of the cadences. They are the angles

of the design, so to speak; and have the same bearing upon the sense of

the music as punctuation marks have in rhetoric. Intelligent and

effective phrasing, adequate interpretation of the composer's purpose,

is impossible without a distinct exposition of the cadences,--if not of

the inferior points of interruption between motives, also.

The best general rule for locating cadences is, probably, to look for

them in the right place, namely, in the _fourth measure_ from the

beginning of each phrase. The fairly regular operation of this rule

has been verified in Lesson 4. But exceptions have also been seen (in

Ex. 17), and many more are certain to be encountered, simply because

the principle of Unity (exemplified by the prevalence of the

four-measure standard) must interact with the principle of Variety

(exemplified in all phrases of irregular extent).

Therefore, the more reliable method, as already stated, is _to define

the beginning of the following phrase_,--for each successive beginning

involves a foregone cadence, of course. No very definite directions

can be given; experience, observation, careful study and comparison of

the given illustrations, will in time surely enable the student to

recognize the "signs" of a beginning,--such as the recurrence of some

preceding principal member of the melody, or some such change in

melodic or rhythmic character as indicates that a new phrase is being

announced.

LESSON 5. Analyze, again, Schumann, _Jugend Album_ (op. 68), No. 6,

locating every cadence and defining its quality,--as perfect cadence or

semicadence. Also Nos. 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 33, 14, 15, 16, 3,--and

others. As a curious illustration of the difficulty which may

sometimes attend the analysis of phrases and cadences, the student may

glance at No. 31 (_Kriegslied_, D major); a more baffling example will

rarely be found, for the piece abounds in irregular phrase-dimensions,

and cadences that are disguised to the verge of unrecognizability; the

only fairly reliable clue the composer has given lies in the formation

of the melodic members (the clue intimated in the explanatory text

following Ex. 35).

Also Mendelssohn, Songs Without Words, No. 34 (first phrase six

measures long); No. 40; No. 18.

Also Beethoven's pianoforte sonata, op. 22, third movement

(_Menuetto_); op. 28, second movement (_Andante_).

Again the student is reminded that it is not only permissible, but wise

and commendable, to pass by all confusing cases; without being careless

or downright superficial, to observe a certain degree of prudent

indifference at confusing points, trusting to that superior

intelligence which he shall surely gain through wider experience.

CHAPTER VI. IRREGULAR PHRASES.

CAUSES.--The possibility of deviating from the fundamental standard of

phrase-dimension (four measures) has been repeatedly intimated, and is

treated with some detail in the text preceding Example 17, which should

be reviewed. It is now necessary to examine some of the conditions that

lead to this result.

The causes of irregular phrase-dimension are two-fold; it may result

(1) from simply inserting an additional cadence, or from omitting one. Or

(2) it may be the consequence of some specific manipulation of the

phrase-melody with a view to its extension or expansion, its development

into a broader and more exhaustive exposition of its contents.

THE SMALL AND LARGE PHRASES.--If a cadence is inserted before it is

properly due, it is almost certain to occur exactly _half-way_ along the

line toward the expected (regular) cadence,--that is, in the _second_

measure. This is likely to be the case only when the tempo is so slow,

or the measures of so large a denomination, that two of them are

practically equal to four _ordinary_ measures. By way of distinction,

such a two-measure phrase is called a Small phrase. For example:--

[Illustration: Example 37. Fragment of Mendelssohn.]

There is no reasonable doubt of the semicadence in the second measure,

because enough pulses have been heard, up to that point, to represent the

sum of an ordinary phrase. If this were written in 6-8 measure (as it

might be), it would contain four measures. See, also, Song No. 22 of

Mendelssohn,--9-8 measure, adagio tempo; the phrases are "Small"; note

particularly the last two measures. The same is true in No. 17. About

Schumann, op. 68, No. 43 (_Sylvesterlied_), there may be some doubt; but

the measures, though of common denomination, contain so many tones, in

moderate tempo, that the effect of a cadence is fairly complete in the

second measure.

If, on the other hand, one of the regular cadences is omitted,--owing to

the rapidity of the tempo, or a small denomination of measure,--the

phrase will attain just double the ordinary length; that is, _eight_

measures. An eight-measure phrase is called a Large phrase. For

illustration:--

[Illustration: Example 38. Fragment of Beethoven.]

There is not the slightest evidence of repose or interruption in the

fourth measure, nor of a new beginning in the fifth, wherefore the

cadence is not expected until four more measures have passed by. The

inferior points of repose in the upper parts, at the beginning of the

5th, 6th and 7th measures, serve only to establish melodic, or rather

rhythmic, variety, and have no cadential force whatever. See

Mendelssohn, Song No. 8; the first cadence appears to stand in the

_eighth_ measure; the tempo is rapid and the measures are small; it is

obviously a large phrase. The phrase which follows is regular, however;

there _is_ a cadence in the twelfth measure, thus proving that Large

phrases may appear in company with regular phrases, in the same

composition. In other words, the omission of an expected cadence (or the

insertion of an additional one) may be an _occasional_ occurrence,--not

necessarily constant. See, again, No. 22 of the Songs Without Words; the

first and second phrases are small; the third phrase, however (reaching

from measure 6 to 9 without cadential interruption), is of regular

dimensions.

THE PRINCIPLE OF EXTENSION.--The other cause of modified phrase-dimension

is one of extreme importance, as touching upon the most vital process in

musical composition, namely, that of _phrase-development_.

Setting aside all critical discussion with reference to the question,

"What is good music?" and simply accepting those types of classic

composition universally acknowledged to be the best, as a defensible

standard (to say the least), we find that such a page of music exhibits

the pursuit of some leading thought (melodic motive or phrase), with

precisely the same coherence and consistency, the same evidence of

determined aim, as is displayed in the creation of a forcible essay, a

masterly poem, an imposing architectural plan, or any other work of art

that betrays intelligence and a definite, fixed, purpose. This is no

more nor less than might be expected from the dominion of the law of

Unity.

The equally inflexible demands of Variety are satisfied by presenting

this self-same leading thought in ever new and changing aspects,--_not_

by exchanging the thought itself for a new one at each successive angle.

This latter faulty process would naturally lead to a conglomeration of

impressions, baffling comprehension and jeopardizing real enjoyment.

In a classic page of music we perceive that each successive unit grows,

more or less directly, out of those which go before; not so directly, or

with such narrow insistence as to produce the impression of sameness and

monotony, but with such consistency of design as to impart a unified

physiognomy to the whole. Hence, it will often be found that every

melodic figure, during a certain section (if not the whole) of a

composition, may be traced to one or another of the figures which

characterized the first phrase, or the first two or three phrases, of the

piece. This was emphasized by our reference, near the end of the first

chapter, to the 8th Song Without Words of Mendelssohn. If the student,

in analyzing the melody of that composition, will endeavor to penetrate

some of the clever disguises employed by the composer (for the sake of

Variety), he will find the whole piece reducible to a very few melodic

figures, announced at or near the beginning. See also No. 45 (C major),

No. 36, No. 26. Also Schumann, op. 68, No. 7, No. 8, No. 18, No. 23.

Also Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 10, No. 2, last movement; op. 26,

last movement.

In musical composition this process is known as thematic development, and

it generally extends over the whole, or a greater part, of the piece.

Its operation on a smaller scale, with more limited reference to one

phrase alone, effects the development of the phrase _by extension_.

The process of extension or expansion, by means of which the phrase

usually assumes a somewhat irregular length, consists mainly in the

varied repetition of the figures or motives that it contains; and the

continuity of the whole, as extension of the _one phrase_, is maintained

by suppressing the cadence--suspending all cadential interruption--during

the lengthening process. For example:

[Illustration: Example 39. Fragment of Mendelssohn.]

These six measures result from a repetition (variated) of the third and

fourth measures of the original--regular--four-measure phrase. A cadence

is due in the fourth measure, but it is not permitted to assert itself;

and if it did, its cadential force would be neutralized by the entirely

obvious return to (repetition of) the motive just heard. Further:--

[Illustration: Example 40. Fragment of Mendelssohn.]

There is no cadence in the fourth measure,--the current of the melody

obliterates it and hurries on, voicing the last measure again and again

until it dies away in the tenth measure, where a cadence ends it. That

it should be the _tenth_ measure is purely accidental; the number of

measures is of little account in the act of extension; here, it was

continued until a convenient place was found (with reference to chord and

key) for the cadence. Further:--

[Illustration: Example 41. Fragment of Mendelssohn.]

Measures 1, 2, 3 and 8 constitute the original regular four-measure

phrase.

The following regular phrase (to be found in the last movement of

Beethoven's pianoforte sonata, op. 28):--

[Illustration: Example 42. Fragment of Beethoven.]

is immediately followed by this lengthy and elaborate extension:--

[Illustration: Example 43. Fragment of Beethoven.]

[Illustration: Example 43 continued.]

The portion marked _b_ is a complete repetition, with quaint variation,

of the original four-measure phrase, marked _a_ in Ex. 42; _c_ is a

repetition of the last figure (just one measure) of the phrase, with the

melodic parts inverted, or exchanged; _d_ and _e_ are a literal

repetition of the two preceding measures--(_c_) and _c_; _f_ is another

recurrence of (_c_), with still another inversion of the melodies; _g_

repeats _e_ an octave higher; and _h_ is nothing more or less than a

curious repetition of _g_, in longer tones, and in reversed direction.

Distinct cadential interruption is carefully avoided after the original

phrase has been announced, that is, throughout Ex. 43,--which is the

significant proof (borne out by the manifest identity of the _melodic_

members) that these measures form part and parcel of the original phrase,

as extension or development of it, and _not_ a new phrase. The total

length is sixteen measures, developed thus out of the original four.

For an exhaustive explanation of phrase-extension, with all the technical

details, the student is referred to my HOMOPHONIC FORMS, Chapter III.

* * * * * *

Another method of extending a phrase consists in prefacing a measure or

two of purely _introductory_ material; it is, therefore, rather

anticipation than prolongation, and is composed most commonly of the

figure of the accompaniment, announced briefly before the actual

phrase-melody begins.

This is shown very clearly in the first measure of the 22d Song Without

Words; also in the first measure of No. 7, No. 31, No. 42, No. 40, and

others; the first _two_ measures of No. 34, and No. 1; the first _three_

measures of No. 19, No. 26, and No. 37,--and needs no further

illustration. It emphasizes the necessity of vigilance in defining the

correct _starting-point_ of the first phrase; for a mistake at the

beginning may interfere seriously with the locating of the cadences

(according to our fundamental four-measure rule). For instance, in No.

42 the cadences do _not_ fall in the 4th, 8th, 12th measures--and so

on--but in the 5th, 9th, 13th, 17th, from the very beginning of the piece.

When the introductory passage is longer than _three_ measures, it

probably constitutes a complete phrase by itself, with its own cadence;

in which case, of course, it must not be analyzed as "extension." For

example, at the beginning of No. 29; still more apparently at the

beginning of No. 28, No. 41, and others.

* * * * * *

INHERENT IRREGULARITY.--Finally,--there exists another, third, condition,

besides those mentioned at the head of this chapter, whereby a phrase may

assume an irregular dimension; not by doubling or dividing its length (as

in the large and small phrases) nor by the processes of extension,--but

by an arbitrary and apparently incalculable act of _melodic liberty_,--by

allowing the melody to choose its own time for the cadential

interruption. This comparatively rare occurrence is illustrated in Ex.

17, No. 1 (five-measure phrase), and Ex. 17, No. 2, second phrase (six

measures long). It is true that in each of these cases the "extra"

measures might be accounted for as "extension by modified

repetition,"--for instance, in No. 1 the _second_ measure might be called

a reproduction (or extension) of the first measure. But cases will be

encountered where a phrase of three, five, six, or seven measures will

admit of no such analysis. In such instances the student is compelled to

rely simply upon the evidence of _the cadence_. As was advised in the

context of Ex. 17, he must endeavor to define the phrase by recognition

of its "beginning" and "ending," as such; or by exercising his judgment

of the "cadential impression." See also Ex. 48, second phrase (six

measures).

See Schubert, pianoforte sonata No. 1 (A minor, op. 42)

_Scherzo_-movement; first 28 measures, divided into 5 phrases,--as

demonstrated by the melodic formation--of 5, 5, 5, 7 and 6 measures.

Also Schubert, _Impromptu_, op. 90, No. 3, measures 42 to 55 (phrases of

5, 5 and 4 measures.)

LESSON 6. Analyze the following examples, locating the cadences and

defining their value (as perfect or semicadence); and determining the

nature of each irregular phrase (as small, large, or extended phrase):

Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 22, second movement (_Adagio_), first

30 measures.

Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 28, _Scherzo_-movement.

Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 14, No. 3, _Menuetto_.

Mendelssohn, Songs Without Words: No. 4, first 5 measures.

No. 46, last 9 1/2 measures.

No. 42, last 15 measures.

No. 45, last 11 measures.

No. 12, last 12 measures.

No. 14, last 11 measures.

No. 36, last 22 measures.

No. 37, last 11 measures.

Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 27, No. 2, last movement; measures 7 to

23 from the second double-bar.

Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 28, first movement; from the double-bar

(near the middle of the movement) measures 21 to 94 (_fermata_ symbol);

in this extraordinary specimen of phrase-development, the original

four-measure phrase yields seventy-four successive measures, with very

few cadences to divide it even into sections. Same sonata, last

movement, last eighteen measures.

CHAPTER VII. THE PERIOD-FORM.

PHRASE-ADDITION.--The phrase is the structural basis of all musical

composition. By this is meant, not necessarily the single phrase, but

the phrase in its collective sense.

The phrase is, after all, only a unit; and the requirements of Variety

cannot be wholly satisfied by the mere development and extension of a

single phrase, except it be for a certain limited section of the piece,

or for a brief composition in small form (like Schumann, op. 68, No. 8).

The act of _addition_ does therefore enter into the processes of

music-writing, as well as _extension_. Phrase may be added to phrase,

in order to increase the primary material, and to provide for greater

breadth of basis, and a richer fund of resources. The condition to be

respected is, that such aggregation shall not become the ruling trait,

and, by its excess, supplant the main purpose,--that of _development_.

That is, it must be held rigidly within the domain of Unity. The

student of the classic page will therefore expect to find a more or

less marked family resemblance, so to speak; prevailing throughout the

various phrases that may be associated upon that page.

Each additional phrase should be, and as a rule will be, sufficiently

"new" in some respect or other to impart renewed energy to the

movement; but--so long as it is to impress the hearer as being the same

movement--there will still remain such points of contact with the

foregoing phrase or phrases as to demonstrate its derivation from them,

its having "grown out" of them.

This process of addition (not to be confounded with the methods of

extending a single phrase, illustrated in the preceding chapter) is

exhibited first, and most naturally, in the so-called Period-form.

THE PERIOD.--The Period-form is obtained by the addition of a second

phrase to the first. It is therefore, in a sense, a double phrase;

that is, it consists of two connected phrases, covering _eight ordinary

measures_, or just double the number commonly assigned to the single

phrase.

Each one of these phrases must, of course, have its individual cadence,

or point of repose; the first--called the _Antecedent phrase_--has its

cadence in the fourth measure, and the second--called the _Consequent

phrase_--in the eighth measure. The effect of the Period-form is that

of a longer sentence interrupted exactly in the middle,--not unlike a

bridge of two spans, resting on a central pier. But, precisely as the

central pier is only an intermediate point of support, and not terra

firma, so the ending of the Antecedent phrase is never anything more

weighty than a semicadence, while the definite, conclusive, perfect

cadence appears at the end of the Consequent phrase,--or of the entire

period-form.

The reason for this distinction of cadence is obvious. A period is not

two separate phrases, but two related and coherent phrases which

mutually balance each other. The Consequent phrase is not merely an

"addition" to the first, but is its complement and "fulfilment." The

two phrases represent the musical analogy of what, in rhetoric, would

be called thesis and antithesis, or, simply, question and answer. In a

well-constructed period the Antecedent phrase is, therefore, always

more or less _interrogative_, and the Consequent phrase _responsive_,

in character.

For illustration (Mendelssohn, No. 28):--

[Illustration: Example 44. Fragment of Mendelssohn.]

The co-operation, or interaction, of the principles of Unity and

Variety, is nowhere more strikingly shown than in the formulation of

the musical period. Either element has the right to predominate, to a

reasonable degree, though never to the exclusion or injury of the

other. In the above example, the principle of Unity predominates to a

somewhat unusual extent:--not only the figures (marked 1-2-3-4), and

the motives (_a-b_), are uniform, in the Antecedent phrase itself, but

the melody of the Consequent phrase corresponds very closely throughout

to that of the Antecedent, only excepting a trifling change in the

course (marked _N. B._), and the last few tones, which are necessarily

so altered as to transform the semicadence into a perfect cadence. It

is this significant change, _at the cadence_, which prevents the second

phrase from being merely a "repetition" of the first one,--which makes

it a "Consequent," a response to the one that precedes.

Further (Mendelssohn, No. 23):--

[Illustration: Example 45. Fragment of Mendelssohn.]

In this example also, the Consequent phrase is a complete affirmation

of its Antecedent, agreeing in its melodic form with the latter until

the cadence is nearly due, when an extra measure is inserted (as

extension), and the usual digression into the necessary perfect cadence

is made. The condition of Unity predominates, but a noticeable

infusion of Variety takes place.

Further (Mozart, pianoforte sonata):--

[Illustration: Example 46. Fragment of Mozart.]

Here, again, the condition of Unity prevails, but with a still greater

infusion of Variety; the melody of the Consequent phrase _resembles_

that of the Antecedent in every detail; the rhythm is identical, and it

is evident that the second phrase is designed to balance the first,

figure for figure, the principal change being that some of the figures

are simply turned upside down (compare the places marked _N. B._). The

semicadence rests upon a dominant chord (fifth-step) of D major; the

perfect cadence upon the same chord, it is true, but as _tonic_ harmony

of A major, with keynote in the extreme parts. Being a keynote, though

not in the original key, it is valid as perfect cadence.

Further (Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 13):--

[Illustration: Example 47. Fragment of Beethoven.]

[Illustration: Example 47 continued.]

In this example, the condition of Variety predominates decidedly. The

Consequent melody differs totally from the Antecedent, even in rhythm,

and the necessary portion of Unity is exhibited only in equality of

length, _uniformity of accompaniment_, and similarity of character

(tonality, and general harmonic and rhythmic effect). Observe the

diversity of melodic extent, in the two phrases, in consequence of the

preliminary tone borrowed from the semicadence for the Consequent

phrase. Greater variety than here will rarely be found between two

successive phrases that are intended to form the halves of one coherent

period.

For more minute technical details see the HOMOPHONIC FORMS, Chapter V.

LESSON 7. Analyze the following examples. Locate the cadences;

compare the phrases and define the degrees of Unity and of Variety

exhibited in the melody, or elsewhere; and mark such irregularities of

forms (or extensions) as may be found:--

Mendelssohn, Songs Without Words, No. 35, measures 5 1/2-13. (By 5 1/2

is meant the _middle_ of the fifth measure, instead of its beginning.)

No. 45, first 8 measures.

No. 29, measures 4 1/2-12.

No. 14, " 1-8.

No. 34, " 1-10.

No. 18, " 1-9; 10-17.

No. 9, " 3 1/2-7.

No. 27, " 5-12.

Schumann, op. 68, No. 3, measures 1-8; 9-16.

No. 5, measures 1-8; 9-16. (Do not overlook the preliminary tones

which precede the first measure.)

The first eight measures of Nos. 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 15, 22, 23, 24,

26, 30, 32, 39. Also Nos. 13 and 28, first _ten_ measures.

Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas: op. 2, No. 1, _Adagio_, measures 1-8.

Same sonata, third movement, "Trio," measures 1-10.

Op. 2, No. 2, _Largo_, measures 1-8; also _Scherzo_, measures 1-8; also

_Rondo_, measures 1-8.

Op. 2, No. 3, measures 1-13; also _Scherzo_, measures 1-16; also last

movement, measures 1-8.

Op. 10, No. 1, _Finale_, measures 1-8; and measures 16 1/2-28.

Op. 10, No. 3, measures 1-10; also _Largo_, measures 1-9; 9 1/2-17;

also _Menuetto_, measures 1-16; also _Rondo_, measures 1-9.

Op. 14, No. 2, measures 1-8; also _Andante_, measures 1-8; also

_Scherzo_, measures 1-8.

After analyzing these examples, the student may venture to define the

periods in other compositions, classic or popular, especially such as

he may chance to be learning.

CHAPTER VIII.--ENLARGEMENT OF THE PERIOD-FORM.

The processes of extension and development are applied to the period in

the same general manner as to the phrase. The results, however, are

broader; partly because every operation is performed on a

correspondingly larger scale, and partly because the resources of

technical manipulation increase, naturally, with the growth of the

thematic material.

Among the various methods adopted, there are three, each significant in

its own peculiar way, that provide sufficiently exhaustive directions

for the student of structural analysis.

ENLARGEMENT BY REPETITION.--The first and simplest method is to

increase the length of the period-form by the process of _repetition_;

repetition of the entire sentence, or of any one--or several--of its

component members, in a manner very similar to that already seen in

connection with the single phrase (Chap. VI, Ex. 39, etc.), and under

the same conditions of Unity and Variety; that is, the repetitions may

be nearly or quite literal, or they may have been subjected to such

alterations and variations as the skill and fancy of the composer

suggested.

An example of complete repetition (that is, the repetition of the

entire period), with simple but effective changes, may be found in

Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 13, _Adagio_, measures 1 to 16.

Examine it carefully, and observe, among other details, the treatment

of the perfect cadence (in the 8th measure). See also, Song Without

Words, No. 27, measures 5 to 20.

The repetition of one of the two phrases is exhibited in the following

(Mozart, sonata No. 14):--

[Illustration: Example 48. Fragment of Mozart.]

The Antecedent is a regular four-measure phrase, with semicadence (made

on the tonic chord, but with _3d_ as uppermost tone); the Consequent is

a six-measure phrase, with perfect cadence, and is repeated, with

partial change of register. The whole is a "period with repeated

Consequent."

A somewhat elaborate example of extension by detail-repetition is seen

in the following (Chopin, Mazurka No. 20, op. 30, No. 3--see the

original):

[Illustration: Example 49. Fragment of Chopin.]

[Illustration: Example 49 continued.]

These sixteen measures are the product out of eight measures, by

extension; that is, they are reducible to a simple period-form (as may

be verified by omitting the passages indicated under dotted lines), and

they represent in reality nothing more than its manipulation and

development. The original 8-measure period makes a complete musical

sentence, and was so devised in the mind of the composer, _without the

extensions_. The method of manipulation is ingenious; observe the

variety obtained by the striking dynamic changes from _ff_ to _pp_;

and, hand in hand with these, the changes from major to minor, and back

(as shown by the inflection of _b_-flat to _b_-double-flat). These are

first applied to members only, of the Antecedent, as indicated by the

brackets _a_ and _b_, and then to the entire Consequent phrase.

Observe, also, that in the repeated form of the latter, the rhythm is

modified to a smoother form, during two measures. The result here

achieved is constant Unity and constant Variety from almost every point

of view, admirably counterbalanced.

THE PHRASE-GROUP.--A second method consists in enlarging the

period-form to three phrases, by the same process of addition which, as

explained in the preceding chapter, transforms the single phrase into

the double-phrase or period. In order to preserve the continuity of

the three phrases, it is evident that the second phrase must _also_

close with a semicadence,--the perfect cadence being deferred until the

last phrase is concluded.