FOOTNOTE:

[1] Translated into English by Andrew Comt in 1622 as _A Buckler

against Adversitie_.

DUVAL, ALEXANDRE VINCENT PINEUX (1767-1842), French dramatist, was born

at Rennes on the 6th of April 1767. He was in turn sailor, architect,

actor, theatrical manager and dramatist. He is the characteristic

dramatist of the Empire, but the least ambitious of his dramas have best

stood the test of time. _Les Projets de menage_ (1790), _Les Tuteurs

venges_ (1794) and _Les Heritiers_ (1796) have been revived on the

modern French stage. Others among his plays, which number more than

sixty, are _Le Menuisier de Livonie_ (1805), _La Manie des grandeurs_

(1817) and _Le Faux Bonhomme_ (1821). In 1812 he was elected to the

Academy. He died on the 1st of September 1842.

DUVAL, CLAUDE (1643-1670), a famous highwayman, was born at Domfront,

Normandy, in 1643. Having entered domestic service in Paris, he came to

England at the time of the Restoration in attendance on the duke of

Richmond, and soon became a highwayman notorious for the daring of his

robberies no less than for his gallantry to ladies. Large rewards were

offered for his capture, and he was at one time compelled to seek refuge

in France. In the end he was captured in London, and hanged at Tyburn on

the 21st of January 1670. His body was buried in the centre aisle of

Covent Garden church, under a stone with the following epitaph:--

"Here lies Du Vall: Reader if male thou art,

Look to thy purse: if female to thy heart."

A full account of his adventures, ascribed to William Pope, was

reprinted in the _Harleian Miscellany_, and Samuel Butler published a

satirical ode _To the Happy Memory of the Most Renowned Du Val_.

DUVENECK, FRANK (1848- ), American figure and portrait painter, was

born at Covington, Kentucky, on the 9th of October 1848. He was a pupil

of Diez in the Royal Academy of Munich, and a prominent member of the

group of Americans who in the 'seventies overturned the traditions of

the Hudson River School and started a new art movement. His work shown

in Boston and elsewhere about 1875 attracted great attention, and many

pupils flocked to him in Germany and Italy, where he made long visits.

After returning from Italy to America, he gave some attention to

sculpture, and modelled a fine monument to his wife, now in the English

cemetery in Florence.

DU VERGIER DE HAURANNE, JEAN (1581-1643), abbot of St Cyran, father of

the Jansenist revival in France, was born of wealthy parents at Bayonne

in 1581, and studied theology at the Flemish university of Louvain.

After taking holy orders he settled in Paris, where he became known as a

mine of miscellaneous erudition. In 1609 he distinguished himself by his

_Question royale_, an elaborate answer to a problem casually thrown out

by King Henry IV. as to the exact circumstances under which a subject

ought to give his life for his sovereign. His learning was presently

diverted into a more profitable channel. The Louvain of his time was the

scene of many conflicts between the Jesuit party, which stood for

scholasticism and Church-authority, and the followers of Michael Baius

(q.v.), who upheld the mysticism of St Augustine. Into this controversy

Du Vergier was presently dragged by his friendship with Cornelius

Jansen, a young champion of the Augustinian party, who had come to Paris

to study Greek. The two divines went off together to Du Vergier's home

at Bayonne, where he became a canon of the cathedral, and Jansen a tutor

in the bishop's seminary. Here they remained some years, intently

studying the fathers. Eventually, however, Jansen went back to Louvain,

while Du Vergier became confidential secretary to the bishop of

Poitiers, and was presently made sinecure abbot of St Cyran. Thereafter

he was generally called M. de St Cyran. At Poitiers he was brought into

contact with Richelieu--as yet unknown to political fame, and simply the

zealous young bishop of the neighbouring diocese of Lucon. Western

Touraine being the headquarters of French Protestantism, the two

prelates turned St Cyran's learning against the Huguenots. He began to

dream of reforming Catholicism on Augustinian lines, and thus defeating

the Protestants by their own weapons. They appealed to primitive

antiquity; he answered that his Church understood antiquity better than

theirs. They appealed to the spirit of St Paul; he answered that

Augustine had saved that spirit from etherealizing away, by coupling it

with a high sacramental theory of the Church. They flung practical

abuses in the teeth of Rome; he entered on a bold campaign to bring

those abuses to an end. Before long, his reforming zeal involved him in

many quarrels--so much so that he left Poitiers and settled down in

Paris. Here he became widely known as a director of consciences, forming

a particular friendship with the influential Arnauld family. But his

general projects of reform were by no means allowed to sleep, though

here he worked hand in hand with his old friend Jansen. Both traced the

evils of their time to the Jesuits and Schoolmen. Their dialectic had

corrupted theology; their hand-to-mouth utilitarianism had played havoc

with traditional church-institutions. Accordingly, Jansen set to work to

remedy one evil by writing a big book on St Augustine, the great master

of theological method. St Cyran dealt with the other evil in an equally

bulky treatise, the _Petrus Aurelius_ (1633). This indicts the Jesuits

for every sort and kind of misdemeanour. It deals much with what Pascal

will presently call their _devotion aisee_; but still more with crimes

of a technical sort, especially their defiance of episcopal authority.

Thereby the book gained for its author's projects of reform a great deal

of Gallican support. On the other hand, it gave much annoyance to

Richelieu, now the all-powerful and extremely Erastian prime minister.

After failing more than once to stop St Cyran's mouth with a bishopric,

he had him arrested as a disturber of ecclesiastical peace (14th of

March 1638). He remained shut up in the castle of Vincennes until

Richelieu's death (December 1642). Then he was at once set free; but the

long imprisonment had told heavily on his health, and he died of a

stroke of apoplexy in October 1643.

St Cyran's character has been always something of a puzzle. Many

excellent contemporary judges were profoundly impressed; others, as one

of them said, went away bewildered by this strange abbe, who never

argued a question out, but leapt from one point to another in broken,

incoherent phrases. Grace of expression he had none; perhaps no man of

equal spiritual insight ever found it so hard to make his meaning clear,

whether on paper or by word of mouth. On the other hand, Jansenism,

considered as a practical religious revival, is altogether his work. He

dragged the Augustinian mysticism out of the Louvain classrooms, and

made it a vital spiritual force in France. Without him there would have

been no Pascal--no Provincial Letters, and no _Pensees_.

There is an excellent life of St Cyran by his secretary, Claude

Lancelot, published at Cologne in two volumes, 1738. A selection of

his _Lettres chrestiennes_ was edited by his disciple, Robert Arnauld

d'Andilly (Paris, 1645). An entirely different collection of _Lettres

spirituelles_ was printed at Cologne in 1744. (St C.)

DUVEYRIER, HENRI (1840-1892), French explorer of the Sahara, was born in

Paris on the 28th of February 1840. His youth was spent partly in

London, where he met Heinrich Barth, then preparing the narrative of his

travels in the western Sudan. At the age of nineteen Duveyrier, who had

already learnt Arabic, began a journey in the northern parts of the

Sahara which lasted nearly three years. On returning to France he

received, in 1863, the gold medal of the Paris Geographical Society, and

in 1864 published _Exploration du Sahara: les Touareg du nord_. In the

war of 1870 he was taken prisoner by the Germans. Subsequently he made

several other journeys in the Sahara, adding considerably to the

knowledge of the regions immediately south of the Atlas, from the

eastern confines of Morocco to Tunisia. He also examined the Algerian

and Tunisian _shats_ and explored the interior of western Tripoli.

Duveyrier devoted special attention to the customs and speech of the

Tuareg, with whom he lived for months at a time, and to the organization

of the Senussi. In 1881 he published _La Tunisie_, and in 1884 _La

Confrerie musselmane de Sidi Mohammed Ben Ali-Es-Senousi et son domaine

geographique_. He died at Sevres on the 25th of April 1892.

DUX (Czech _Duchcov_), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 86 m. N.N.W. of

Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 11,921, three-fourths German. It is situated

in the centre of an extensive and well-worked lignite deposit and

manufactures glass, porcelain and earthenware. In Dux is a castle

belonging to Count Waldstein, a kinsman of Wallenstein, which contains a

picture gallery with two portraits of Wallenstein by Van Dyck, and a

museum with a collection of arms and armour and several relics of the

great general.

DUXBURY, a township of Plymouth county, Massachusetts, on Massachusetts

Bay, 36 m. S.S.E. of Boston. Pop. (1890) 1908; (1905, state census)

2028. Area, 25.5 sq. m. Duxbury is served by the Old Colony system of

the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway. In the township are the

villages of Duxbury, South Duxbury, West Duxbury, North Duxbury, Island

Creek and Millbrook. The soil is sandy, the surface of the country well

wooded and broken by a number of ponds and creeks. Duxbury is a summer

resort, with a large hotel at Standish Shore. Duxbury has a public

library, and is the seat of the Powder Point school for boys, and

Partridge Academy, founded in 1828 by a bequest of $10,000 from George

Partridge of Duxbury, and incorporated in 1830. On Captain's Hill is the

Standish Monument (begun in 1872), a circular tower, on an octagonal

base, of rough Hallowell granite, surmounted by a statue of Miles

Standish, 124 ft. from the ground. The Standish house, built in 1666 by

Miles's son, Alexander, is still in existence. In South Duxbury is an

old burying ground, in which the oldest marked grave is that of Jonathan

Alden (d. 1697), son of John Alden. For many years there were important

cod and mackerel fisheries here and Duxbury clams were famous; there

were large shipyards in Duxbury in the 18th century and in the first

half of the 19th. At present cranberries are the only product of

importance. The first settlement was made here in 1631 by Miles Standish

(to whom Captain's Hill was granted), William Brewster, John Alden, and

a few others. In 1632 a church was organized and the present name was

adopted from Duxbury Hall, Lancashire, the old seat of the Standish

family; the Indian name had been Mattakeeset. The township was

incorporated in 1637; it originally included Bridgewater and parts of

Pembroke and Kingston.

See Justin Winsor, _History of Duxbury_ (Boston, 1849); and Laurence

Bradford, _Historic Duxbury in Plymouth County_ (Boston, 1900).

DVINA, the name of two rivers of European Russia.

1. The NORTHERN DVINA, or _Dvina Syevernaya_, belongs to the basin of

the White Sea, and is formed by the junction of the Sukhona and the Yug,

which, rising, the former in the south-west and the latter in the

south-east of the government of Vologda, meet in the neighbourhood of

Velikiy-Ustyug, at a height of 300 ft. above the sea, in 61 deg. 20' N.

and 46 deg. 20' E. The conjoint stream then flows N.W. to the Gulf of

Archangel, which it reaches 50 m. below the city of Archangel. From its

mouth to the confluence of the co-tributary streams the distance is

about 470 m., and to the source of the Sukhona 780 m. The drainage area

is estimated at 141,000 sq. m. Except at the rapids the current of the

Dvina is comparatively slow, as the average fall per mile is only 9 in.

Till its union with the Vychegda, a river which exceeds it in volume, it

flows for the most part in a single, well-defined and permanent channel;

but below that point it often splits into several branches, and not

infrequently alters its course. In the neighbourhood of Archangel it

divides into three distinct arms, which form a regular delta; but of

these that of Berezov alone is navigable for sea-going vessels, and even

it is impeded by a bar at the mouth, with not more than 14-1/2 or 15-1/2

ft. of water at full tide. Just above the point where the delta begins

the river is joined by a large tributary, the Pinega, from the right.

Above the confluence of the Vychegda the breadth is about 1750 ft.;

below that point it widens out to 3500 ft.; and near Archangel it

attains more than three times that measure. The channel is free from ice

for about 174 days in the year. By means of the Duke Alexander of

Wurttemberg Canal, the river is connected with the Neva and the Volga.

2. The SOUTHERN DVINA, or _Dvina Zapadnaya_, in German _Duna_ and in

Lettish _Daugava_, belongs to the Baltic basin, and takes its rise in a

small lake about 800 ft. above the level of the sea, in the government

of Tver, not far from the sources of the Volga and the Dnieper. After

dividing Tver in part from Pskov in part, it skirts the east and south

of the government of Vitebsk, separates part of the latter from Vilna,

and then divides Vitebsk and Livonia from Courland, and disembogues in

the southern end of the Gulf of Riga. Its length is 640 m. and it drains

an area of 32,960 sq. m. From Dvinsk (Dunaburg) to Riga, a distance of

135 m., there is altogether a fall of 295 ft., of which 105 ft. are in

the 40 m. from Jakobstadt to Friedrichstadt. In the lower part of its

course the river attains an ordinary depth of 30 ft. and an average

breadth of 1400 ft.; but during the spring flood it sometimes rises 14

ft. above its usual level, and its waters spread out to a mile in width.

Near the mouth the river is usually free from ice for 245 days in the

year, and in the government of Vitebsk for 229. It is navigable from the

confluence of the Mezha (i.e. from Vitebsk) downwards, but the number of

rapids and shallows greatly diminishes its value. Navigation can also be

carried on by the following tributaries: the Usvyat, Mezha, Kasplya,

Ulla, Disna and Bolder-aa. This river was formerly called the Khezin or

Turunt, and at the present day it has the name of Polot among the White

Russians. Salmon and lampreys abound in its waters.

(P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)

DVINSK, the official name since 1893 of DUNABURG, a town and fortress of

western Russia, in the government of Vitebsk, 162 m. by rail N.W. of the

city of Vitebsk, on the right bank of the Dvina (Duna), in 55 deg. 53' N.

and 26 deg. 23' E., and at the intersection of two main railway

lines--Riga-Smolensk and Vilna-St Petersburg. It is the chief strategic

position for the defence of the Dvina. It consists of four portions--the

main town, or fortress, the old suburb, the new suburb, and on the left

bank of the river the village of Griva. Among the industrial

establishments are tanneries and breweries, saw-mills, flour-mills,

brick and tile works and limekilns. The town is an important commercial

centre, especially for flax, hemp, tallow and timber. The population

increased from 25,764 in 1860 to 72,231 in 1900, consisting chiefly of

Jews (about 30,000), Lithuanians and Letts.

Dunaburg was originally founded in 1278 by the Livonian Knights of the

Sword, about 12 m. farther down the river than its present site, at a

spot still known as the Old Castle or _Stariy Zamok_. In 1559 it was

mortgaged by the grand-master of the Knights to Sigismund Augustus, king

of Poland. Although captured in 1576 by Ivan the Terrible of Russia, it

was again restored to Poland; and in 1582 Stephen Bathori, king of

Poland, transferred the fortress to its present site. In the 17th

century it was held alternately by the Swedes and the Russians. It was

finally incorporated with Russia in 1772 on the first division of

Poland. In July 1812 the _tete-de-pont_ was vainly stormed by the French

under Oudinot, but a few weeks afterwards the town was captured by them

under Macdonald.

DVORAK, ANTON (1841-1904), Bohemian musical composer, born at

Nelahozeves (otherwise Muhlhausen) in Bohemia on the 8th of September

1841, was the son of Frantisek Dvorak, a small publican and village

butcher. At the door of his father's inn Dvorak first appeared as a

practical musician, taking his place among the fiddlers who scraped out

their "furiants" and other wild dances for the benefit of the

holiday-making local beaux and belles. At the village school he learnt

from Josef Spitz both to sing and to play the violin, with so much

effect that soon he was able to assist in the parish church services. At

twelve years old he was sent by his father to Zlonic, near Schlan, to an

uncle, with whom he lived while passing through the higher-grade classes

at school. Here, too, he was fortunate enough to find a valuable friend

in A. Liehmann, organist and chief musician of the little town, a

competent musician, who instructed the boy in elementary theory, organ

and pianoforte playing. The theory studies, however, could not long be

continued, since Liehmann soon acknowledged in his own dialect that the

boy was extraordinarily full of promise ("Aus Tonda, dem

Sappermentsbuben 'mal 'was werden konnte"), at the same time realizing

that he could not do much to assist. But Dvorak soon left Zlonic for

Bohmisch-Kamnitz, where he learnt German and advanced his musical

studies under Hancke. A year later he was summoned to return to Zlonic

to assist his father, who had set up in business there. But his craving

for a musical career was not to be checked, and after considerable

trouble with his father consent was obtained to his settling in Prague

in order to devote himself entirely to music.

In October 1857 Dvorak entered the organ-school of the _Gesellschaft der

Kirchenmusik_, where he worked for three years. The small financial aid

his father was at first able to lend soon ceased, and after being in

Prague but a few months Dvorak found himself practically thrown on his

own resources. By playing the viola in a private orchestra and in

various inns of the town he succeeded in obtaining a precarious

livelihood. On the opening in 1862 of the Bohemian Interimstheater,

Dvorak, with part of this band, formed the nucleus of the theatrical

orchestra, and remained connected with it for eleven years, when he

became organist of the church of St Adalbert. At this time his small

stipend was augmented slightly by the fees of a few pupils, though the

privations suffered by him and his wife (for he had recently married)

must have been great. But in spite of financial worry and of the amount

of time he had to devote to his professional duties and private pupils,

Dvorak found leisure not only for his own studies of the classics, but

also to compose. His work, like his daily life, was beset with

difficulties, for he had not the means to provide himself with

sufficient music-paper, much less to hire a pianoforte; and it is

possible that several of his important early works would never have been

written had it not been for the generosity of Karel Bendl, the composer,

who helped him in many ways.

Dvorak himself said afterwards that he retained no recollection of much

that he then composed. In and about 1864 two symphonies, a host of

songs, some chamber-music, and an entire opera, _Alfred_, lay unheard in

his desk. The libretto of this opera was made up from materials found in

an old almanack. Most of these works were burnt long ago. In 1873 he

made his first bid for popularity by his patriotic hymn _Die Erben des

weissen Berges_ (published many years later as Op. 30). Its reception

was enthusiastic, and Dvorak's subsequent works were eagerly awaited and

warmly received on production. In 1874 his opera _Konig und Kohler_

resulted in a fiasco at Prague, owing to its mixture of styles. Nothing

daunted, Dvorak recomposed the whole work in three months. In 1875, on

the recommendation of Brahms and Hanslick, he obtained a stipend from

the Kultus-Ministerium at Vienna, which freed him from care and enabled

him to indulge in composition to his heart's content. Following on this

success came a commission in 1877 for a series of Slavic dances, which

took the public by storm. Immediately compositions, old and new, began

to pour from the publisher. English sympathy was entirely won by the

_Stabat Mater_ in 1883, and increased by the symphonies in D, D mi., and

F, G, and E mi. (_The American_), and the cantata _The Spectre's Bride_,

based on K.J. Erben's elaboration of the Bohemian version of the saga

treated in Burger's _Leonore_. The favourable effect produced by these

works was somewhat chilled by the oratorio _St Ludmila_, a comparatively

feeble work written "to suit English taste" for the Leeds Festival of

1886. The three overtures Opp. 91, 92, 93, failed to hold their place,

but the pseudo-American symphony has become one of Dvorak's most popular

works, and much of his chamber-music, of which there is abundance, seems

quite permanent in its place in concert programmes. In 1892, after

having frequently visited England, Dvorak became head of the National

Conservatory of Music of America in New York. There he remained till

1895, when he returned to Prague, where he died on the 1st of May 1904.

Dvorak's music is characteristically national, though less purely so

than that of Smetana. But in spite of his industry and dramatic talent

not one of his operas has been really successful. A master of the

orchestra and a composer of real individuality, he earned and deserved

his place among the elect, not only by his great gifts, but by his

abnormal energy in their development.

See W.H. Hadow, _Studies in Modern Music_ (second series, 1908).

DWARAKA, DWARKA, or JIGAT, a town of British India, in Baroda state,

near the extremity of the peninsula of Kathiawar, Bombay. Pop. (1901)

7535. As the birthplace and residence of Krishna, it is the most sacred

spot in this part of India, and its principal temple is visited annually

by many thousand pilgrims. The approach from the sea is by a fine flight

of stone steps, and the great spire rises to a height of 150 ft.

DWARF (A.S. _dweorg_, D. _dwerg_, Icel. _dvergr_), the term generally

used to describe an extraordinarily under-sized individual of a race of

normal stature (for dwarf-races see PYGMY.) In Scandinavian mythology

the word connoted smallness and deformity, and was used of the elfins

and goblins who were supposed to live on the mountains or in the bowels

of the earth, and to be kings of metals and mines. The later use of the

word certainly does not imply deformity, for many of the dwarfs of

history have been singularly graceful and well formed. Dwarfishness is,

however, often accompanied by disproportion of the limbs.

From the earliest historic times dwarfs attracted attention, and there

was much competition on the part of kings and the wealthy to obtain the

little folk as attendants. It is certain that members of the tiny Akka

race of Equatorial Africa figured at the courts of the Pharaohs of the

early dynasties and were much valued. Philetas of Cos, poet and

grammarian (circa 330 B.C.), tutor of Ptolemy Philadelphus, was alleged

to be so tiny that he had to wear leaden shoes lest he should be blown

away. The Romans practised artificial dwarfing, and the Latin _nanus_ or

_pumilo_ were terms alternatively used to describe the natural and

unnatural dwarf. Julia, the niece of Augustus, had a dwarf named Coropas

2 ft. 4 in. high, and a freed-maid Andromeda who measured the same.

Various recipes for dwarfing children have been from time to time in

vogue. The most effective, according to report, was to anoint the

backbone with the grease of moles, bats and dormice. The stunting of

the growth of stable-boys who aspire to jockey's honours is in no sense

true dwarfing.

In later days there have been many dwarf-favourites at European courts.

British tradition has its earliest dwarf mentioned in the old ballad

which begins "In Arthur's court Tom Thumb did live"; and on this

evidence the prototype of the modern Tom Thumb is alleged to have lived

at the court of King Edgar. Of authentic English dwarfs the first

appears to be John Jarvis (2 ft. high), who was page to Queen Mary I.

Her brother Edward VI. had his dwarf Xit. But the first English dwarf of

whom there is anything like an authentic history is Jeffery Hudson

(1619-1682). He was the son of a butcher at Oakham, Rutlandshire, who

kept and baited bulls for George Villiers, first duke of Buckingham.

Neither of Jeffery's parents was under-sized, yet at nine years he

measured scarcely 18 in., though he was gracefully proportioned. At a

dinner given by the duke to Charles I. and his queen he was brought in

to table in a pie out of which he stepped, and was at once adopted by

Henrietta Maria. The little fellow followed the fortunes of the court in

the Civil War, and is said to have been a captain of horse, earning the

nickname of "strenuous Jeffery" for his activity. He fought two

duels--one with a turkey-cock, a battle recorded by Davenant, and a

second with Mr Crofts, who came to the meeting with a squirt, but who in

the more serious encounter which ensued was shot dead by little Hudson,

who fired from horseback, the saddle putting him on a level with his

antagonist. Twice was Jeffery made prisoner--once by the Dunkirkers as

he was returning from France, whither he had been on homely business for

the queen; the second time was when he fell into the hands of Turkish

pirates. His sufferings during this latter captivity made him, he

declared, grow, and in his thirtieth year, having been of the same

height since he was nine, he steadily increased until he was 3 ft. 9 in.

At the Restoration he returned to England, where he lived on a pension

granted him by the duke of Buckingham. He was later accused of

participation in the "Popish Plot," and was imprisoned in the Gate

House. He was released and shortly after died in the sixty-third year of

his age.

Contemporary with Hudson were the two other dwarfs of Henrietta Maria,

Richard Gibson and his wife Anne. They were married by the queen's wish;

and the two together measured only 2 in. over 7 ft. They had nine

children, five of whom, who lived, were of ordinary stature. Edmund

Waller celebrated the nuptials, Evelyn designated the husband as the

"compendium of a man," and Lely painted them hand in hand. Gibson was

miniature painter to Charles I., and drawing-master to the daughters of

James II., Queens Mary and Anne, when they were children. This

Cumberland pygmy, who began his career as a page, first in a "gentle,"

next in the royal family, died in 1690, in his seventy-fifth year, and

is buried in St Paul's, Covent Garden. The last court dwarf in England

was Coppernin, a lively little imp in the service of the princess

(Augusta) of Wales, the mother of George III. The last dwarf retainer in

a gentleman's family was the one kept by Mr Beckford, the author of

_Vathek_ and builder of Fonthill. He was rather too big to be flung from

one guest to another, as used to be the custom at dinners in earlier

days when a dwarf was a "necessity" for every noble family.

Of European court dwarfs the most famous were those of Philip IV. of

Spain, the hunchbacks whose features have been immortalized by

Velazquez. Stanislas, king of Poland, owned Nicholas Ferry (Bebe), who

measured 2 ft. 9 in. He was one of three dwarf children of peasant

parents in the Vosges. He died in his 23rd year (1764). But Bebe was not

so remarkable as Richebourg, who died in Paris in 1858, at the age of

90. He was only 23 in. high. He began life as a servant in the Orleans

family. In later years he was their pensioner. He is said to have been

put to strange use in the Revolution--passing in and out of Paris as an

infant in a nurse's arms, but with despatches, dangerous to carry, in

the little man's baby-wrappings!

Of dwarfs exhibited in England, the most celebrated was the Pole,

Borulwaski (1739-1837). At six he measured 17 in., and he finally in

his thirtieth year reached 39 in. He had a sister shorter than himself

by the head and shoulders. Borulwaski was a handsome man, a wit, and

something of a scholar. He travelled over all Europe; and he--born in

the reign of George II.--died in his well-earned retirement near Durham,

in the reign of Victoria. Borulwaski lies buried at Durham by the side

of the Falstaffian Stephen Kemble. The companionship reminds one of that

of the dwarf skeleton of Jonathan Wild by the side of that of the Irish

Giant, at the Royal College of Surgeons, London.

In the year in which Borulwaski died, Charles Stratton, better known as

"General Tom Thumb," was born. When twenty-five he was 31 in. high. In

1844 he appeared in England, where he had an extraordinary success. One

result of his season at the Egyptian Hall, London, was to kill Haydon

the painter. The latter presented his great work "The Banishment of

Aristides" for exhibition in the same building. The public rushed to see

the dwarf. He took L600 the first week, while Haydon's masterpiece drew

but L7, 13s. The result was that the artist committed suicide in

despair. After extensive travel in both hemispheres, Stratton again

visited England in 1857, but the dwarf man, despite many personal and

intellectual qualities, was less attractive than the dwarf boy. In the

year 1863 the "General" married the very minute American lady, Lavinia

Warren (born in 1842). He died on the 15th of July 1883.

Other modern dwarfs include Signor Hervio Nano, who played at the

Olympic Theatre, London, in 1843; three Highlanders named MacKinlay,

children of a Scots shepherd, the shortest of whom was 45 in.; a

Spaniard, Don Francisco Hidalgo (29 in.); a Dutchman, Jan Hannema (28

in.); and Mary Jane Youngman (Australia), who at fifteen was 35 in.

high. She was called the "dwarf-giantess" because she was 3 ft. 6 in.

round the shoulders, 4 ft. 3 in. round the waist, and 2 ft. round the

leg. Much interest was aroused by the so-called Aztec dwarfs who were

exhibited in London in 1853. In 1867 the pair were married, the ceremony

being publicly performed, and the bride's robes are said to have cost no

less than L2000. The wedding-breakfast was held at Willis's Rooms. From

time to time other dwarfs have been exhibited, among whom the most

remarkable has been Che-mah, a Chinese, 42 years old and 25 in. high,

who appeared in London in 1880. George Prout (1774-1851), who was less

than 3 ft. high, was a well-known character in London in the early

Victorian period, as a messenger at the Houses of Parliament.

See E.J. Wood, _Giants and Dwarfs_ (1860).

DWARS, a tract of country in north-east India. It consists of two

divisions, the Western Dwars and the Eastern Dwars, both of which

belonged to Bhutan prior to the Bhutan War of 1864-65, as a result of

which they passed into possession of the British, when the Eastern Dwars

were assigned to Assam and the Western to Bengal. Since 1905 both

divisions have been in the province of Eastern Bengal and Assam. The

five Eastern Dwars, entitled respectively Bijni, Sidli, Chirang, Ripu

and Guma, are situated in the Goalpara district of Eastern Bengal and

Assam, forming a strip of flat country lying beneath the Bhutan

mountains. It is an unhealthy country for natives as well as Europeans,

and is but slightly developed. The Western Dwars form a region lying at

the foot of the Himalayas in the north-east of the Jalpaiguri district

of Eastern Bengal and Assam, which comprises nine _parganas_, namely,

Bhalka, Bhatibari, Baxa, Chakao-Kshattriya, Madari, Lakshmipur,

Maraghat, Mainaguri and Chengmari. The Western Dwars are an important

centre of the tea-planting industry.

DWIGHT, JOHN (d. 1703), the first distinguished English potter. One can

only surmise as to his parentage, and the date of his birth has been

variously given from 1637 to 1640. Apparently he was educated at Oxford,

and in 1661 was appointed registrar and scribe to the diocese of

Chester, and the same year he proceeded to the degree of B.C.L. of

Christ Church, Oxford. He resided at Chester for some time and acted as

secretary to four successive bishops. One of these, Bishop Hall, also

held the rectory of Wigan, Lancashire, and Dwight seems to have resided

in that town, for three of his children were baptized there between

1667 and 1671. In 1671, while he still apparently resided in Wigan, he

was granted his first patent for "the mistery of transparent

earthenware, commonly known by the names of porcelain or china, and of

stoneware, vulgarly called Cologne ware." It is not believed that much,

if any, work was executed at Wigan, and he probably removed to Fulham in

1672 or 1673, as his name first appears on the rate books of Fulham,

where he was rated for a house in Bear Street, in 1674. He died in 1703,

and his business was carried on by his descendants for some time, but

with gradually diminishing success. It has been claimed that Dwight made

the first porcelain in England, but there is no proof of this, though

magnificent specimens of stoneware from his hands are in existence. The

British Museum contains a number of the best of Dwight's pieces, of

which the finest is the bust of Prince Rupert. Other specimens are in

the Victoria and Albert Museum, and they are sufficient to establish

Dwight's fame as a potter of the first rank. (See CERAMICS.)

DWIGHT, JOHN SULLIVAN (1813-1893), American writer on music, was born at

Boston and educated at Harvard. He became a Unitarian minister, but

abandoned this career and joined the Brook Farm settlement as a teacher

of music and other subjects. In 1848 he settled as a musical critic at

Boston, being best known as founder and editor of the _Journal of Music_

(1852-1881), the most important musical periodical that has been

published in America. He died on the 5th of September 1893.

G.W. Cooke edited his letters (1898) and also wrote a memoir (1899).

DWIGHT, THEODORE WILLIAM (1822-1892), American jurist and

educationalist, cousin of Theodore Dwight Woolsey and of Timothy Dwight,

was born on the 18th of July 1822 in Catskill, New York. His father,

Benjamin Woolsey Dwight (1780-1850), an abolitionist and reformer,

removed to Clinton, New York, in 1831. The son graduated at Hamilton

College in 1840, studied physics under S.F.B. Morse and John William

Draper, taught classics in Utica Academy in 1840-1841, and studied law

for one year at Yale. He was tutor at Hamilton in 1841-1846, at the same

time teaching law privately; was made Maynard professor of law, history,

civil polity, and political economy in 1846; received recognition of his

law school in 1853, and in 1858 accepted an invitation to Columbia to

teach law upon his own condition that he should found a law school. He

himself _was_ this school for many years and did not retire from it

until 1891, about a year before his death, at Clinton, New York, on the

28th of June 1892. A man of broad culture, he was best known as the

founder of a famous school of law and a famous method of legal teaching,

which was broadly educational and which called for class-room recitation

on the text-book studied and opposed mere "taking notes" on lectures.

His questioning was illustrative and its method Socratic. He was a

non-resident professor of law at Cornell (1869-1871) and at Amherst

(1870-1872). Dwight was an able jurist, frequently acted as referee in

difficult questions, in 1874-1875 was a judge of the New York commission

of appeals, appointed to clear the docket of the court of appeals, and

in 1886 was counsel for the five Andover professors charged with heresy.

He was a prominent figure in political and social (notably prison)

reforms; published in 1867 a _Report on the Prisons and Reformatories of

the United States and Canada_, the result of his labours on a New York

state prison commission with Enoch Cobb Wines (1806-1879); favoured

indeterminate sentences; drew up the bill for the establishment of the

Elmira Reformatory; and organized the State Charities Aid Association.

He edited Sir Henry Maine's _Ancient Law_ (1864); was associate editor

of the _American Law Register_ and legal editor of _Johnson's

Cyclopaedia_; and published _Charitable Uses: Argument in the Rose Will

Case_ (1863).

DWIGHT, TIMOTHY (1752-1817), American divine, writer, and

educationalist, was born at Northampton, Massachusetts, on the 14th of

May 1752. His father, Timothy Dwight, a graduate of Yale College (1744),

was a merchant, and his mother was the third daughter of Jonathan

Edwards. He was remarkably precocious, and is said to have learned the

alphabet at a single lesson, and to have been able to read the Bible

before he was four years old. In 1769 he graduated at Yale College, and

then for two years taught in a grammar school at New Haven. He was a

tutor in Yale College from 1771 to 1777; and then, having been licensed

to preach, was a chaplain for a year in a regiment of troops engaged in

the War of Independence, inspiring the troops both by his sermons and by

several stirring war songs, the most famous of which is "Columbia." From

1778 until 1783 he lived at Northampton, studying, farming, preaching,

and dabbling in politics. From 1783 until 1795 he was pastor of the

Congregational church at Greenfield Hill, Connecticut, where he opened

an academy which at once acquired a high reputation and attracted pupils

from all parts of the Union. From 1795 until his death at Philadelphia,

Pennsylvania, on the 11th of January 1817, he was president of Yale

College, and by his judicious management, by his remarkable ability as a

teacher--he taught a variety of subjects, including theology,

metaphysics, logic, literature and oratory,--and by his force of

character and magnetic personality, won great popularity and influence,

and restored that institution to the high place from which it had fallen

before his appointment. President Dwight was also well known as an

author. In verse he wrote an ambitious epic in eleven books, _The

Conquest of Canaan_, finished in 1774, but not published until 1785; a

somewhat ponderous and solemn satire, _The Triumph of Infidelity_

(1788), directed against Hume, Voltaire and others; _Greenfield Hill_

(1794), the suggestion for which seems to have been derived from John

Denham's _Cooper's Hill_; and a number of minor poems and hymns, the

best known of which is that beginning "I love thy kingdom, Lord." Many

of his sermons were published posthumously under the titles _Theology

Explained and Defended_ (5 vols., 1818-1819), to which a memoir of the

author by his two sons, W.T. and Sereno E. Dwight, is prefixed, and

_Sermons by Timothy Dwight_ (2 vols., 1828), which had a large

circulation both in the United States and in England. Probably his most

important work, however, is his _Travels in New England and New York_ (4

vols., 1821-1822), which contains much material of value concerning

social and economic New England and New York during the period

1796-1817.

See W.B. Sprague's "Life of Timothy Dwight" in vol. iv. (second

series) of Jared Sparks's _Library of American Biography_, and

especially an excellent chapter in Moses Coit Tyler's _Three Men of

Letters_ (New York, 1895).

His fifth son, SERENO EDWARDS DWIGHT (1786-1850), born in Greenfield

Hill, Connecticut, graduated at Yale in 1803, was a tutor there in

1806-1810, and successfully practised law in New Haven in 1810-1816.

Licensed to preach in 1816, he was the chaplain of the United States

Senate for one year, was pastor of the Park Street church, Boston, in

1817-1826, and in 1833-1835 was president of Hamilton College, Clinton,

New York. His career was wrecked by accidental mercury poisoning, which

interfered with his work in Boston and at Hamilton College, and made his

life after 1839 solitary and comparatively uninfluential. His

publications include _Life and Works of Jonathan Edwards_ (10 vols.,

1830); _The Hebrew Wife_ (1836), an argument against marriage with a

deceased wife's sister; and _Select Discourses_ (1851); to which was

prefixed a biographical sketch by his brother William Dwight

(1795-1865), who was also successively a lawyer and a Congregational

preacher.

President Dwight's grandson, TIMOTHY DWIGHT (1828- ), a famous

preacher and educationalist, was born at Norwich, Connecticut, on the

16th of November 1828. He graduated at Yale in 1849, continued his

studies there and at Bonn and Berlin, was professor of sacred literature

and New Testament Greek in the Yale Divinity School from 1858 to 1886,

was licensed to preach in 1861, and from 1886 to 1899 was president of

Yale, which during his administration greatly prospered and became in

name and in fact a university. Dr Dwight was also a member in 1876-1885

of the American committee for the revision of the English Bible, was an

editor from 1866 to 1874 of the _New Englander_, which later became the

_Yale Review_, and besides editing and annotating several volumes of the

English translation of H.A.W. Meyer's _Kritisch-exegetischer Kommentar

zum Neuen Testament_, and writing many magazine articles, published a

collection of sermons entitled _Thoughts of and for the Inner Life_

(1899).

DYAKS, or DAYAKS, the name given to the wild tribes found in Borneo by

the Malays on their first settlement there. Whether they are the

aborigines of the island or the successors of a Negrito people whom they

expelled is uncertain. If the latter, they are descendants of an early

pre-Malayan immigration. In any case, though regarded by the Malays as

aliens, the Dyaks are of the same stock as the Malays. For themselves

they have no general name; but, broken as they are into numerous tribes,

they are distinguished by separate tribal names, many of which seem to

be merely those of the rivers on which their settlements are situated.

Sir Harry Keppel, who attempted to form a classification of the Dyaks

according to their ethnographical affinity, divides them into five

principal branches. The first of these, which he calls the

north-western, includes the natives of Sadong, Sarawak, Sambas, Landak,

Tayan, Melionow and Sangow. They all speak the same language, and are

remarkable for their dependence on the Malay princes. The second branch,

which is called emphatically the Malayan from its greater retention of

Malay characteristics, occupies the north coast in Banting,

Batang-Lupar, Rejang and part of the valley of the Kapuas. To the third

or Parian branch belong the Dyaks of the rivers Kuti and Passir, who are

said to speak a language like that of Macassar. The fourth consists of

the Beyadjoes, who are settled in the valley of the Banjermassin; and

the fifth and lowest comprises the Manketans and Punans, who are still

nomadic and ignorant of agriculture.

Physically the Dyaks differ little from the Malays except in their

slimmer figure, lighter colour, more prominent nose and higher forehead.

In disposition they are as cheerful as the Malay is morose. The typical

Dyak is rather slightly built, but is active and capable of enduring

great fatigue. His features are distinctly marked and often well formed.

The forehead is generally high, and the eyes are dark; the cheek-bones

are broad; the hair is black, and the colour of the skin a pure reddish

brown, frequently, in the female, approaching the Chinese complexion.

The beard is generally scanty, and in many tribes the men pull out all

the hair of the face. Both sexes file, dye, and sometimes bore holes in

the teeth and insert gold buttons. In dress there is considerable

variety, great alterations having resulted from foreign influence. The

original and still prevailing style is simple, consisting of a

waistcloth, generally of blue cotton, for the men, and a tight-fitting

petticoat for the women, who acquire a peculiar mincing gait from its

interference with their walking. The favourite ornaments of both sexes

are brass rings for the legs and arms, hoops of rattan decorated in

various ways, necklaces of white and black beads, and crescent-shaped

ear-rings of a large size. The lobes of the ears are distended sometimes

nearly to the shoulders by disks of metal and bits of stick. Tattooing

is practised by most of the tribes, and the skulls of infants are

artificially deformed. The men usually go bare-headed, or wear a

bright-coloured kerchief. The custom of betel-chewing being most

universal, the betel-pouch is always worn at the side. The weapons in

use are a curved sword and a long spear. The bow is unknown, but its

place among some tribes is partly supplied by the blowpipe, in the

boring of which they show great skill. When going to war the Dyak wears

a strong padded jacket, which proves no bad defence. A curious custom

among some tribes is the imprisonment of young girls for two or three

years before puberty, during which time they are not allowed to see even

their mothers.

The Dyak is decidedly intelligent, has a good memory and keen powers of

observation, is unsuspicious and hospitable, and honest and truthful to

a striking degree. The various tribes differ greatly in religious

ceremonies and beliefs. They have no temples, priests or regular

worship; but the father of each family performs rites. A supreme god,

Sang-Sang, seems generally acknowledged, but subordinate deities are

supposed to watch over special departments of the world and human

affairs. Sacrifices both of animals and fruits--and in some cases even

of human beings--are offered to appease or invoke the gods; divination

of various kinds is resorted to for the purpose of deciding the course

to be pursued in any emergency; and criminals are subjected to the

ordeal by poison or otherwise. Offerings are made to the dead, and there

is a very strong belief in the existence of evil spirits, and all kinds

of calamities and diseases are ascribed to their malignity. Thus almost

the whole medical system of the Dyaks consists in the application of

appropriate charms or the offerings of conciliatory sacrifices. Many of

those natives who have had much intercourse with the Malays have adopted

a kind of mongrel Mahommedanism, with a mixture of Hindu elements. The

transmigration of souls seems to be believed in by some tribes; and some

have a system of successive heavens rising one above the other very much

in the style of the Hindu cosmogony. In the treatment of their dead much

variety prevails; they are sometimes buried, sometimes burned, and

sometimes elevated on a lofty framework. The Dyaks have no exact

calculation of the year, and simply name the months first month, second

month, and so on. They calculate the time of day by the height of the

sun, and if asked how far distant a place is can only reply by showing

how high the sun would be when you reached it if you set out in the

morning.

In agriculture, navigation, and manufactures they have made some

progress. In a few districts a slight sort of plough is used, but the

usual instrument of tillage is a kind of cleaver. Two crops, one of rice

and the other of maize or vegetables, are taken, and then the ground is

allowed to lie fallow for eight or ten years. The inland Dyaks collect

the forest products, rattan, gutta-percha, beeswax and edible birds'

nests, and exchange them for clothing or ornaments, especially brass

wire or brass guns in which consists the wealth of every chief. They

spin and weave their own cotton, and dye the cloth with indigo of their

own growing. Their iron and steel instruments are excellent, the latter

far surpassing European wares in strength and fineness of edge. Their

houses are neatly built of bamboos, and raised on piles a considerable

height from the ground; but perhaps their most remarkable constructive

effort is the erection of suspension bridges and paths over rivers and

along the front of precipices, in which they display a boldness and

ingenuity that surprise the European traveller. In the centre of most

villages is the communal house where the unmarried men live, which

serves as a general assembly hall. Some have a circuit of no less than

1000 ft. One on the banks of the Lundi was 600 ft. long and housed 400

persons.

The Dyaks have always been notorious for head-hunting, a custom which

has now been largely suppressed. It is essentially a religious practice,

the Dyak seeking a consecration for every important event of his life by

the acquisition of one or more skulls. A child is believed ill-fated to

whose mother the father has not at its birth presented skulls. The young

man is not admitted to full tribal rights, nor can he woo a bride with

any hope of success, until he has a skull or more to adorn his hut; a

chief's authority would not be acknowledged without such trophies of his

prowess. The strictest rules govern head-hunting; a period of fasting

and confession, of isolation in a taboo hut, precedes the expedition,

for which the Dyak clothes himself in the skins of wild beasts and puts

on an animal mask. The Dyak curiously enough prefers the head of a

fellow-tribesman, and the hunt is usually one of ambush rather than of

open combat. Among some tribes it was not sufficient to kill the victim.

He was tortured first, his body sprinkled with his own blood, and even

his flesh eaten under the eyes of priests and priestesses who presided

over the rites. Skulls, especially those of enemies, were held in great

veneration. At meals the choicest morsels were offered them: they were

supplied with betel and tobacco: fulsome compliments and prayers for

success in battle addressed to them. Head-hunting at one time threatened

the very existence of the race; but in spite of their reformation in

this respect the Dyaks are not on the increase, a fact for which A.R.

Wallace accounts by the hard life the women lead and their consequent

slight fecundity.

The Dyaks speak a variety of dialects, most of which are still very

slightly known. The tribes on the coast have adopted a great number of

pure Malay words into common use, and it is often hard to ascertain

their own proper synonyms. The American missionaries have investigated

the dialects of the west coast (Landak, &c.), and their Rhenish brethren

have devoted their attention to those of the south, into one of which

(that of Pulu Petak) a complete translation of the Bible has been made.

Mr Hardeland, the translator, has also published a Dyak-German

dictionary.

DYCE, ALEXANDER (1798-1869), English dramatic editor and literary

historian, was born in Edinburgh on the 30th of June 1798. After

receiving his early education at the high school of his native city, he

became a student at Exeter College, Oxford, where he graduated B.A. in

1819. He took holy orders, and became a curate at Lantegloss, in

Cornwall, and subsequently at Nayland, in Suffolk; in 1827 he settled in

London. His first books were _Select Translations from Quintus

Smyrnaeus_ (1821), an edition of Collins (1827), and _Specimens of

British Poetesses_ (1825). He issued annotated editions of George Peele,

Robert Greene, John Webster, Thomas Middleton, Marlowe, and Beaumont and

Fletcher, with lives of the authors and much illustrative matter. He

completed, in 1833, an edition of James Shirley left unfinished by

William Gifford, and contributed biographies of Shakespeare, Pope,

Akenside and Beattie to Pickering's Aldine Poets. He also edited

(1836-1838) Richard Bentley's works, and _Specimens of British Sonnets_

(1833). His carefully revised edition of John Skelton, which appeared in

1843, did much to revive interest in that trenchant satirist. In 1857

his edition of Shakespeare was published by Moxon; and the second

edition, a great improvement on the old one, was issued by Chapman &

Hall in 1866. He also published _Remarks on Collier's and Knight's

Editions of Shakespeare_ (1844); _A Few Notes on Shakespeare_ (1853);

and _Strictures on Collier's new Edition of Shakespeare_ (1859), a

contribution to the Collier controversy (see COLLIER, JOHN PAYNE), which

ended a long friendship between the two scholars. He was intimately

connected with several literary societies, and undertook the publication

of Kempe's _Nine Days' Wonder_ for the Camden Society; and the old plays

of _Timon_ and _Sir Thomas More_ were published by him for the

Shakespeare Society. He was associated with Halliwell-Phillips, John

Payne Collier and Thomas Wright as one of the founders of the Percy

Society, for publishing old English poetry. Dyce also issued

_Recollections of the Table Talk of Samuel Rogers_ (1856). He died on

the 15th of May 1869. He had collected a valuable library, containing

amongst other treasures many rare Elizabethan books, and this collection

he bequeathed to the South Kensington Museum. He displayed untiring

industry, abundant learning, and admirable critical acumen in his

editions of the old English poets. His wide reading in Elizabethan

literature enabled him to explain much that was formerly obscure in

Shakespeare; while his sound judgment was a check to extravagance in

emendation. While preserving all that was valuable in former editions,

Dyce added much fresh matter. His _Glossary_, a large volume of 500

pages, was the most exhaustive that had appeared.

DYCE, WILLIAM (1806-1864), British painter, was born in Aberdeen, where

his father, a fellow of the Royal Society, was a physician of some

repute. He attended Marischal College, took the degree of M.A. at

sixteen years of age, and was destined for one of the learned

professions. Showing a turn for design instead, he studied in the school

of the Royal Scottish Academy in Edinburgh, then as a probationer (not a

full student) in the Royal Academy of London, and thence, in 1825, he

proceeded to Rome, where he spent nine months. He returned to Aberdeen

in 1826, and painted several pictures; one of these, "Bacchus nursed by

the Nymphs of Nysa," was exhibited in 1827. In the autumn of that year

he went back to Italy, showing from the first a strong sympathy with the

earlier masters of the Florentine and allied schools. A "Virgin and

Child" which he painted in Rome in 1828 was much noticed by Overbeck and

other foreign artists. In 1829 Dyce settled in Edinburgh, taking at once

a good rank in his profession, and showing considerable versatility in

subject-matter. Portrait-painting for some years occupied much of his

time; and he was particularly prized for likenesses of ladies and

children. In February 1837 he was appointed master of the school of

design of the Board of Manufactures, Edinburgh. In the same year he

published a pamphlet on the management of schools of this description,

which led to his transfer from Edinburgh, after eighteen months' service

there, to London, as superintendent and secretary of the then recently

established school of design at Somerset House. Dyce was sent by the

Board of Trade to the continent to examine the organization of foreign

schools; and a report which he eventually printed, 1840, led to a

remodelling of the London establishment. In 1842 he was made a member of

the council and inspector of provincial schools, a post which he

resigned in 1844. In this latter year, being appointed professor of fine

art in King's College, London, he delivered a remarkable lecture, _The

Theory of the Fine Arts_. In 1835 he had been elected an associate of

the Royal Scottish Academy; this honour he relinquished upon settling in

London, and he was then made an honorary R.S.A. In 1844 he became an

associate, in 1848 a full member, of the London Royal Academy; he also

was elected a member of the Academy of Arts in Philadelphia. He was

active in the deliberations of the Royal Academy, and it is said that

his tongue was the dread of the urbane President, Sir Charles Eastlake,

for Dyce was keen in speech as in visage; it was on his proposal that

the class of retired Academicians was established. In January 1850 Dyce

married Jane, daughter of Mr James Brand, of Bedford Hill, Surrey. He

died at Streatham on the 14th of February 1864, leaving two sons and two

daughters.

Dyce was one of the most learned and accomplished of British

painters--one of the highest in aim, and most consistently

self-respecting in workmanship. His finest productions, the frescoes in

the robing-room in the Houses of Parliament, did honour to the country

and time which produced them. Generally, however, there is in Dyce's

work more of earnestness, right conception, and grave, sensitive, but

rather restricted powers of realization, than of authentic greatness. He

has elevation, draughtsmanship, expression, and on occasion fine colour;

along with all these, a certain leaning on precedent, and castigated

semi-conventionalized type of form and treatment, which bespeak rather

the scholarly than the originating mind in art. The following are among

his principal or most interesting works (oil pictures, unless otherwise

stated). 1829: "The Daughters of Jethro defended by Moses"; "Puck."

1830: "The Golden Age"; "The Infant Hercules strangling the Serpents"

(now in the National Gallery, Edinburgh); "Christ crowned with Thorns."

1835: "A Dead Christ" (large lunette altarpiece). 1836: "The Descent of

Venus," from Ben Jonson's _Triumph of Love_; "The Judgment of Solomon,"

prize cartoon in tempera for tapestry (National Gallery, Edinburgh).

1837: "Francesca da Rimini" (National Gallery, Edinburgh). 1838, and

again 1846: "The Madonna and Child." 1839: "Dunstan separating Edwy and

Elgiva." 1844: "Joash shooting the Arrow of Deliverance" (the finest

perhaps of the oil-paintings). 1850: "The Meeting of Jacob and Rachel."

1851: "King Lear and the Fool in the Storm." 1855: "Christabel." 1857:

"Titian's first essay in Colouring." 1859: "The Good Shepherd." 1860:

"St John bringing Home his Adopted Mother"; "Pegwell Bay" (a coast scene

of remarkably minute detail, showing the painter's partial adhesion to

the "pre-Raphaelite" movement). 1861: "George Herbert at Bemerton." Dyce

executed some excellent cartoons for stained glass:--that for the

choristers' window, Ely Cathedral, and that for a vast window at Alnwick

in memory of a duke of Northumberland; the design of "Paul rejected by

the Jews," now at South Kensington, belongs to the latter. In

fresco-painting his first work appears to have been the "Consecration of

Archbishop Parker," painted in Lambeth palace. In one of the Westminster

Hall competitions for the decoration of the Houses of Parliament, he

displayed two heads from this composition; and it is related that the

great German fresco-painter Cornelius, who had come over to England to

give advice, with a prospect of himself taking the chief direction of

the pictorial scheme, told the prince consort frankly that the English

ought not to be asking for him, when they had such a painter of their

own as Mr Dyce. The cartoon by Dyce of the "Baptism of Ethelbert" was

approved and commissioned for the House of Lords, and is the first of

the works done there, 1846, in fresco. In 1848 he began his great

frescoes in the Robing-room--subjects from the legend of King Arthur,

exhibiting chivalric virtue. The whole room was to have been finished in

eight years; but ill-health and other vexations trammelled the artist,

and the series remains uncompleted. The largest picture figures

"Hospitality, the admission of Sir Tristram into the fellowship of the

Round Table." Then follow--"Religion," the Vision of Sir Galahad and his

Companions; "Generosity," Arthur unhorsed, and spared by the Victor;

"Courtesy," Sir Tristram harping to la Belle Yseult; "Mercy," Sir

Gawaine's Vow. The frescoes of sacred subjects in All Saints' church,

Margaret Street, London; of "Comus," in the summer-house of Buckingham

Palace; and of "Neptune and Britannia," at Osborne House, are also by

this painter.

Dyce was an elegant scholar in more ways than one. In 1828 he obtained

the Blackwell prize at Aberdeen for an essay on animal magnetism. In

1843-1844 he published an edition of the Book of Common Prayer, with a

dissertation on Gregorian music, and its adaptation to English words. He

founded the Motett Society, for revival of ancient church-music, was a

fine organist, and composed a "non nobis" which has appropriately been

sung at Royal Academy banquets. His last considerable writing relating

to his own art was published in 1853, _The National Gallery: its

Formation and Management_.

See Redgrave's _Dictionary of Artists_ (1878), and _Dictionary of

National Biography_. (W. M. R.)

DYEING (O. Eng. _deagian_, _deah_; Mid. Eng. _deyen_), the art of

colouring textile and other materials in such a manner that the colours

will not be readily removed by those influences to which they are likely

to be submitted--e.g. washing, rubbing, light, &c. The materials usually

dyed are those made from the textile fibres, silk, wool, cotton, &c.,

and intended for clothing or decoration; but in addition to these may be

mentioned straw, fur, leather, paper, &c.

Historical sketch.

The art of dyeing dates from prehistoric times, and its practice

probably began with the first dawn of civilization. Although we cannot

trace the successive stages of its development from the beginning, we

may suppose they were somewhat similar to those witnessed among certain

uncivilized tribes to-day--e.g. the Maoris of New Zealand. At first the

dyes were probably mere fugitive stains obtained by means of the juices

of fruits, and the decoctions of flowers, leaves, barks and roots; but

in course of time methods were discovered, with the aid of certain kinds

of earth and mud containing alumina or iron, whereby the stains could be

rendered permanent, and then it was that the true art of dyeing began.

There is no doubt that dyeing was, in the early period of its history, a

home industry practised by the women of the household, along with the

sister arts of spinning and weaving, for the purpose of embellishing the

materials manufactured for clothing.

Historical evidence shows that already at a remote period a high state

of civilization existed in Persia, India, and China, and the belief is

well founded that the arts of dyeing and printing have been practised in

these countries during a long succession of ages. In early times the

products and manufactures of India were highly prized throughout

Southern Asia, and in due course they were introduced by Arabian

merchants to Phoenicia and Egypt, with which countries commercial

intercourse, by way of the Persian and Arabian Gulfs, seems to have

existed from time immemorial. Eventually the Egyptians themselves began

to practise the arts of dyeing and printing, utilizing no doubt both the

knowledge and the materials derived from India. Pliny the historian has

left us a brief record of the methods employed in Egypt during the first

century, as well as of the Tyrian purple dye celebrated already 1000

B.C., while the chemical examination of mummy cloths by Thomson and

Schunck testifies to the use by the Egyptian dyers of indigo and madder.

The Phoenician and Alexandrian merchants imported drugs and dyestuffs

into Greece, but we know little or nothing of the methods of dyeing

pursued by the Greeks and Romans, and such knowledge as they possessed

seems to have been almost entirely lost during the stormy period of

barbarism reigning in Europe during the 5th and succeeding centuries. In

Italy, however, some remnants of the art fortunately survived these

troublous times, and the importation of Oriental products by the

Venetian merchants about the beginning of the 13 th century helped to

revive the industry. From this time rapid progress was made, and the

dyers formed important guilds in Florence, Venice and other cities. It

was about this time, too, that a Florentine named Rucellai rediscovered

the method of making the purple dye orchil from certain lichens of Asia

Minor. In 1429 there was published at Venice, under the title of

_Mariegola dell' arte de tentori_, the first European book on dyeing,

which contained a collection of the various processes in use at the

time. From Italy a knowledge of dyeing gradually extended to Germany,

France and Flanders, and it was from the latter country that the English

king Edward III. procured dyers for England, a Dyers' Company being

incorporated in 1472 in the city of London.

A new impetus was given to the industry of dyeing by the discovery of

America in 1492, as well as by the opening up of the way to the East

Indies round the Cape of Good Hope in 1498. A number of new dyestuffs

were now introduced, and the dyewood trade was transferred from Italy to

Spain and Portugal, for the East Indian products now came direct to

Europe round the Cape instead of by the old trade routes through Persia

and Asia Minor. Eastern art-fabrics were introduced in increasing

quantity, and with them came also information as to the methods of their

production. In Europe itself the cultivation of dye-plants gradually

received more and more attention, and both woad and madder began to be

cultivated, about 1507, in France, Germany and Holland. Under the

influence of Spain the Dutch largely developed their industries and made

considerable progress in dyeing. The Spaniards, on their first arrival

in Mexico (1518), noticed the employment of the red dyestuff cochineal

by the natives, and at once imported it to Europe, where an increasing

demand for the new colouring matter gradually developed in the course of

the century. A further impetus was given to the trade by the Dutch

chemist Drebbel's accidental discovery, in 1630, of the method of dyeing

a brilliant scarlet on wool by means of cochineal and tin solutions. The

secret was soon communicated to other dyers, and the new scarlet was

dyed as a speciality at the Gobelin dyeworks in Paris, and some time

later (1643) at a dyeworks in Bow, near London.

In 1662 the newly established Royal Society in London took a useful step

in advancing the art of dyeing, and in order to inform and assist

practical dyers, caused the publication of the first original account,

in the English language, of the methods employed in dyeing, entitled "An

apparatus to the history of the common practices of Dyeing." Ten years

later the French Minister Colbert sought to improve as well as control

the operations of dyeing, by publishing a code of instructions for the

use of the woollen dyers and manufacturers in France. From this time,

too, a succession of eminent chemists were appointed by the French

government to devote some of their attention to the study of the

industrial arts, including dyeing, with a view to their progress and

improvement. Dufay, Hellot, Macquer, Berthollet, Roard and Chevreul

(1700-1825) all rendered excellent service to the art, by investigating

the chemical principles of dyeing, by publishing accounts of the various

processes in vogue, by examining the nature and properties of the

dyestuffs employed, and by explaining the cause of the several phenomena

connected with dyeing. With the advent of the 18th century, certain old

prejudices against the use of foreign dyewoods gradually disappeared,

and very rapid progress was made owing to the birth of the modern

chemistry and the discovery of several useful chemical products and

processes--e.g. Prussian Blue (1710), Saxony Blue or Indigo Extract

(1740), sulphuric acid (1774), murexide (1776), picric acid (1788),

carbonate of soda (1793), bleaching powder (1798). Experiments on the

practical side of bleaching and dyeing were made during this period, in

England by Thomas Henry, Home and Bancroft, and in France by

Dambourney, Gonfreville and others, each of whom has left interesting

records of his work.

Down to the middle of the 19th century natural dyestuffs alone, with but

few exceptions, were at the command of the dyer. But already in the year

1834 the German chemist Runge noticed that one of the products obtained

by distilling coal-tar, namely, aniline, gave a bright blue coloration

under the influence of bleaching powder. No useful colouring matter,

however, was obtained from this product, and it was reserved for the

English chemist Sir W.H. Perkin to prepare the first aniline dye,

namely, the purple colouring matter Mauve (1856). The discovery of other

brilliant aniline dyestuffs followed in rapid succession, and the dyer

was in the course of a few years furnished with Magenta, Aniline Blue,

Hofmann's Violet, Iodine Green, Bismarck Brown, Aniline Black, &c.

Investigation has shown that the products of the distillation of

coal-tar are very numerous, and some of them are found to be specially

suitable for the preparation of colouring matters. Such, for example,

are benzene, naphthalene and anthracene, from each of which distinct

series of colouring matters are derived. In 1869 the German chemists

Graebe and Liebermann succeeded in preparing Alizarin, the colouring

matter of the madder-root, from the coal-tar product anthracene, a

discovery which is of the greatest historical interest, since it is the

first instance of the artificial production of a vegetable dyestuff.

Another notable discovery is that of artificial Indigo by Baeyer in

1878. Since 1856, indeed, an ever-increasing number of chemists has been

busily engaged in pursuing scientific investigations with the view of

preparing new colouring matters from coal-tar products, and of these a

few typical colours, with the dates of their discovery, may be

mentioned: Cachou de Laval (1873); Eosin (1874); Alizarin Blue (1877);

Xylidine Scarlet (1878); Biebrich Scarlet (1879); Congo Red (1884);

Primuline Red (1887); Rhodamine (1887); Paranitraniline Red (1889);

Alizarin Bordeaux (1890); Alizarin Green (1895). At the present time it

may truly be said that the dyer is furnished with quite an embarrassing

number of coal-tar dyestuffs which are capable of producing every

variety of colour possessing the most diverse properties. Many of the

colours produced are fugitive, but a considerable number are permanent

and withstand various influences, so that the general result for some

years has been the gradual displacement of the older natural dyestuffs

by the newer coal-tar colours.

During this period of discovery on the part of the chemist, the

mechanical engineer has been actively engaged in devising machines

suitable for carrying out, with a minimum of manual labour, all the

various operations connected with dyeing. This introduction of improved

machinery into the dyeing trade has resulted in the production of better

work, it has effected considerable economy, and may be regarded as an

important feature in modern dyeing.

General principles.

The art of dyeing is a branch of applied chemistry in which the dyer is

continually making use of chemical and physical principles in order to

bring about a permanent union between the material to be dyed and the

colouring matter applied. If cotton or wool is boiled in water

containing finely powdered charcoal, or other insoluble coloured powder,

the material is not dyed, but merely soiled or stained. This staining is

entirely due to the entanglement of the coloured powder by the rough

surface of the fibre, and a vigorous washing and rubbing suffices to

remove all but mere traces of the colour. True dyeing can only result

when the colouring matter is presented to the fibre in a soluble

condition, and is then, by some means or other, rendered insoluble while

it is absorbed by, or is in direct contact with, the fibre. There must

always be some marked physical or chemical affinity existing between

fibre and colouring matter, and this depends upon the physical and

chemical properties of both. It is well known that the typical fibres,

wool, silk and cotton, behave very differently towards the solution of

any given colouring matter, and that the method of dyeing employed

varies with each fibre. As a general rule wool has the greatest

attraction for colouring matters, and dyes most readily; cotton has the

least attraction, while silk occupies in this respect an intermediate

position. These differences may be to some extent due to differences of

physical structure in the fibres, but they are mainly due to their

different chemical composition.

On the other hand, a given fibre, e.g. cotton, behaves quite differently

in dyeing towards various colouring matters. Some of these are not at

all attracted by it, and are incapable of being used as dyestuffs for

cotton. For others cotton exhibits a marked attraction, so that it is

readily dyed by mere steeping in a hot solution of the colouring matter.

Again, for other colouring matters cotton has little or no attraction,

and cannot be dyed with them until it has been previously impregnated or

prepared with a metallic salt, tannic acid or some other agent which is

capable of combining with the colouring matter and precipitating it as

an insoluble coloured compound within or upon the fibre. Such

differences of behaviour are to be ascribed to differences in the

chemical constitution or atomic arrangement of the various colouring

matters.

Classification of colouring matters.

In the case of the coal-tar colours we are, for the most part, well

acquainted with their chemical constitution, and in accordance with this

knowledge the chemist has arranged them in the following groups:--(1)

Nitro Colours. (2) Azo Colours, including Amido-azo, Oxy-azo, Tetrazo

and Polyazo Colours. (3) Hydrazone Colours. (4) Oxy-quinone Colours,

including Quinone-oxime Colours. (5) Diphenylmethane and

Triphenylmethane Colours, including Rosaniline, Rosolic acid and

Phthaleine Colours. (6) Quinoneimide Colours, including Indamine,

Indophenol, Thiazime, Thiazone, Oxazime, Oxazone, Azine, Induline,

Quinoxaline and Fluorindine Colours. (7) Aniline Black. (8) Quinoline

and Acridine Colours. (9) Thiazol Colours. (10) Oxy-ketone, Xanthone,

Flavone and Cumarine Colours. (11) Indigo. (12) Colours of unknown

constitution.

This arrangement of the colouring matters in natural chemical groups is

well suited for the requirements of the chemist, but another

classification is that based on the mode of their application in dyeing.

This is much simpler than the previous one, and being better adapted for

the practical purposes of the dyer, as well as for explaining the

various methods of dyeing, it is preferred for this article. According

to this arrangement colouring matters are classified under the following

groups:--(1) _Acid Colours._ (2) _Basic Colours._ (3) _Direct Colours._

(4) _Developed Colours._ (5) _Mordant Colours._ (6) _Miscellaneous

Colours._ (7) _Mineral Colours._ It is well to state that there is no

sharp line of division between some of these groups, for many colours

are applicable by more than one method, and might quite well be placed

in two, or even three, of the above groups. This may be due either to

the kind of fibre to which the colouring matter is to be applied, or to

certain details in the chemical constitution of the latter which give it

a twofold character.

ACID COLOURS.--These dyestuffs are so called because they dye the

animal fibres wool and silk in an acid bath; they do not dye cotton.

From a chemical point of view the colouring matters themselves are of

an acid character, this being due to the presence in the molecule of

nitro (NO2) or sulphonic acid (HSO3) groups. According to their origin

and constitution they may be distinguished as nitro compounds,

sulphonated azo compounds and sulphonated basic colours. The acid

colours are usually sold in the form of their alkali salts, as

variously coloured powders soluble in water. For the alkali salts in

neutral or alkaline solution wool and silk have little or no affinity,

but dyeing rapidly occurs if the solution is acidified with sulphuric

acid whereby the colour-acid is liberated. This addition of acid,

however, is necessary not only to set free the colour-acid of the

dyestuff, but also to alter partially the chemical composition of the

fibre, and thus render it capable of uniting more readily with the

free colour-acid. It has been shown, namely, that if wool is boiled

with dilute sulphuric acid, and then thoroughly washed with

boiling-water till free from acid, it acquires the property of being

dyed with acid colours even in neutral solution. By this treatment a

portion of the wool substance is converted into so-called _lanuginic

acid_, which has a strong attraction for the colour-acid of the

dyestuff, with which it forms an insoluble coloured compound. For

dyeing _wool_, the general rule is to charge the dyebath with the

amount of dyestuff necessary to give the required colour, say from 1/2

to 2 or 6 % on the weight of wool employed, along with 10% sodium

sulphate (Glauber's salt) and 4% sulphuric acid (1.84 sp. gr.). The

woollen material is then introduced and continually handled or moved

about in the solution, while the temperature of the latter is

gradually raised to the boiling point in the course of 3/4 to 1 hour;

after boiling for 1/4 to 1/2 hour longer, the operation is complete,

and the material is washed and dried.

In practice, modifications of this normal process may be introduced,

in order to ensure the dyeing of an even colour, i.e. free from such

irregularities as cloudiness, streaks, &c., which may be due to the

quality of the material or to the special properties of the acid

colour employed. Materials of a firm, close texture, also the

existence of a strong affinity between fibre and colouring matter, do

not generally lend themselves to the dyeing of even colours, or to a

satisfactory penetration of the material. Some acid colours dye even

colours without any difficulty; others, however, do not. The addition

of sodium sulphate to the dyebath exerts a restraining action; the

dyeing therefore proceeds more slowly and regularly, and a more equal

distribution and better absorption of the colouring matter takes

place. Other devices to obtain even colours are: the use of old

dye-liquors, a diminished amount of acid, the employment of weaker

acids, e.g. acetic or formic acid or ammonium acetate, and the

entering of the material at a low temperature.

In the application of so-called Alkali Blue the process of dyeing in

an acid bath is impossible, owing to the insolubility of the

colour-acid in an acid solution. Wool and silk, however, possess an

affinity for the alkali salt of the colouring matter in neutral or

alkaline solution, hence these fibres are dyed with the addition of

about 5% borax; the material acquires only a pale colour, that of the

alkali salt, in this dyebath, but by passing the washed material into

a cold or tepid dilute solution of sulphuric acid a full bright blue

colour is developed, due to the liberation of the colour-acid within

the fibre. In the case of other acid colours, e.g. Chromotrope, Chrome

Brown, Chromogen, Alizarin Yellow, &c., the dyeing in an acid bath is

followed by a treatment with a boiling solution of bichromate of

potash, alum, or chromium fluoride, whereby the colouring matter on

the fibre is changed into insoluble oxidation products or

colour-lakes. This operation of developing or fixing the colour is

effected either in the same bath at the end of the dyeing operation,

or in a separate bath. See also ARTIFICIAL MORDANT COLOURS.

When dyeing with certain acid colours, e.g. Eosine, Phloxine and other

allied bright pink colouring matters derived from resorcin, the use of

sulphuric acid as an assistant must be avoided, since the colours

would thereby be rendered paler and duller, and only acetic acid must

be employed.

The properties of the dyes obtained with the acid colours are

extremely varied. Many are fugitive to light; on the other hand, many

are satisfactorily fast, some even being very fast in this respect. As

a rule, they do not withstand the operations of milling and scouring

very well, hence acid colours are generally unsuitable for tweed yarns

or for loose wool. They are largely employed, however, in dyeing other

varieties of woollen yarn, silk yarn, union fabrics, dress materials,

leather, &c. Previous to the discovery of the coal-tar colours very

few acid colours were known, the most important one being Indigo

Extract. Prussian Blue as applied to wool may also be regarded as

belonging to this class, also the purple dyestuff known as Orchil or

Cudbear.

The following list includes some of the more important acid colours

now in use, arranged according to the colour they yield in dyeing:--

_Red._--Wool scarlet, brilliant scarlet, erythrine, crocein scarlet,

brilliant crocein, violamine G, scarlet 3R, crystal scarlet, new

coccine, chromotrope 2R, azo acid magenta, Victoria scarlet, xylidine

scarlet, Palatine scarlet, Biebrich scarlet, pyrotine, orchil red,

Bordeaux B, milling red, azo carmine, acid magenta, fast acid violet A

2R, naphthylamine red, fast red, claret red, eosine, erythrosine, rose

Bengale, phloxine, cyanosine, cloth red, lanafuchsine, rosinduline,

erio carmine.

_Orange._--Diphenylamine orange, methyl orange, naphthol orange,

crocein orange, brilliant orange, orange G, orange N, mandarin G R.

_Yellow._--Picric acid, naphthol yellow S, fast yellow, brilliant

yellow S, azoflavine, metanil yellow, resorcine yellow, tartrazine,

quinoline yellow, milling yellow, azo yellow, Victoria yellow,

brilliant yellow S, citronine, Indian yellow.

_Green._--Acid green, guinea green, fast green, patent green, cyanol

green, erio green, brilliant acid green 6 G.

_Blue._--Alkali blue, soluble blue, opal blue, methyl blue, Hochst new

blue, patent blue, ketone blue, cyanine, thiocarmine, fast blue,

induline, violamine 3 B, azo acid blue, wool blue, indigo extract,

erio glaucine, erio cyanine, erio blue, lanacyl blue, sulphon-azurine,

sulphon-cyanine.

_Violet._--Acid violet, red violet, regina violet, formyl violet,

violamine B, fast violet, azo acid violet, erio violet, lanacyl

violet.

_Brown._--Fast brown, naphthylamine brown, acid brown, resorcine

brown, azo brown, chrome brown, chromogene.

_Black._--Naphthol black, azo black, wool black, naphthylamine black,

jet black, anthracite black, Victoria black, azo acid black, brilliant

black, union black, brilliant black B.

BASIC COLOURS.--These colouring matters are the salts of organic

colour-bases, their name being derived from the fact that their dyeing

power resides entirely in the basic part of the salt. In the free

state the bases are colourless and insoluble, but in combination with

acids they form salts which are coloured and for the most part soluble

in water. They are usually sold in the form of powder or crystals, the

latter exhibiting frequently a beautiful metallic lustre. _Wool_ and

_silk_ are dyed in a neutral bath, i.e. without any addition, the

material not requiring any previous preparation. During the dyeing

operation the animal fibres appear to play the part of an acid, for

they decompose the colouring matter and unite with the colour-base to

form an insoluble coloured salt or lake, while the acid of the

colouring matter is liberated and remains in solution. Although, as a

rule, a neutral dyebath is employed in dyeing wool, a slight addition

(2%) of soap is sometimes made in order to give a brighter colour,

while in other cases, e.g. with Victoria Blue, the dyebath must of

necessity be made distinctly acid with acetic or sulphuric acid. Silk

is usually dyed in a bath containing "boiled-off liquor" (i.e. the

spent soap-liquor from the operation of scouring) neutralized or

slightly acidified with acetic or tartaric acid. For a full colour use

2 or 3% colouring matter, enter the wool at a low temperature, heat

gradually to near the boiling point in the course of 3/4 hour, and

continue dyeing for 1/4 hour. Owing to the slight solubility of many

basic colours, it is important to take the precaution of filtering the

colour solution into the dyebath through a flannel filter, also to

neutralize the alkalinity of calcareous water with a little acetic

acid, to prevent decomposition of the colouring matter and

precipitation of the colour-base.