in Asiatic Turkey. By Art. LIX. "H.M. the emperor of Russia declares
that it is his intention to constitute Batoum a free port, essentially
commercial."
By Art. LXI. "the Sublime Porte undertakes to carry out, without further
delay, the improvements and reforms demanded by local requirements in
the provinces inhabited by the Armenians, and to guarantee their
security against the Circassians and Kurds." It was to keep the powers
informed periodically of "the steps taken to this effect."
Art. LXII. made provision for the securing religious liberty in the
Ottoman dominions.
Finally, Art. LXIII. declares that "the treaty of Paris of 30th March
1856, as well as the treaty of London of 13th March 1871, are maintained
in all such of their provisions as are not abrogated or modified by the
preceding stipulations."
For the full text of the treaty in the English translation see E.
Hertslet, _Map of Europe by Treaty_, vol. iv. p. 2759 (No. 530); for
the French original see _State Papers_, vol. lxix. p. 749.
(W. A. P.)
BERLIN, a city of Coos county, New Hampshire, U.S.A., on the
Androscoggin river, in the N. part of the state, about 98 m. N.W. of
Portland, Maine. Pop. (1890) 3729; (1900) 8886, of whom 4643 were
foreign-born; (1910 census) 11,780. The area of the city in 1906 was
57.81 sq. m. Berlin is served by the Grand Trunk and Boston & Maine
railways. It is situated in the heart of the White Mountains and 16 m.
from the base of Mt. Washington. Berlin Falls, on the picturesque
Androscoggin river, furnishes an immense water-power, the development of
which for manufacturing purposes accounts for the rapid growth of the
city. The forests of northern New England and of the province of Quebec
supply the raw material for the extensive saw-mills and planing-mills,
the pulp- and paper-mills, and the sulphite fibre mills, said to be the
largest in existence. In 1905 the city's factory products were valued at
$5,989,119, of which 78.5% was the value of the paper and wood pulp
manufactured. Berlin was first settled in 1821, was incorporated as a
township in 1829, and was chartered as a city in 1897.
BERLIN, a city and port of entry, Ontario, Canada, and capital of
Waterloo county, 58 m. W. of Toronto, on the Grand Trunk railway. It is
the centre of a prosperous farming and manufacturing district, inhabited
chiefly by German immigrants and their descendants. An electric railway
connects it with the town of Waterloo (pop. 4100) 2 m. to the north,
which has important flour and woollen mills and distilleries. Berlin is
a flourishing manufacturing town, and contains a beet sugar refinery,
automobile, leather, furniture, shirt and collar, felt, glove, button
and rubber factories. Pop. (1881) 4054; (1901) 9747.
BERLIN, a four-wheeled carriage with a separate hooded seat behind,
detached from the body of the vehicle; so called from having been first
used in Berlin. It was designed about 1670, by a Piedmontese architect
in the service of the elector of Brandenburg. It was used as a
travelling carriage, and Swift refers to it in his advice to authors
"who scribble in a berlin." As an adjective, the word is used to
indicate a special kind of goods, originally made in Berlin, of which
the best known is Berlin wool. A Berlin warehouse is a shop for the sale
of wools and fancy goods (cf. Italian warehouse). The spelling "berlin"
is also used by Sir Walter Scott for the "birlinn," a large Gaelic
rowing-boat.
BERLIOZ, HECTOR (1803-1869), French musical composer, was born on the
11th of December 1803 at Cote-Saint-Andre, a small town near Grenoble,
in the department of Isere. His father, Louis Berlioz, was a physician
of repute, and by his desire Hector for some time devoted himself to the
study of medicine. At the same time he had music lessons, and, in
secret, perused numerous theoretical works on counterpoint and harmony,
with little profit it seems, till the hearing and subsequent careful
analysis of one of Haydn's quartets opened a new vista to his unguided
aspirations. A similar work written by Berlioz in imitation of Haydn's
masterpiece was favorably received by his friends. From Paris, where he
had been sent to complete his medical studies, he at last made known to
his father the unalterable decision of devoting himself entirely to art,
the answer to which confession was the withdrawal of all further
pecuniary assistance. In order to support life Berlioz had to accept the
humble engagement of a singer in the chorus of the Gymnase theatre.
Soon, however, he became reconciled to his father and entered the
Conservatoire, where he studied composition under Reicha and Lesueur.
His first important composition was an opera called _Les Francs-Juges_,
of which, however, only the overture remains extant. In 1825 he left the
Conservatoire, and began a course of self-education, founded chiefly on
the works of Beethoven, Gluck, Weber and other German masters. About
this period Berlioz saw for the first time the talented Irish actress
Henrietta Smithson, who was then charming Paris by her impersonations of
Ophelia, Juliet and other Shakespearean characters. The enthusiastic
young composer became deeply enamoured of her at first sight, and tried,
for a long time in vain, to gain the love or even the attention of his
idol. To an incident of this wild and persevering courtship Berlioz's
first symphonic work, _Episode de la vie d'un artiste_, owes its origin.
By the advice of his friends Berlioz once more entered the
Conservatoire, where, after several unsuccessful attempts, his cantata
_Sardanapalus_ gained him the first prize for foreign travel (1830), in
spite of the strong personal antagonism of one of the umpires. During a
stay in Italy Berlioz composed an overture to _King Lear_, and _Le
Retour a la vie_--a sort of symphony, with intervening poetical
declamation between the single movements, called by the composer a
melologue, and written in continuation of the _Episode de la vie d'un
artiste_, along with which work it was performed at the Paris
Conservatoire in 1832. Paganini on that occasion spoke to Berlioz the
memorable words: "Vous commencez par ou les autres ont fini." Miss
Smithson, who also was present on the occasion, consented to become the
wife of her ardent lover in 1833. The marriage was a tempestuous
mistake. In 1840 he separated from his wife, who died in 1854. Six
months later Berlioz married Mademoiselle Recio. His second wife did not
live very long, nor was there much that was edifying in this marriage.
Between the date of his first marriage and 1840 came out his dramatic
symphonies _Harold en Italie_, _Funebre et triomphale_, and _Romeo et
Juliette_; his opera _Benvenuto Cellini_ (1837); his _Requiem_, and
other works. In the course of time Berlioz won his due share of the
distinctions generally awarded to artistic merit, such as the ribbon of
the Legion of Honour and the membership of the Institute. But these
distinctions he owed, perhaps, less to a genuine admiration of his
compositions than to his successes abroad and his influential position
as the musical critic of the _Journal des Debats_ (a position which he
held from 1838 to 1864, and which he never used or abused to push his
own works). In 1842 Berlioz went for the first time to Germany, where he
was hailed with welcome by the leading musicians of the younger
generation, Robert Schumann foremost amongst them. The latter paved the
way for the French composer's success by a comprehensive analysis of the
_Episode_ in his musical journal, the _Neue Zeitschrift fur Musik_. In
1846 he produced his magnificent cantata _La Damnation de Faust_.
Berlioz gave successful concerts at Leipzig and other German cities, and
repeated his visit on various later occasions--in 1852 by invitation of
Liszt, to conduct his opera, _Benvenuto Cellini_ (hissed off the stage
in Paris), at Weimar; and in 1855 to produce his oratorio-trilogy,
_L'Enfance du Christ_, in the same city. This latter work had been
previously performed at Paris, where Berlioz mystified the critics by
pretending to have found the last chorus amongst the manuscript scores
of a composer of the 17th century, Pierre Ducre by name. In 1855 his _Te
Deum_ was written for the opening of the Paris exhibition. Berlioz also
made journeys to Vienna (1866) and St Petersburg (1867), where his works
were received with great enthusiasm. In 1861 he produced his work
_Beatrice et Benedict_, and in 1863 _Les Troyens_. He died in Paris on
the 8th of March 1869.
It is not only as a composer that the life of Berlioz is full of
interest, although in this respect his achievement is singularly
significant for the comprehension of the modern spirit in music. But it
is as the symbol of French romanticism in the whole domain of aesthetic
perception that his pre-eminence has come to be recognized. His
_Memoires_ (begun in London in 1848 and finished in 1865) illustrate
this romantic spirit at its highest elevation as well as at its lowest
depths. Victor Hugo was a romantic, Musset was a romantic, but Berlioz
was romanticism itself. As a boy he is in despair over the despair of
Dido, and his breath is taken away at Virgil's "Quaesivit coelo lucem
ingemuitque reperta." At the age of twelve he is in love with "Estelle,"
whom he meets fifty years afterwards. The scene is described by himself
(1865) with minute fidelity--a scene which Flaubert must have known by
heart when he wrote its parallel in the novel _L'Education
sentimentale_. The romance of this meeting between the man--old,
isolated, unspeakably sad, with the halo of public fame burning round
him--and the woman--old also, a mother, a widow, whose beauty he had
worshipped when she was eighteen--is striking. In a frame of chastened
melancholy and joy at the sight of Estelle, Berlioz goes to dine with
Patti and her family. Patti, on the threshold of her career, pets
Berlioz with such uncontrollable affection, that as the composer wrote a
description of his feelings he was overwhelmed at the bitterness of
fate. What would he not have given for Estelle to show him such
affection! Patti seemed to him like a marvellous bird with diamond wings
flitting round his head, resting on his shoulder, plucking his hair and
singing her most joyous songs to the accompaniment of beating wings. "I
was enchanted but not moved. The fact is that the young, beautiful,
dazzling, famous virtuoso who at the age of twenty-two has already seen
musical Europe and America at her feet, does not win the power of love
in me; and the aged woman, sad, obscure, ignorant of art, possesses my
soul as she did in the days gone by, as she will do until my last day."
If this episode touches the sublime, it may be urged with almost equal
truth that his description of the exhumation of his two wives and their
reburial in a single tomb touches the ridiculous. And yet the scene is
described with a perception of all the detail which would call for the
highest praise in a novelist. Perhaps some parallel between the splendid
and the ridiculous in this singular figure may be seen in the comparison
of Nadar's caricature with Charpentier's portrait of the composer.
The profound admiration of Berlioz for Shakespeare, which rose at
moments to such a pitch of folly that he set Shakespeare in the place of
God and worshipped him, cannot be explained simply on the ground that
Henrietta Smithson was a great Shakespearean actress. Unquestionably the
great figures in English literature had a profound attraction for him,
and while the romantic spirit is obvious in his selections from Byron
and Scott, it can also be traced in the quality of his enthusiasm for
Shakespeare. It is in his music more than in his literary attitude,
however, that is disclosed something in addition to the pure romance of
Schumann--something that places him nearer in kind to Wagner, who
recognized in him a composer from whose works he might learn something
useful for the cultivation of his own ideals. As a youth the power of
Beethoven's symphonies made a deep impression on Berlioz, and what has
been described as the "poetical idea" in Beethoven's creations ran riot
in the young medical student's mind. He thus became one of the most
ardent and enlightened originators of what is now known as "programme
music." Technically he was a brilliant musical colourist, often
extravagant, but with the extravagant emotionalism of genius. He was a
master of the orchestra; indeed, his treatment of the orchestra and his
invention of unprecedented effects of _timbre_ give him a solitary
position in musical history; he had an extraordinary gift for the use of
the various instruments, and himself propounded a new ideal for the
force to be employed, on an enormous scale.
His literary works include the _Traite d'instrumentation_ (1844);
_Voyage musical en Allemagne et en Italie_ (1845); _Les Soirees
d'orchestre_ (1853); _Les Grotesques de la musique_ (1859); _A travers
chant_ (1862); _Memoires_ (1870); _Lettres intimes_ (1882). For a full
list of his musical works, Grove's _Dictionary_ should be consulted.
The new critical edition of the complete musical works (published by
Breitkopf and Hartel) is in ten series. I. Symphonies: _Fantastique_,
Op. 14; _Funebre et triomphale_, Op. 15, for military band and chorus;
_Harold en Italie_, Op. 16, with viola solo; _Romeo et Juliette_, with
chorus and soli. II. Overtures (ten, including the five belonging to
larger works). III. Smaller instrumental works, of which only the
Funeral March for _Hamlet_ is important. IV. Sacred music: the _Grande
Messe des morts_, Op. 5; the _Te Deum_, Op. 22; _L'Enfance du Christ_,
Op. 25, and four smaller pieces, V. Secular cantatas, including _Hunt
scenes de Faust_, Op. I; _Lelio, ou le retour a la vie_, Op. 146
(sequel to _Symphonie fantastique_), and _La Damnation de Faust_, Op.
24. VI. Songs and lyric choruses with orchestra, two vols. VII. Songs
and lyric choruses with pianoforte, 2 vols. including arrangements of
the orchestral songs. VIII. Operas: _Benvenuto Cellini_; _Les Troyens_
(five acts in two parts, _La Prise de Troie_ and _Les Troyens a
Carthage_); Recitatives for the dialogue in Weber's _Freischutz_. IX.
Arrangements, including the well-known orchestral version of Weber's
_Invitation a la danse_. X. Fragments and new discoveries.
Adolphe Julien's biography of Berlioz (1888) first gave a careful
account of the details of his life. See also the books by R. Pohl
(1884), P. Galibert (1890), E. Hippeau (1890), G. Noufflard (1885), L.
Mesnard (1888), Louise Pohl (1900), and D. Bernard (trans. by H.M.
Dunstan, 1882). An illuminating essay on Berlioz is in Filson Young's
_Mastersingers_ (1902). See also the essay in W.H. Hadow's _Studies in
Modern Music_ (1st series, 1908). Berlioz's _Traite d'instrumentation_
has been translated into German and brought up to date by Richard
Strauss (Peters' edition [1906]).
BERM (probably a variant of "brim"), a narrow ledge of ground, generally
the level banks of a river. In parts of Egypt the whole area reached by
the Nile is included in the berm. Thus of the lands near Berber, Mr C.
Dupuis writes (in Sir William Garstin's _Report on the Upper Nile_,
1904), "In most places there is a well-defined alluvial berm of recent
formation and varying width, up to perhaps a couple of kilometres." In
military phraseology the berm is the space of ground between the base of
a rampart and the ditch.
BERMONDSEY, a south-eastern metropolitan borough of London, England,
bounded N. and E. by the Thames, S.E. by Deptford, S.W. by Camberwell,
and W. by Southwark. Pop. (1901) 130,760. It is a district of poor
streets, inhabited by a labouring population employed in leather and
other factories, and in the Surrey Commercial Docks and the wharves
bordering the river. The parish of Rotherhithe or Redriff has long been
associated with a seafaring population. A tunnel connecting it with the
opposite shore of the river was opened in June 1908. The neighbouring
Thames Tunnel was opened in 1843, but, as the tolls were insufficient to
maintain it, was sold to the East London Railway Company in 1865. The
Herold Institute, a branch of the Borough Polytechnic, Southwark, is
devoted to instruction in connexion with the leather trade. Southwark
Park in the centre of the borough is 63 acres in extent. Bermondsey is
in the parliamentary borough of Southwark, including the whole of
Rotherhithe and part of the Bermondsey division. The borough council
consists of a mayor, 9 aldermen, and 54 councillors. Area 1499.6 acres.
The name appears in Domesday, the suffix designating the former insular,
marshy character of the district; while the prefix is generally taken to
indicate the name of a Saxon overlord, Beormund. Bermondsey was in
favour with the Norman kings as a place of residence, and there was a
palace here, perhaps from pre-Norman times. A Cluniac monastery was
founded in 1082, and Bermondsey Cross became a favoured place of
pilgrimage. The foundation was erected into an abbey in 1399, and Abbey
Road recalls its site. Similarly, Spa Road points to the existence of a
popular spring and pleasure grounds, maintained for some years at the
close of the 18th century. Jacob Street marks Jacob's Island, the scene
of the death of Bill Sikes in Dickens's _Oliver Twist_. Tooley Street,
leading east from Southwark by London Bridge railway station, is well
known in connexion with the story of three tailors of Tooley Street, who
addressed a petition to parliament opening with the comprehensive
expression "We, the people of England." The name is a corruption of St
Olave, or Olaf, the Christian king of Norway, who in 994 attacked London
by way of the river, and broke down London Bridge.
See E.T. Clarke, _Bermondsey, its Historic Memories_ (1901).
BERMUDAS, a group of islands in the Atlantic Ocean, forming a British
colony, in 32 deg. 15' N. and 64 deg. 50' W., about 580 m. E. by S. from
Cape Hatteras on the American coast. The group, consisting of small
islands and reefs (which mark the extreme northern range of the
coral-building polyps), is of oval form, measuring 22 m. from N.E. to
S.W., the area being 20 sq. m. The largest of the islands is Great
Bermuda, or the Main Island, 14 m. long and about a mile in average
width, enclosing on the east Harrington or Little Sound, and on the west
the Great Sound, which is thickly studded with islets, and protected on
the north by the islands of Watford, Boaz, Ireland and Somerset. The
remaining members of the group, St George, Paget, Smith, St David,
Cooper, Nonsuch, &c., lie N.E. of the Main Island, and form a semicircle
round Castle Harbour. The fringing islands which encircle the islands,
especially on the north and west, leave a few deep passages wide enough
to admit the largest vessels.
_Geology._--The Bermudas consist of aeolian limestones (cf. BAHAMAS)
which in some of the larger islands form irregular hills attaining a
height of some 200-250 ft. These limestones are composed chiefly of
comminuted shells drifted and deposited by the wind, and they are very
irregularly stratified, as is usually the case with wind-blown deposits.
Where fresh the rock is soft, but where it has been exposed to the
action of the sea it is covered by a hard crust and often loses all
trace of stratification. The surface is frequently irregularly
honeycombed. Even the reefs are not wholly formed of coral. They are
ridges of aeolian limestone plastered over by a thin layer of corals and
other calcareous organisms. The very remarkable "serpuline atolls" are
covered by a solid crust made of the convoluted tubes of serpulae and
_Vermetus_, together with barnacles, mussels, nullipores, corallines and
some true incrusting corals. They probably rest upon a foundation of
aeolian rock. The Bermudas were formerly much more extensive than at
present, and they may possibly stand upon the summit of a hidden
volcano. There are evidences of small oscillations of levels, but no
proofs of great elevation or depression.
_Soil, Climate, &c._--The surface soil is a curious kind of red earth,
which is also found in ochre-like strata throughout the limestone. It is
generally mixed with vegetable matter and coral sand. There is a total
want of streams and wells of fresh water, and the inhabitants are
dependent on the rain, which they collect and preserve in tanks. The
climate is mild and healthy, although serious epidemics of yellow fever
and typhus have occurred. The maximum reading of the thermometer is
about 87 deg. F. and its minimum 49 deg., the mean annual temperature
being 70 deg. The islands attract a large number of visitors annually
from America. Vegetation is very rapid, and the soil is clad in a mantle
of almost perpetual green. The principal kind of tree is the so-called
"Bermudas cedar," really a species of juniper, which furnishes timber
for small vessels. The shores are fringed with the mangrove; the prickly
pear grows luxuriantly in the most barren districts; and wherever the
ground is left to itself the sage bush springs up profusely. The citron,
sour orange, lemon and lime grow wild; but the apple and peach do not
come to perfection. The loquat, an introduction from China, thrives
admirably. The mild climate assists the growth of esculent plants and
roots; and a considerable trade is carried on with New York, principally
in onions, early potatoes, tomatoes, and beetroot, together with lily
bulbs, cut flowers and some arrowroot. Medicinal plants, as the
castor-oil plant and aloe, come to perfection without culture; and
coffee, indigo, cotton and tobacco are also of spontaneous growth. Few
oxen or sheep are reared in the colony, meat, as well as bread and most
vegetables, being imported from America. The indigenous mammals are very
few, and the only reptiles are a small lizard and the green turtle.
Birds, however, especially aquatic species, are very numerous. Insects
are comparatively few, but ants swarm destructively in the heat of the
year. Fish are plentiful round the coasts, and the whale-fishery was
once an important industry, but the fisheries as a whole have not been
developed.
_Towns, and Administration._--There are two towns in the Bermudas: St
George, on the island of that name, founded in 1794 and incorporated in
1797; and Hamilton, on the Main Island, founded in 1790 and incorporated
in 1793. St George was the capital till the senate and courts of justice
were removed by Sir James Cockburn to Hamilton, which being centrally
situated, is more convenient. Hamilton, which is situated on the inner
part of the Great Sound, had a population in 1901 of 2246, that of St
George being 985. In Ireland Island is situated the royal dockyard and
naval establishment. The harbour of St George's has space enough to
accommodate a vast fleet; yet, till deepened by blasting, the entrance
was so narrow as to render it almost useless. The Bermudas became an
important naval and coaling station in 1869, when a large iron dry dock
was towed across the Atlantic and placed in a secure position in St
George, while, owing to their important strategic position in
mid-Atlantic, the British government maintains a strong garrison. The
Bermudas are a British crown colony, with a governor resident at
Hamilton, who is assisted by an executive council of 6 members appointed
by the crown, a legislative council of 9 similarly appointed, and a
representative assembly of 36 members, of whom four are returned by each
of nine parishes. The currency of the colony, which had formerly twelve
shillings to the pound sterling, was assimilated to that of England in
1842. The English language is universal. The colony is ecclesiastically
attached to the bishopric of Newfoundland. In 1847 an educational board
was established, and there are numerous schools; attendance is
compulsory, but none of the schools is free. Government scholarships
enable youths to be educated for competition in the Rhodes scholarships
to Oxford University. The revenue of the islands shows a fairly regular
increase during the last years of the 19th century and the first of the
20th, as from L37,830 in 1895 to L63,457 in 1904; expenditure is
normally rather less than revenue. In the year last named imports were
valued at L589,979 and exports at L130,305, the annual averages since
1895 being about L426,300 and L112,500 respectively. The population
shows a steady increase, as from 13,948 in 1881 to 17,535 in 1901; 6383
were whites and 11,152 coloured in the latter year.
_History._--The discovery of the Bermudas resulted from the shipwreck of
Juan Bermudez, a Spaniard (whose name they now bear), when on a voyage
from Spain to Cuba with a cargo of hogs, early in the 16th century.
Henry May, an Englishman, suffered the same fate in 1593; and lastly,
Sir George Somers shared the destiny of the two preceding navigators in
1609. Sir George, from whom the islands took the alternative name of
Somers, was the first who established a settlement upon them, but he
died before he had fully accomplished his design. In 1612 the Bermudas
were granted to an offshoot of the Virginia Company, which consisted of
120 persons, 60 of whom, under the command of Henry More, proceeded to
the islands. The first source of colonial wealth was the growing of
tobacco, but the curing industry ceased early in the 18th century. In
1726 Bishop George Berkeley chose the Bermudas as the seat of his
projected missionary establishment. The first newspaper, the _Bermuda
Gazette_, was published in 1784.
See Godet, _Bermuda, its History, Geology, Climate, &c_. (London,
1860); Lefroy, _Discovery and Settlement of the Bermudas_ (London,
1877-1879); A. Heilprin, _Bermuda Islands_ (Philadelphia, 1889);
Stark, _Bermuda Guide_ (London, 1898); Cole, _Bermuda ...
Bibliography_ (Boston, 1907); and for geology see also A. Agassiz,
"Visit to the Bermudas in March 1894," _Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool.
Harvard_, vol. xxvi. No. 2, 1895; A.E. Verrill, "Notes on the Geology
of the Bermudas," _Amer. Journ. Sci._ ser. 4, vol. ix. (1900), pp.
313-340; "The Bermuda Islands; Their Scenery, &c.," _Trans. Conn.
Acad. Arts and Sci._ vol. xi. pt. 2 (1901-1902).
BERMUDEZ, a N.E. state of Venezuela, between the Caribbean Sea and the
Orinoco river, bounded E. by the gulf of Paria and the Delta-Amacuro
territory, and W. by the states of Guarico and Miranda. Pop. (est. 1905)
364,158. It was created in 1881 by the union of the states of Barcelona,
Cumana and Maturin, dissolved in 1901 into its three original states,
and reorganized in 1904 with a slight modification of territory. The
state includes the oldest settlements in Venezuela, and was once very
prosperous, producing cattle and exporting hides, but wars and political
disorders have partly destroyed its industries and impeded their
development. Its principal productions are coffee, sugar, and cacao,
and--less important--cotton, tobacco, cocoanuts, timber, indigo and
dyewoods. Its more important towns are the capital, Barcelona, Maturin
(pop. 14,473), capital of a district of the same name, and Cumana
(10,000), on the gulf of Cariaco, founded in 1520 and one of the oldest
towns of the continent.
BERN (Fr. _Berne_), after the Grisons, the largest of the Swiss cantons,
but by far the most populous, though politically Bern ranks after that
of Zurich. It extends right across Switzerland from beyond the Jura to
the snow-clad ranges that separate Bern from the Valais. Its total area
is 2641.9 sq. m., of which 2081 sq. m. are classed as "productive"
(including 591 sq. m. of forests, and 2.1 m. of vineyards), while of the
remainder 111.3 sq. m. are occupied by glaciers (the Valais and the
Grisons alone surpass it in this respect). It is mainly watered by the
river Aar (q.v.), with its affluents, the Kander (left), the Saane or
Sarine (left) and the Emme (right); the Aar forms the two lakes of
Brienz and Thun (q.v.). The great extent of this canton accounts for the
different character of the regions therein comprised. Three are usually
distinguished:--(1) The _Oberland_ or Highlands, which is that best
known to travellers, for it includes the snowy Alps of the Bernese
Oberland (culminating in the Finsteraarhorn, 14,026 ft., and the
Jungfrau, 13,669 ft.), as well as the famous summer resorts of
Grindelwald, Murren, Lauterbrunnen, Interlaken, Meiringen, Kandersteg,
Adelboden, Thun and the fine pastoral valley of the Simme. (2) The
_Mittelland_ or Midlands, comprising the valley of the Aar below Thun,
and that of the Emme, thus taking in the outliers of the high Alps and
the open country on every side of the town of Bern. (3) The _Seeland_
(Lakeland) and the Jura, extending from Bienne and its lake across the
Jura to Porrentruy in the plains and to the upper course of the Birs.
The Oberland and Mittelland form the "old" canton, the Jura having only
been acquired in 1815, and differing from the rest of the canton by
reason of its French-speaking and Romanist inhabitants.
In 1900 the total population of the canton was 589,433, of whom 483,388
were German-speaking, 97,789 French-speaking, and 7167 Italian-speaking;
while there were 506,699 Protestants, 80,489 Romanists (including the
Old Catholics), and 1543 Jews. The capital is Bern (q.v.), while the
other important towns are Bienne (q.v.), Burgdorf (q.v.), Delemont or
Delsberg (5053 inhabitants), Porrentruy or Pruntrut (6959 inhabitants),
Thun (q.v.), and Langenthal (4799 inhabitants). There is a university
(founded in 1834) in the town of Bern, as well as institutions for
higher education in the principal towns. The canton is divided into 30
administrative districts, and contains 507 communes (the highest number
in Switzerland). From 1803 to 1814 the canton was one of the six
"Directorial" cantons of the Confederation. The existing cantonal
constitution dates from 1893, but in 1906 the direct popular election of
the executive of 9 members (hitherto named by the legislature) was
introduced. The legislature or _Grossrath_ is elected for four years
(like the executive), in the proportion of 1 member to every 2500 (or
fraction over 1250) of the resident population. The _obligatory
Referendum_ obtains in the case of all laws, and of decrees relating to
an expenditure of over half a million francs, while 12,000 citizens have
the right of _initiative_ in the case of legislative projects, and
15,000 may demand the revision of the cantonal constitution. The 2
members sent by the canton to the federal _Standerath_ are elected by
the _Grossrath_, while the 29 members sent to the federal _Nationalrath_
are chosen by a popular vote. In the Alpine portions of the canton the
breeding of cattle (those of the Simme valley are particularly famous)
is the chief industry; next come the elaborate arrangements for summer
travellers (the _Fremdenindustrie_). It is reckoned that there are 2430
"Alps" or mountain pastures in the canton, of which 1474 are in the
Oberland, 627 in the Jura, and 280 in the Emme valley; they can maintain
95,478 cows and are of the estimated value of 46-1/2 million francs. The
cheese of the Emme valley is locally much esteemed. Other industries in
the Alpine region are wood-carving (at Brienz) and wine manufacture (on
the shores of the lakes of Bienne and of Thun). The Mittelland is the
agricultural portion of the canton. Watchmaking is the principal
industry of the Jura, Bienne and St Imier being the chief centres of
this industry. Iron mines are also worked in the Jura, while the
Heimberg potteries, near Thun, produce a locally famous ware, and there
are both quarries of building stone and tile factories. The canton is
well supplied with railway lines, the broad gauge lines being 228 m. in
length, and the narrow gauge lines 157-1/2 m.--in all 385-1/2 m. Among
these are many funicular cog-wheel lines, climbing up to considerable
heights, so up to Murren (5368 ft.), over the Wengern Alp (6772 ft.), up
to the Schynige Platte (6463 ft.), and many others still in the state of
projects. All these are in the Oberland where, too, is the so-called
Jungfrau railway, which in 1906 attained a point (the Eismeer station)
in the south wall of the Eiger (13,042 ft.) that was 10,371 ft. in
height, the loftiest railway station in Switzerland.
The canton of Bern is composed of the various districts which the town
of Bern acquired by conquest or by purchase in the course of time. The
more important, with dates of acquisition, are the following:--Laupen
(1324), Hasli and Meiringen (1334), Thun and Burgdorf (1384), Unterseen
and the Upper Simme valley (1386), Frutigen, &c. (1400), Lower Simme
valley (1439-1449), Interlaken, with Grindelwald, Lauterbrunnen and
Brienz (1528, on the suppression of the Austin Canons of Interlaken),
Saanen or Gessenay (1555), Koniz (1729), and the Bernese Jura with
Bienne (1815, from the bishopric of Basel). But certain regions
previously won were lost in 1798--Aargau (1415), Aigle and Grandson
(1475), Vaud (1536), and the Pays d'En-Haut or Chateau d'Oex (1555).
From 1798 to 1802 the Oberland formed a separate canton (capital, Thun)
of the Helvetic Republic. (W. A. B. C.)
BERN (Fr. _Berne_), the capital of the Swiss canton of the same name,
and, by a Federal law of 1848, the political capital of the Swiss
confederation. It is most picturesquely situated on a high bluff or
peninsula, round the base of which flows the river Aar, thus completely
cutting off the old town, save to the west. Five lofty bridges have been
thrown over the Aar, the two most modern being the Kirchfeld and
Kornhaus bridges which have greatly contributed to create new
residential quarters near the old town. Within the town the arcades (or
_Lauben_) on either side of the main street, and the numerous
elaborately ornamented fountains attract the eye, as well as the two
remaining towers that formerly stood on the old walls but are now in the
centre of the town; the _Zeilglockenthurm_ (famous for its singular
16th-century clock, with its mechanical contrivances, set in motion when
the hour strikes) and the _Kaficthurm_. The principal medieval building
in Bern is the (now Protestant) Munster, begun in 1421 though not
completed till 1573. The tower, rising conspicuously above the town, has
recently been well restored, but the church was never a cathedral church
(as is often stated), for there has never yet been a bishop of Bern. The
federal Houses of Parliament (_Bundeshaus_) were much enlarged in
1888-1892, the older portions dating from 1852-1857, and also contain
the offices of the federal executive and administration. The town-hall
dates from 1406, while some of the houses belonging to the old gilds
contain much of interest. The town library (with which that of the
university was incorporated in 1905) contains a vast store of MSS. and
rare printed books, but should be carefully distinguished from the
national Swiss library, which, with the building for the federal
archives, is built in the new Kirchfeld quarter. There are a number of
museums; the historical (archaeological and medieval), the natural
history (in which the skin of Barry, the famous St Bernard dog, is
preserved), the art (mainly modern Swiss pictures), and the Alpine (in
which are collections of all kinds relating to the Swiss Alps). Bern
possesses a university (founded in 1834) and two admirably organized
hospitals. The old fortifications (_Schanzen_) have been converted into
promenades, which command wonderful views of the snowy Alps of the
Bernese Oberland. Just across the Nydeck bridge is the famous bear pit
in which live bears are kept, as they are supposed to have given the
name to the town; certainly a bear is shown on the earliest known town
seal (1224), while live bears have been maintained at the charges of the
town since 1513. There is comparatively little industrial activity in
the town, the importance of which is mainly political, though of late
years it has been selected as the seat of various international
associations (postal, telegraph, railway, copyright, &c.). The climate
is severe, as the town is much exposed to cold winds blowing from the
snowy Alps. In point of population it is exceeded in Switzerland by
Zurich, Basel and Geneva, though the number of inhabitants has risen
from 27,558 in 1850 and 43,197 in 1880 to 64,227 in 1900. In 1900,
59,698 inhabitants were German-speaking; while 57,144 were Protestants,
6087 Romanists (including Old Catholics) and 655 Jews. The height of the
town above the sea-level is 1788 ft.
The ancient castle of Nydeck, at the eastern end of the peninsula,
guarded the passage over the Aar, and it was probably its existence that
induced Berchtold V., duke of Zaringen, to found Bern in 1191 as a
military post on the frontier between the Alamannians (German-speaking)
and the Burgundians (French-speaking). Thrice the walls which protected
the town were moved westwards, about 1250, in 1346 and in 1622, though
even at the last-named date the town only stretched a little way to the
west of (or beyond) the present railway station. After the extinction of
the Zaringen dynasty (1218) Bern became a free imperial city, but it had
to fight hard for its independence, which was finally secured by the
victories of Dornbuhl (1298) over Fribourg and the Habsburgs, and of
Laupen (1339) over the neighbouring Burgundian nobles. In the second
battle Bern received help from the three forest cantons with which it
had become allied in 1323, while in 1353 it entered the Swiss
confederation as its eighth member. It soon took the lead in the
confederation, though always aiming at enlarging its own borders, even
at great risks (see the article on the canton). In 1528 Bern accepted
the religious reformation, and henceforth became one of its chief
champions in Switzerland. In the 17th century the number of families by
which high offices of state could be held was diminished, so that in
1605 there were 152 thus qualified, but in 1691 only 104, while towards
the end of the 18th century there were only 69 such families. Meanwhile
the rule of the town was extending over more and more territory, so that
finally it governed 52 bailiwicks (acquired between 1324 and 1729), the
Bernese patricians being thus extremely powerful and forming an
oligarchy that administered affairs like a benevolent and well-ordered
despotism. In 1723 Major Davel, at Lausanne, and in 1749 Henzi, in Bern
itself, tried to break down this monopoly, but in each case paid the
penalty of failure on the scaffold. The whole system was swept away by
the French in 1798, and though partially revived in 1815, came to an end
in 1831, since which time Bern has been in the van of political
progress. From 1815 to 1848 it shared with Zurich and Lucerne the
supreme rule (which shifted from one to the other every two years) in
the Swiss confederation, while in 1848 a federal law made Bern the sole
political capital, where the federal government is permanently fixed and
where the ministers of foreign powers reside.
AUTHORITIES.--_Die Alp- und Weidewirthschaft im Kant. Bern_ (Bern,
1903); _Archiv d. hist. Vereins d. Kant. Bern_, from 1848, and
_Blatter fur bernische Geschichte_, from 1905; _Bernische Biographien_
(Bern, 1898-1906); E. Friedli, _Barndutsch als Spiegel bernischen
Volkstums_. vol. i. (_Lutzelfluh_, Bern, 1905), and vol. ii.
(Grindelwald, Bern, 1908); _Festschrift zur 7ten Sakularfeier d.
Grundung Berns_, 1191 (Bern, 1891); _Fontes Rerum Bernensium_ (to
1378), (9 vols., Bern, 1883-1908); K. Geiser, _Geschichte d.
bernischen Verfassung_, 1191-1471 (Bern, 1888); B. Haller, _Bern in
seinen Rathsmanualen_, 1465-1565 (3 vols., Bern, 1900-1902); E.F. and
W.F. von Mulinen, _Beitrage zur Heimathskunde d. Kantons Bern,
deulschen Theils_ (3 vols., Bern, 1879-1894); W.F. von Mulinen, _Berns
Geschichte_, 1191-1891 (Bern, 1891); E. von Rodt, _Bernische
Stadtgeschichte_ (Bern, 1888), and 6 finely illustrated vols. on Bern
in the 13th to 19th centuries (Bern, 1898-1907); L.S. von Tscharner,
_Rechtsgeschichte des Obersimmenthales bis zum Jahre 1798_ (Bern,
1908); E. von Wattenwyl, _Geschichte d. Stadt u. Landschaft Bern_ (to
1400), (2 vols.); Schaffhausen and Bern (1867-1872); F.E. Welti, _Die
Rechtsquellen d. Kant. Bern_, vol. i. (Aarau, 1902); Gertrud Zuricher,
_Kinderspiel u. Kinderlied im Kant. Bern_ (Zurich, 1902).
(W. A. B. C.)
BERNARD, SAINT (1090-1153), abbot of Clairvaux one of the most
illustrious preachers and monks of the middle ages, was born at
Fontaines, near Dijon, in France. His father, a knight named Tecelin,
perished on crusade; and his mother Aleth, a daughter of the noble house
of Mon-Bar, and a woman distinguished for her piety, died while Bernard
was yet a boy. The lad was constitutionally unfitted for the career of
arms, and his own disposition, as well as his mother's early influence,
directed him to the church. His desire to enter a monastery was opposed
by his relations, who sent him to study at Chalons in order to qualify
for high ecclesiastical preferment. Bernard's resolution to become a
monk was not, however, shaken, and when he at last definitely decided to
join the community which Robert of Molesmes had founded at Citeaux in
1198, he carried with him his brothers and many of his relations and
friends. The little community of reformed Benedictines, which was to
produce so profound an influence on Western monachism (see CISTERCIANS
and MONASTICISM) and had seemed on the point of extinction for lack of
novices, gained a sudden new life through this accession of some thirty
young men of the best families of the neighbourhood. Others followed
their example; and the community grew so rapidly that it was soon able
to send off offshoots. One of these daughter monasteries, Clairvaux, was
founded in 1115, in a wild valley branching from that of the Aube, on
land given by Count Hugh of Troyes, and of this Bernard was appointed
abbot.
By the new constitution of the Cistercians Clairvaux became the chief
monastery of the five branches into which the order was divided under
the supreme direction of the abbot of Citeaux. Though nominally subject
to Citeaux, however, Clairvaux soon became the most important Cistercian
house, owing to the fame and influence of Bernard.[1] His saintly
character, his self-mortification--of so severe a character that his
friend, William of Champeaux, bishop of Chalons, thought it right to
remonstrate with him--and above all, his marvellous power as a preacher,
soon made him famous, and drew crowds of pilgrims to Clairvaux. His
miracles were noised abroad, and sick folk were brought from near and
far to be healed by his touch. Before long the abbot, who had intended
to devote his life to the work of his monastery, was drawn into the
affairs of the great world. When in 1124 Pope Honorius II. mounted the
chair of St Peter, Bernard was already reckoned among the greatest of
French churchmen; he now shared in the most important ecclesiastical
discussions, and papal legates sought his counsel. Thus in 1128 he was
invited by Cardinal Matthew of Albano to the synod of Troyes, where he
was instrumental in obtaining the recognition of the new order of
Knights Templars, the rules of which he is said to have drawn up; and in
the following year, at the synod of Chalons-sur-Marne, he ended the
crisis arising out of certain charges brought against Henry, bishop of
Verdun, by persuading the bishop to resign. The European importance of
Bernard, however, began with the death of Pope Honorius II. (1130) and
the disputed election that followed. In the synod convoked by Louis the
Fat at Etampes in April 1130 Bernard successfully asserted the claims of
Innocent II. against those of Anacletus II., and from this moment became
the most influential supporter of his cause. He threw himself into the
contest with characteristic ardour. While Rome itself was held by
Anacletus, France, England, Spain and Germany declared for Innocent,
who, though banished from Rome, was--in Bernard's phrase--"accepted by
the world." The pope travelled from place to place, with the powerful
abbot of Clairvaux at his side; he stayed at Clairvaux itself, humble
still, so far as its buildings were concerned; and he went with Bernard
to parley with the emperor Lothair III. at Liege.
In 1133, the year of the emperor's first expedition to Rome, Bernard was
in Italy persuading the Genoese to make peace with the men of Pisa,
since the pope had need of both. He accompanied Innocent to Rome,
successfully resisting the proposal to reopen negotiations with
Anacletus, who held the castle of Sant' Angelo and, with the support of
Roger of Sicily, was too strong to be subdued by force. Lothair, though
crowned by Innocent in St Peter's, could do nothing to establish him in
the Holy See so long as his own power was sapped by his quarrel with the
house of Hohenstaufen. Again Bernard came to the rescue; in the spring
of 1135 he was at Bamberg successfully persuading Frederick of
Hohenstaufen to submit to the emperor. In June he was back in Italy,
taking a leading part in the council of Pisa, by which Anacletus was
excommunicated. In northern Italy the effect of his personality and of
his preaching was immense; Milan itself, of all the Lombard cities most
jealous of the imperial claims, surrendered to his eloquence, submitted
to Lothair and to Innocent, and tried to force Bernard against his will
into the vacant see of St Ambrose. In 1137, the year of Lothair's last
journey to Rome, Bernard was back in Italy again; at Monte Cassino,
setting the affairs of the monastery in order, at Salerno, trying in
vain to induce Roger of Sicily to declare against Anacletus, in Rome
itself, agitating with success against the antipope. Anacletus died on
the 25th of January 1138; on the 13th of March the cardinal Gregory was
elected his successor, assuming the name of Victor. Bernard's crowning
triumph in the long contest was the abdication of the new antipope, the
result of his personal influence. The schism of the church was healed,
and the abbot of Clairvaux was free to return to the peace of his
monastery.
Clairvaux itself had meanwhile (1135-1136) been transformed
outwardly--in spite of the reluctance of Bernard, who preferred the
rough simplicity of the original buildings--into a more suitable seat
for an influence that overshadowed that of Rome itself. How great this
influence was is shown by the outcome of Bernard's contest with Abelard
(q.v.). In intellectual and dialectical power the abbot was no match for
the great schoolman; yet at Sens in 1141 Abelard feared to face him, and
when he appealed to Rome Bernard's word was enough to secure his
condemnation.
One result of Bernard's fame was the marvellous growth of the Cistercian
order. Between 1130 and 1145 no less than ninety-three monasteries in
connexion with Clairvaux were either founded or affiliated from other
rules, three being established in England and one in Ireland. In 1145 a
Cistercian monk, once a member of the community of Clairvaux--another
Bernard, abbot of Aquae Silviae near Rome, was elected pope as Eugenius
III. This was a triumph for the order; to the world it was a triumph for
Bernard, who complained that all who had suits to press at Rome applied
to him, as though he himself had mounted the chair of St Peter (_Ep_.
239).
Having healed the schism within the church, Bernard was next called upon
to attack the enemy without. Languedoc especially had become a hotbed of
heresy, and at this time the preaching of Henry of Lausanne (q.v.) was
drawing thousands from the orthodox faith. In June 1145, at the
invitation of Cardinal Alberic of Ostia, Bernard travelled in the south,
and by his preaching did something to stem the flood of heresy for a
while. Far more important, however, was his activity in the following
year, when, in obedience to the pope's command, he preached a crusade.
The effect of his eloquence was extraordinary. At the great meeting at
Vezelay, on the 21st of March, as the result of his sermon, King Louis
VII. of France and his queen, Eleanor of Guienne, took the cross,
together with a host of all classes, so numerous that the stock of
crosses was soon exhausted; Bernard next travelled through northern
France, Flanders and the Rhine provinces, everywhere rousing the wildest
enthusiasm; and at Spires on Christmas day he succeeded in persuading
Conrad, king of the Romans, to join the crusade.
The lamentable outcome of the movement (see CRUSADES) was a hard blow to
Bernard, who found it difficult to understand this manifestation of the
hidden counsels of God, but ascribed it to the sins of the crusaders
(_Ep_. 288; _de Consid_. ii. 1). The news of the disasters to the
crusading host first reached Bernard at Clairvaux, where Pope Eugenius,
driven from Rome by the revolution associated with the name of Arnold of
Brescia, was his guest. Bernard had in March and April 1148 accompanied
the pope to the council of Reims, where he led the attack on certain
propositions of the scholastic theologian Gilbert de la Porree (q.v.).
From whatever cause--whether the growing jealousy of the cardinals, or
the loss of prestige owing to the rumoured failure of the crusade, the
success of which he had so confidently predicted--Bernard's influence,
hitherto so ruinous to those suspected of heterodoxy, on this occasion
failed of its full effect. On the news of the full extent of the
disaster that had overtaken the crusaders, an effort was made to
retrieve it by organizing another expedition. At the invitation of
Suger, abbot of St Denis, now the virtual ruler of France, Bernard
attended the meeting of Chartres convened for this purpose, where he
himself was elected to conduct the new crusade, the choice being
confirmed by the pope. He was saved from this task, for which he was
physically and constitutionally unfit, by the intervention of the
Cistercian abbots, who forbade him to undertake it.
Bernard was now ageing, broken by his austerities and by ceaseless work,
and saddened by the loss of several of his early friends. But his
intellectual energy remained undimmed. He continued to take an active
interest in ecclesiastical affairs, and his last work, the _De
Consideratione_, shows no sign of failing power. He died on the 20th of
August 1153.
The greatness of St Bernard lay not in the qualities of his intellect,
but of his character. Intellectually he was the child of his age,
inferior to those subtle minds whom the world, fired by his contagious
zeal, conspired to crush. Morally he was their superior; and in this
moral superiority lay the secret of his power. The age recognized in him
the embodiment of its ideal: that of medieval monasticism at its highest
development. The world had no meaning for him save as a place of
banishment and trial, in which men are but "strangers and pilgrims"
(Serm. i., Epiph. n. 1; Serm. vii., Lent. n. 1); the way of grace, back
to the lost inheritance, had been marked out once for all, and the
function of theology was but to maintain the landmarks inherited from
the past. With the subtleties of the schools he had no sympathy, and the
dialectics of the schoolmen quavered into silence before his terrible
invective. Yet, within the limits of his mental horizon, Bernard's
vision was clear enough. His very life proves with what merciless logic
he followed out the principles of the Christian faith as he conceived
it; and it is impossible to say that he conceived it amiss. For all his
overmastering zeal he was by nature neither a bigot nor a persecutor.
Even when he was preaching the crusade he interfered at Mainz to stop
the persecution of the Jews, stirred up by the monk Radulf. As for
heretics, "the little foxes that spoil the vines," these "should be
taken, not by force of arms, but by force of argument," though, if any
heretic refused to be thus taken, he considered "that he should be
driven away, or even a restraint put upon his liberty, rather than that
he should be allowed to spoil the vines" (Serm. lxiv.). He was evidently
troubled by the mob violence which made the heretics "martyrs to their
unbelief." He approved the zeal of the people, but could not advise the
imitation of their action, "because faith is to be produced by
persuasion, not imposed by force"; adding, however, in the true spirit
of his age and of his church, "it would without doubt be better that
they should be coerced by the sword than that they should be allowed to
draw away many other persons into their error." Finally, oblivious of
the precedent of the Pharisees, he ascribes the steadfastness of these
"dogs" in facing death to the power of the devil (Serm. lxvi. on
Canticles ii. 15).
This is Bernard at his worst. At his best--and, fortunately, this is
what is mainly characteristic of the man and his writings--he displays a
nobility of nature, a wise charity and tenderness in his dealings with
others, and a genuine humility, with no touch of servility, that make
him one of the most complete exponents of the Christian life. His
broadly Christian character is, indeed, witnessed to by the enduring
quality of his influence. The author of the _Imitatio_ drew inspiration
from his writings; the reformers saw in him a medieval champion of their
favourite doctrine of the supremacy of the divine grace; his works, down
to the present day, have been reprinted in countless editions. This is
perhaps due to the fact that the chief fountain of his own inspiration
was the Bible. He was saturated in its language and in its spirit; and
though he read it, as might be expected, uncritically, and interpreted
its plain meanings allegorically--as the fashion of the day was--it
saved him from the grosser aberrations of medieval Catholicism. He
accepted the teaching of the church as to the reverence due to our Lady
and the saints, and on feast-days and festivals these receive their due
meed in his sermons; but in his letters and sermons their names are at
other times seldom invoked. They were overshadowed completely in his
mind by his idea of the grace of God and the moral splendour of Christ;
"from Him do the Saints derive the odour of sanctity; from Him also do
they shine as lights" (_Ep._ 464).
The cause of Bernard's extraordinary popular success as a preacher can
only imperfectly be judged by the sermons that survive. These were all
delivered in Latin, evidently to congregations more or less on his own
intellectual level. Like his letters, they are full of quotations from
and reference to the Bible, and they have all the qualities likely to
appeal to men of culture at all times. "Bernard," wrote Erasmus in his
_Art of Preaching_, "is an eloquent preacher, much more by nature than
by art; he is full of charm and vivacity and knows how to reach and move
the affections." The same is true of the letters and to an even more
striking degree. They are written on a large variety of subjects, great
and small, to people of the most diverse stations and types; and they
help us to understand the adaptable nature of the man, which enabled him
to appeal as successfully to the unlearned as to the learned.
Bernard's works fall into three categories:--(1) _Letters_, of which
over five hundred have been preserved, of great interest and value for
the history of the period. (2) _Treatises_: (a) dogmatic and polemical,
_De gratia el libero arbitrio_, written about 1127, and following
closely the lines laid down by St Augustine; _De baptismo aliisque
quaestionibus ad mag. Hugonem de S. Victore; Contra quaedam capitala
errorum Abaelardi ad Innocentem II._ (in justification of the action of
the synod of Sens); (b) ascetic and mystical, _De gradibus humilitatis
et superbiae_, his first work, written perhaps about 1121; _De diligendo
Deo_ (about 1126); _De conversione ad clericos_, an address to
candidates for the priesthood; _De Consideratione_, Bernard's last work,
written about 1148 at the pope's request for the edification and
guidance of Eugenius III.; (c) about monasticism, _Apologia ad
Guilelmum_, written about 1127 to William, abbot of St Thierry; _De
laude novae militiae ad milites templi_ (c. 1132-1136); _De precepto et
dispensatione_, an answer to various questions on monastic conduct and
discipline addressed to him by the monks of St Peter at Chartres (some
time before 1143); (d) on ecclesiastical government, _De moribus et
officio episcoporum_, written about 1126 for Henry, bishop of Sens; the
_De Consideratione_ mentioned above; (e) a biography, _De vita et rebus
gestis S. Malachiae, Hiberniae episcopi_, written at the request of the
Irish abbot Congan and with the aid of materials supplied by him; it is
of importance for the ecclesiastical history of Ireland in the 12th
century; (f) sermons--divided into _Sermones de tempore; de sanctis; de
diversis_; and eighty-six sermons, _in Cantica Canticorum_, an
allegorical and mystical exposition of the Song of Solomon; (g) hymns.
Many hymns ascribed to Bernard survive, e.g. _Jesu dulcis memoria, Jesus
rex admirabilis. Jesu decus angelicum, Salve caput cruentatum_. Of these
the three first are included in the Roman breviary. Many have been
translated and are used in Protestant churches.
St Bernard's works were first published in anything like a complete
edition at Paris in 1508, under the title _Seraphica melliflui devotique
doctoris S. Bernardi scripta_, edited by Andre Bocard; the first really
critical and complete edition is that of Dom J. Mabillon _Sancti
Bernardi opp. &c._ (Paris, 1667, improved and enlarged in 1690, and
again, by Massuet and Texier, in 1719), reprinted by J.P. Migne,
_Patrolog. lat._ (Paris, 1859). There is an English translation of
Mabillon's edition, including, however, only the letters and the sermons
on the Song of Songs, with the biographical and other prefaces, by
Samuel J. Eales (4 vols., London, 1889-1895). See further Leopold
Janauschek, _Bibliographia Bernardina_ (Vienna, 1891), which includes
2761 entries, including 120 works wrongly ascribed to Bernard.
AUTHORITIES.--The principal source for the life of St Bernard is the
_Vita Prima_, compiled, in six books, by various contemporary writers:
book i. by William, abbot of St Thierry near Reims; book ii. by
Ernald, or Arnald, abbot of Bonnevalle; books iii., iv. and v. by
Geoffrey (Gaufrid), monk of Clairvaux and Bernard's secretary; book
vi., on Bernard's miracles, by Geoffrey and Philip, another monk of
Clairvaux, &c. A MS. is preserved, _int. al._, in the library of
Lambeth Palace (S xiv. No. 163). The _Vita_ was first published in
_Bernardi op. omn._ by Mabillon (Paris, 1690), ii. pp. 1061 ff.; it
was included in Migne, _Patrolog. lat._ clxxxv. pp. 225-416, which
also contains the abridgments or amplifications, by later hands, of
the _Vita Prima_, known as the _Vita Secunda_, _Tertia_ and _Quarta_.
For a critical study of these sources see G. Huffer, _Der heilige
Bernhard von Clairvaux_ (2 vols., Munster, 1886), and E. Vacandard,
_Vie de Saint Bernard_ (2 vols., Paris, 1895).
Among the numerous modern works on St Bernard may be mentioned,
besides the above, J.C. Morison, _The Life and Times of St Bernard_
(London, 1863); G. Chevallier, _Histoire de Saint Bernard_ (2 vols.,
Lille, 1888); S.J. Eales, _St Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux_ (London,
1890, "Fathers for English Readers" series); ib. _Life and Works of St
Bernard_ (London, 1889); R.S. Storrs, _Bernard of Clairvaux: the
Times, the Man and His Work_ (New York, 1893); Comte d'Haussonville,
_Saint Bernard_ (Paris, 1906). See also the article by Vacandart in A.
Vacant's _Dictionnaire de theologie_ (with full bibliography), and
that by S.M. Deutsch in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (3rd ed.),
vol. ii. (bibliography). Further works, monographs, &c., are given s.
"Vita S. Bernardi" in Potthast. _Bibliotheca Historica Medii Aevi_
(Berlin, 1896). (W. A. P.)