_Geometry and Perspective._--_Underweysung der Messung mit dem Zirckel
und Richtscheyt, in Linien, Ebnen und ganzen Corporen_ (Nuremberg,
1525, 1533, 1538). A Latin translation of the same, with a long title
(Paris, Weichel, 1532) and another ed. in 1535. Again in Latin, with
the title _Institutionum geometricarum libri quatuor_ (Arnheim, 1605).
_Fortification._--_Etliche Underricht zu Befestigung der Stett,
Schloss und Flecken_ (Nuremberg, 1527), and other editions in 1530,
1538 and 1603 (Arnheim). A Latin translation, with the title _De
urbibus, arcibus, castellisque muniendis ac condendis_ (Paris,
Weichel, 1535). See the article FORTIFICATION.
_Human Proportion._--_Hierinnen sind begriffen vier Bucher von
menschlicher Proportion_ (Nuremberg, 1582, and Arnheim, 1603). Latin
translation: _De symetria partium in rectis formis humanorum corporum
libri in latinum conversi, de varietate figurarum, &c. libri ii._
(Nuremberg, 1528, 1532 and 1534); (Paris, 1535, 1537, 1557). French
translation (Paris, 1557, Arnheim, 1613, 1614). Italian translation
(Venice, 1591, 1594); Portuguese translation (1599); Dutch translation
(Arnheim, 1622, 1662).
The private literary remains of Durer, his diary, letters, &c., were
first published, partially in Von Murr's _Journal zur Kunstgeschichte_
(Nuremberg, 1785-1787); afterwards in Campe's _Reliquien von A. Durer_
(Nuremberg, 1827); again edited by Thausing, in the _Quellenschriften
fur Kunstgeschichte und Kunsttechnik_ (Vienna, 1872), but most
completely in Lange and Fuhse's _Durers schriftlicher Nachlass_
(Halle, 1893); W.M. Conway's _Literary Remains of A. Durer_ (London,
1889) contains extensive transcripts from the MSS. in the British
Museum.
The principal remaining literature of the subject will be found in the
following books and treatises--Johann Neudorfer, Schreib- und
Rechenmeister zu Nurnberg, _Nachrichten uber Kunstlern und Werkleuten
daselbst_ (Nuremberg, 1547); republished in the Vienna
_Quellenschrift_ (1875); C. Scheurl, _Vita Antonii Kressen_ (1515,
reprinted in the collection of Pirkheimer's works, Frankfort 1610);
Wimpheling, _Epitome rerum Germanicarum_, ch. 68 (Strassburg, 1565);
Joachim von Sandrart, _Deutsche Academie_ (Nuremberg, 1675);
Doppelmayr, _Historische Nachricht von den nurnbergischen Mathematicis
und Kunstlern_ (Nuremberg, 1730); C.G. von Murr, _Journal zur
Kunstgeschichte_, as above; Adam Bartsch, _Le Peintre-Graveur_, vol.
vii. (Vienna, 1808); J.P. Passavant, _Le Peintre-Graveur_, vol. iii.
(Leipzig, 1842); J.F. Roth, _Leben Albrecht Durers_ (Leipzig, 1791);
Heller, _Das Leben und die Werke Albrecht Durers_, vol. ii. (Bamberg,
1827-1831); B. Hausmann, _Durers Kupferstiche, Radirungen,
Holzschnitte und Zeichnungen_ (Hanover, 1861); R. von Rettberg,
_Durers Kupferstiche und Holzschnitte_ (Munich, 1876); M. Thausing,
_Durer, Geschichte seines Lebens und seiner Kunst_ (Leipzig, 1876, 2nd
ed., 1884), English translation (from the 1st ed. by F.A. Eaton,
London, 1882); W. Schmidt in Dohme's _Kunst und Kunstler des
Mittelalters und der Neuzeit_ (Leipzig, 1877); _Oeuvre de Albert Durer
reproduit et publie par Amand-Durand, texte par Georges Duplessis_
(Paris, 1877); C. Ephrussi, _A. Durer et ses dessins_ (Paris, 1882);
F. Lippmann, _Zeichnungen von A. Durer in Nachbildungen_ (5 vols.
Berlin, 1883-1905); A. Springer, _Albrecht Durer_ (Berlin, 1892); D.
Burckhardt, _Durers Aufenthalt in Basel_, 1492-1494 (Munich, 1892); G.
von Terey, _A Durers venezianischer Aufenthalt_, 1494-1495
(Strassburg, 1892); S.R. Koehler, _A Chronological Catalogue of the
Engravings, Dry Points and Etchings of A. Durer_ (New York, 1894); L.
Cust, _A. Durer, a Study of his Life and Works_ (London, 1897); Durer
Society's Publications (10 vols., 1898-1907), edited by C. Dodgson and
S.M. Peartree; H. Knackfuss, _Durer_ (Bielefeld and Leipzig, 6th ed.,
1899), English translation, 1900; B. Haendcke, _Die Chronologie der
Landschaften A. Durers_ (Strassburg, 1899); M. Zucker, _Albrecht
Durer_ (Halle, 1899-1900); L. Justi, _Konstruierte Figuren und Kopfe
unter den Werken Albrecht Durers_ (Leipzig, 1902); A. Pelzer, _A.
Durer und Friedrich II. von der Pfalz_ (Strassburg, 1905); H.
Wolfflin, _Die Kunst A. Durers_ (Munich, 1905); W. Weisbach, _Der
junge Durer_ (Leipzig, 1906); V. Scherer, _A. Durer_ (_Klassiker der
Kunst_, iv.), (2nd ed., Stuttgart, 1906).
Apart from books, a large and important amount of the literature on
Durer is contained in articles scattered through the leading art
periodicals of Germany, such as the _Jahrbucher_ of the Berlin and
Vienna museums, _Repertorium fur Kunstwissenschaft_, _Zeitschrift fur
bildende Kunst_, &c. A comprehensive survey of this literature is
afforded by Prof. H.W. Singer's _Versuch einer Durer-Bibliographie_
(Strassburg, 1903); articles published more recently will be found
completely enumerated in A. Jellinek's _Internationale Bibliographie
der Kunstwissenschaft_ (Berlin). (S. C.)
DURESS (through Fr. from Lat. _duritia_, harshness, severity, _durus_,
hard), in law, constraint or compulsion. Duress may be of two kinds. It
may consist in personal restraint or actual violence or imprisonment; or
it may be by threats (_per minas_), as where a person is compelled to an
act by threats of immediate death or grievous bodily harm. Duress, in
certain cases, may be pleaded as a defence of an act which would
otherwise be a crime, but the extent to which the plea of duress can be
urged is unascertained. At common law a contract entered into under
duress is voidable at the option of one of the parties. See COERCION,
CONTRACT.
D'URFEY, THOMAS (1653-1723), better known as Tom d'Urfey, English
song-writer and dramatist, belonged to a Huguenot family settled at
Exeter, where he was born in 1653. Honore d'Urfe, the author of
_Astree_, was his uncle. His first play, _The Siege of Memphis, or the
Ambitious Queen_, a bombastic rhymed tragedy, was produced at the
Theatre Royal in 1676. He was much more successful with his comedies,
which had brisk, complicated plots carried out in lively dialogue. He
had a light touch for fitting words on current topics to popular airs;
moreover, many of his songs were set to music by his friends Dr John
Blow, Henry Purcell and Thomas Farmer. Many of these songs were
introduced into his plays. Addison in the _Guardian_ (No. 67) relates
that he remembered to have seen Charles II. leaning on Tom d'Urfey's
shoulder and humming a song with him. Even William III. liked to hear
him sing his songs, and as a strong Tory he was sure of the favour of
Princess Anne, who is said to have given Tom fifty guineas for a song on
the Electress Sophia, the next heir in succession to the crown. "The
crown's far too weighty, for shoulders of eighty," said d'Urfey, with an
indirect compliment to the princess, "So Providence kept her away,--poor
old Dowager Sophy." Pope, in an amusing letter to Henry Cromwell
(_Works_, ed. Elwin and Courthope, vi. 91) describes him as "the only
poet of tolerable reputation in this country." In spite of the success
of his numerous comedies he was poor in his old age. But his gaiety and
invincible good humour had made him friends in the craft, and by the
influence of Addison his _Fond Husband, or The Plotting Sisters_ was
revived for d'Urfey's benefit at Drury Lane on the 15th of June 1713.
This performance, for which Pope wrote a prologue full of rather faint
praise, seems to have eased the poet's difficulties. He died on the
26th of February 1723, and was buried in St James's Church, Piccadilly.
Collections of his songs with the music appeared during his lifetime,
the most complete being the 1719-1720 edition (6 vols.) of _Wit and
Mirth; or Pills to Purge Melancholy_. The best known of the
twenty-nine pieces of his which actually found their way to the stage
were _Love for Money; or The Boarding School_ (Theatre Royal, 1691),
_The Marriage-Hater Match'd_ (1692), and _The Comical History of Don
Quixote_, in three parts (1694, 1694 and 1696), which earned the
especial censure of Jeremy Collier. In his burlesque opera, _Wonders
in the Sun; or the Kingdom of the Birds_ (1706, music by G.B.
Draghi), the actors were dressed as parrots, crows, &c.
DURFORT, a village of south-western France, formerly in the province of
Guienne, now in the department of Tarn-et-Garonne, 18 m. N.W. of
Montauban by road. It was at one time the seat of a feudal lordship
which gave its name to a family distinguished in French and English
history. Though earlier lords are known, the pedigree of the family is
only clearly traceable to Arnaud de Durfort (fl. 1305), who acquired the
fief of Duras by his marriage with a niece of Pope Clement V. His
descendant, Gaillard de Durfort, having embraced the side of the king of
England, went to London in 1453, and was made governor of Calais and a
knight of the Garter.
The greatness of the family dates, however, from the 17th century. Guy
Aldonce (1605-1665), marquis de Duras and comte de Rozan, had, by his
wife Elizabeth de la Tour d'Auvergne, sister of Marshal Turenne, six
sons, three of whom played a distinguished part. The eldest, Jacques
Henri (1625-1704), was governor of Franche Comte in 1674 and was created
a marshal of France for his share in the conquest of that province
(1675). The second, Guy Aldonce (1630-1702), comte de Lorges and duc de
Quintin (known as the duc de Lorges), became a marshal of France in
1676, commanded the army in Germany from 1690 to 1695, and captured
Heidelberg in 1693. The sixth son, Louis (1640?-1709), marquis de
Blanquefort, came to England in the suite of James, duke of York, in
1663, and was naturalized in the same year. On the 19th of January
1672-1673 he was raised to the English peerage as Baron Duras of
Holdenby, his title being derived from an estate in Northamptonshire
bought from the duke of York, and in 1676 he married Mary, daughter and
elder co-heiress of Sir George Sondes, created in that year Baron
Throwley, Viscount Sondes and earl of Feversham. On the death of his
father-in-law (16th of April 1677), Duras succeeded to his titles under
a special remainder. He was appointed by Charles II. successively to the
command of the third and second troops of Horse Guards, was sent abroad
on several important diplomatic missions, and became master of the horse
(1679) and lord chamberlain to the queen (1680). In 1682 he was
appointed a lord of the bed-chamber, and was present at the king's
deathbed reconciliation with the Roman Church. Under James II. Feversham
became a member of the privy council, and in 1685 was given the chief
command against the rebels under Monmouth (q.v.), in which he mainly
distinguished himself by his cruelty to the vanquished. He was rewarded
with a knighthood of the Garter and the colonelcy of the first troop of
Life Guards, and in 1686 he was appointed to the command of the army
assembled by King James on Blackheath to overawe the people. On James's
flight, Feversham succeeded in making his peace with William, on the
intercession of the queen dowager, at whose instance he received the
mastership of the Royal Hospital of St Catherine near the Tower (1698).
He died without issue on the 8th of April 1709. [See G.E. C(ockayne),
_Complete Peerage_, and art. in _Dict. Nat. Biog._]
Jean Baptiste (1684-1770), due de Duras, son of Jacques Henri, was also
a marshal of France. In 1733 he resigned the dukedom of Duras to his
son, Emmanuel Felicite, himself receiving the brevet title of duc de
Durfort. Emmanuel Felicite (1715-1789), duc de Duras, took part in all
the wars of Louis XV. and was made a marshal of France in 1775. His
grandson, Amedee Bretagne Malo (1771-1838), duc de Duras, is mainly
known as the husband of Claire Louise Rose Bonne de Coetnempren de
Kersaint (1778-1828), daughter of Armand Guy Simon de Coetnempren
Kersaint (q.v.), who, as duchesse de Duras, presided over a once
celebrated salon and wrote several novels once widely read.
The family of Durfort is represented in France now by the branch of
Durfort-Civrac, dating from the 16th century. Jean Laurent (1740-1826),
marquis de Civrac, married his cousin, the daughter of the duc de
Lorges; his son, Guy Emeric Anne (1767-1837), duc de Civrac, became
afterwards duc de Lorges. Henri, marquis de Durfort-Civrac (1812-1884),
was a well-known politician, and was several times elected
vice-president of the chamber of deputies.
DURGA, or DEVI (Sanskrit for inaccessible), in Hindu mythology, the wife
of Siva (q.v.) and daughter of Himavat (the Himalayas). She has many
names and many characters. As Durga (so named from having slain the
demon Durga) she is warlike and ferocious, and to her in this form are
offered bloody sacrifices, and such ceremonies as the Durgapuja and
Churrukpuga are held in her honour (see KALI). The chief festival in
Bengal--sometimes termed the Christmas of Bengal--celebrates the
goddess's birth in the sixth Hindu month (parts of September and
October). Durga is pictured, in spite of her fierce nature, with a
gentle face. She has ten arms, holding each a weapon, while her
attendant lions and giants are grouped on each side.
DURHAM, JOHN GEORGE LAMBTON, 1ST EARL OF (1792-1840), English statesman,
son of William Henry Lambton of Lambton Castle, Durham, was born in
London on the 12th of April 1792. His mother was Anne Barbara Villiers,
daughter of the 4th earl of Jersey. Lambton was only five years old when
by his father's death at Pisa (1797) he succeeded to large estates in
the north of England which had been in the uninterrupted possession of
his family since the 12th century. In 1805 he went to Eton, and in 1809
obtained a commission in the 10th Hussars. In 1812, while still a minor,
he made a runaway match with Henrietta, natural daughter of Lord
Cholmondeley, whom he married at Gretna Green, and who died in 1815. In
1813 he was elected to the House of Commons as member for the county of
Durham. Whig principles of a pronounced type were traditional in
Lambton's family. His grandfather, General John Lambton, had refused a
peerage in 1793 out of loyalty to Fox, and his father was not only one
of Pitt's keenest opponents, but was chairman of "The Friends of the
People" and author of that society's address to the nation in 1792.
Lambton adhered to this tradition, and soon developed opinions of an
extremely Radical type, which he fearlessly put forward in parliament
and in the country with marked ability. His maiden speech in the House
of Commons was directed against the foreign policy of Lord Liverpool's
government, who had sanctioned, and helped to enforce, the annexation of
Norway by Sweden. In 1815 he vehemently opposed the corn tax, and in
general began to take a prominent part in opposition to the Tories. In
1816 he made the acquaintance of Lafayette in Paris, and narrowly
escaped arrest for alleged complicity in his escape. In 1817 he began to
speak on every opportunity in favour of parliamentary reform.
His political position was strengthened by his marriage in December 1816
to Louisa Elizabeth, eldest daughter of Lord Grey, and as early as 1818
he was taken into the political confidence of his father-in-law and
other leaders of the Whigs in matters touching the leadership and policy
of the party. But from the first Lambton belonged to the avowedly
Radical wing of the party, with whose aims Grey had little sympathy; and
when he gave notice of a resolution in 1819 in favour of shortening the
duration of parliaments, and of a wide extension of the franchise, he
found himself discountenanced by old Whigs like Grey, Holland and
Fitzwilliam. Having warmly espoused the cause of Queen Caroline, Lambton
ably seconded Lord Tavistock's resolution in February 1821 censuring the
government for their conduct towards the queen; and in April he made his
first great speech in the House of Commons on parliamentary reform, when
he proposed a scheme for the extension of the suffrage to all holders of
property, the division of the country into electoral districts and the
disfranchisement of rotten boroughs. He was now one of the recognized
leaders of the advanced Liberals, forming a connecting link between the
aristocratic Whig leaders and the irresponsible and often violent
politicians of the great towns. His opposition to those members of his
party who in 1825 were prepared for compromise on the question of
Catholic emancipation led to his first conflict with Brougham, with whom
he had been on terms of close friendship. While supporting the
candidature of his brother-in-law, Lord Howick, for Northumberland in
the elections of 1826, Lambton fought a duel with T.W. Beaumont, the
Tory candidate, but without bloodshed on either side. Unlike his
father-in-law, Lambton supported the ministry of Canning, though he had
some grounds for personal grievance against the new prime minister, and
after Canning's death that of Lord Goderich. On the advice of the latter
Lambton was raised to the peerage in 1828 with the title of Baron
Durham. Owing to his Liberal principles Lord Durham was on terms of
friendship with the duke of Sussex, and also with Prince Leopold of
Saxe-Coburg, who sought his advice in the difficult crisis in 1829 when
he was offered the throne of Greece, and who, after he became king of
the Belgians as Leopold I., continued to correspond with Durham as a
trusted confidant; the same confidential relations also existed between
Durham and Leopold's sister, the duchess of Kent, and her daughter,
afterwards Queen Victoria.
In November 1830 when Grey became prime minister in succession to the
duke of Wellington, Lord Durham entered the cabinet as lord privy seal.
Parliamentary reform was in the forefront of the new government's
policy, and with this question no statesman except Lord Grey himself was
more closely indentified than Durham. To ardent reformers in the country
the presence in the cabinet of "Radical Jack," the name by which Lambton
had been popularly known in the north of England, was a pledge that
thorough-going reform would not be shirked by the Whigs, now in office
for the first time for twenty years. And it was to his son-in-law that
Lord Grey confided the task of preparing a scheme to serve as the basis
of the proposed legislation. Full justice has not generally been done to
the leading part played by Lord Durham in preparing the great Reform
Act. He was the chief author of the proposals which, after being
defeated in 1831, became law with little alteration in 1832. He was
chairman of the famous committee of four, which met at his house in
Cleveland Row and drew up the scheme submitted by the government to
parliament. His colleagues, who were appointed rather as his assistants
than as his equals, were Lord John Russell, Sir James Graham and Lord
Duncannon; and it was Durham who selected Lord John Russell, not then in
the cabinet, to introduce the bill in the House of Commons; a selection
that was hotly opposed by Brougham, whose later vindictive animosity
against Durham is to be traced to his having been passed over in the
selection of the committee of four. Durham was present with Grey at an
audience of the king which led to the sudden dissolution of parliament
in March 1831; and when the deadlock between the two Houses occurred
over the second Reform Bill, he was the most eager in pressing on the
prime minister the necessity for a creation of peers to overcome the
resistance of the house of Lords.
After the passing of the Reform Act, Durham, whose health was bad and
who had suffered the loss of two of his children, accepted a special and
difficult diplomatic mission to Russia, which he carried out with much
tact and ability, though without accomplishing its main purpose. On his
return he resigned office in March 1833, ostensibly for reasons of
health, but in reality owing to his disagreement with the government's
Irish policy as conducted by Lord Stanley; in the same month he was
created earl of Durham and Viscount Lambton. His advanced opinions, in
the assertion of which he was too little disposed to consider the
convictions of others, gradually alienated the more moderate of his late
colleagues, such as Melbourne and Palmerston, and even Lord Grey often
found his son-in-law intractable and self-assertive; but the growing
hostility of the treacherous Brougham was mainly due to Durham's
undoubted popularity in the country, where he was regarded by many,
including J.S. Mill, as Grey's probable successor in the leadership of
the Liberal party. Durham was at this time courted by the youthful
Disraeli, who, when Melbourne became prime minister in succession to
Grey in 1834, declared that the Whigs could not exist as a party without
Lord Durham. Brougham's animosity became undisguised at the great
banquet given to Lord Grey at Edinburgh in September 1834, where he made
a venomous attack on Durham, repeated shortly afterwards at Salisbury,
and anonymously in the _Edinburgh Review_. On the other hand the
strength of Durham's position in the country was shown on the occasion
of his visit to Glasgow in October to receive the freedom of the city,
when a concourse of more than a hundred thousand persons assembled to
hear him speak at Glasgow Green, and where he replied to Brougham's
attacks at a great banquet held in his honour. Brougham had over-reached
himself; and although Durham was no favourite with William IV., the
king's disgust with the lord chancellor was one of the principal reasons
for his summary dismissal of the Whig ministry in 1834. When Melbourne
returned to power after Peel's short administration, Durham's radicalism
and impatient temper excluded him from the cabinet; and again in 1837,
on his return from an appointment as ambassador extraordinary in St
Petersburg (1835-1837), when there was some idea of his joining the
ministry, Lord John Russell wrote: "Everybody, after the experience we
have had, must doubt whether there can be peace or harmony in a cabinet
of which Lord Durham is a member."
In July 1837 he resisted the entreaty of Lord Melbourne that he should
undertake the government of Canada, where the condition of affairs had
become alarming; but a few months later, giving way to the urgent
insistence of the prime minister who promised him "the firmest and most
unflinching support" of the government, he accepted the post of
governor-general and lord high commissioner, with the almost dictatorial
powers conferred on him by an act passed in February 1838, by which the
constitution of Lower Canada was suspended for two years. Having secured
the services of Charles Buller (q.v.) as first secretary, and having
with more doubtful wisdom appointed Thomas Turton and Edward Gibbon
Wakefield (q.v.) to be his unofficial assistants, Durham arrived at
Quebec on the 28th of May 1838. Papineau's rebellion had been quelled,
but the French Canadians were sullen, the attitude of the United States
equivocal, and the general situation dangerous, especially in the Lower
Province where government was practically in abeyance. Durham at once
issued a conciliatory proclamation. His next step was to dismiss the
executive council of his predecessor and to appoint a new one consisting
of men uncommitted to any existing faction, a step much criticized at
home but generally commended on the spot. On the 28th of June, the day
of Queen Victoria's coronation, he issued a proclamation of amnesty,
from the benefit of which eight persons only of those who had taken part
in the rebellion were excepted; while an accompanying ordinance provided
for the transference of these eight excepted persons from Montreal to
Bermuda, where they were to be imprisoned without trial. Papineau and
fifteen other fugitives were forbidden on pain of death to return to
Canada. In a letter of congratulation to the queen, Durham took credit
for the clemency of his policy towards the rebels, and it was defended
on the same ground by Charles Buller and by public opinion in the
colony.
In England, however, as soon as these proceedings became known, Brougham
seized the opportunity for venting his malice against both Durham and
the ministry. He had already raised objections to the appointment of
Turton and Wakefield; he now attacked the ordinance in the House of
Lords, challenging the legality of the clause transporting prisoners to
Bermuda, where Durham had no jurisdiction. Melbourne and his colleagues,
with the honourable exception of Lord John Russell, made little effort
to defend the public servant to whom they had promised "the most
unflinching support"; and, although both the prime minister and the
colonial secretary when first fully informed of the governor-general's
proceedings had hastened to assure him of their "entire approval," three
weeks later, cowed by Brougham's malignant invective, they disallowed
the ordinance, and carried an Act of Indemnity the terms of which were
insulting to Durham. The latter immediately resigned; but before
returning to England he put himself in the wrong by issuing a
proclamation in which he not only justified his own conduct in detail,
but made public complaint of his grievances against the ministers of the
Crown, a step that alienated much sympathy which his unjust treatment by
the government would otherwise have called forth, though it was defended
by men like Charles Buller and J.S. Mill. The usual official honours
given to a returning plenipotentiary were not accorded to Durham on his
arrival at Plymouth on the 30th of November 1838, but the populace
received him with acclamation. He immediately set about preparing his
memorable "Report on the Affairs of British North America," which was
laid before parliament on the 31st of January 1839. This report, one of
the greatest state papers in the English language, laid down the
principles, then unrecognized, which have guided British colonial policy
ever since. It was not written or composed by Charles Buller, as
Brougham was the first to suggest, and the credit for the statesmanship
it exhibits is Lord Durham's alone, though he warmly acknowledged the
assistance he had derived from Buller, Wakefield and others in preparing
the materials on which it was based. With regard to the future
government of British North America, Durham had at first inclined
towards a federation of all the colonies on that continent, and this
aim, afterwards achieved, remained in his eyes an ideal to be striven
for; but as a more immediately practical policy he advised the
legislative union of Upper and Lower Canada, his avowed aim being to
organize a single state in which the British inhabitants would be in a
majority. He further urged the creation of an executive council
responsible to the colonial legislature; he advised state-aided
emigration on the broadest possible scale, and the formation of an
intercolonial railway for the development of the whole country. Meantime
Durham, who almost alone among the statesmen of his time saw the
importance of imperial expansion, interested himself in the emigration
schemes of Gibbon Wakefield (q.v.); he became chairman of the New
Zealand Company, and was thus concerned in the enterprise which
forestalled France in asserting sovereignty over the islands of New
Zealand in September 1839. His health, however, had long been failing,
and he died at Cowes on the 28th of July 1840, just five days after the
royal assent had been given to the bill giving effect to his project for
uniting Upper and Lower Canada.
Lord Durham filled a larger place in the eyes of his contemporaries than
many statesmen who have been better remembered. He was in his lifetime
regarded as a great popular leader; and his accession to supreme
political power was for some years considered probable by many; his
opinions were, however, too extreme to command the confidence of any
considerable party in parliament before 1840. That Brougham hated him
and Melbourne feared him, is a tribute to his abilities; and in the
first Reform Act, of which he was the chief author, and in the famous
_Report_ on the principles of colonial policy, he left an indelible mark
on English history. His personal defects of character did much to mar
the success of a career, which, it must be remembered, terminated at the
age of forty-eight. He was impatient, hot-tempered, hypersensitive to
criticism, vain and prone to take offence at fancied slights; but he was
also generous and unvindictive, and while personally ambitious his care
for the public interest was genuine and untiring.
By his first wife Durham had three daughters; by his second, who was a
lady of the bedchamber to Queen Victoria but resigned on her husband's
return from Canada, he had two sons and three daughters. The eldest son,
Charles William, the "Master Lambton" of Sir Thomas Lawrence's
celebrated picture, died in 1831; the second, George Frederick d'Arcy
(1828-1879), succeeded his father as 2nd earl of Durham. The latter's
son, John George Lambton (b. 1855), became 3rd earl in 1879.
See Stuart J. Reid, _Life and Letters of the First Earl of Durham_ (2
vols., London, 1906); _The Greville Memoirs_, parts i. and ii.
(London, 1874-1887); Richard, duke of Buckingham and Chandos, _Memoirs
of the Courts and Cabinets of William IV. and Victoria_ (2 vols.,
London, 1861); William Harris, _History of the Radical Party in
Parliament_ (London, 1885); Harriet Martineau, _History of the Thirty
Years' Peace_ (4 vols., London, 1877); William Kingsford, _History of
Canada_, vol. x. (10 vols., Toronto, 1887-1898), H.E. Egerton, _Short
History of British Colonial Policy_ (London, 1897). (R. J. M.)
DURHAM, a northern county of England, bounded N. by Northumberland, E.
by the North Sea, S. by Yorkshire, and W. by Westmorland and Cumberland.
Its area is 1014.6 sq. m. It is wholly on the eastern slope, the western
angle being occupied by spurs of the Pennine chain, exceeding 2300 ft.
in height at some points on the Cumberland border. West of a line from
Barnard Castle by Wolsingham to the neighbourhood of Consett the whole
of the land, excepting narrow valleys, lies at elevations exceeding 1000
ft. This area represents roughly one quarter of the total. The principal
rivers rising in these hills are the Derwent, tributary to the Tyne,
forming part of the county boundary with Northumberland, the Wear and
the Tees, which forms almost the whole of the boundary with Westmorland
and Yorkshire. The dales traversed by these rivers in their upper parts,
though sufficiently strongly contrasted with the dark, barren moors
surrounding them, yet partake of somewhat the same wild character. Lower
down, however, are beautiful and fertile valleys, the main rivers
flowing between steep, well-wooded banks; while the lesser streams of
the coastal district have carved out denes or ravines on the steep
flanks of which vegetation is luxuriant. Castle Eden Dene, 7 m. N.W. of
Hartlepool, is famous for its beautiful trees and wild flowers. The
coastward slope is fairly steep in the northern half of the county, but
it is steady, and the coast itself has no striking scenic features, save
where the action of the waves upon the magnesian limestone has separated
great masses, leaving towering fragments standing, and fretting the face
of the rock with caverns and arches. The cluster of rocks named the
Black Halls, 6 m. N.W. of Hartlepool, best exhibits these features.
Other natural phenomena include the Linnkirk caves near Stanhope in
Weardale in which numerous fossils and bones, with evidence of
habitation by man, have been discovered; and the Hell Kettles, S. of
Darlington, near the junction of the Tees and the Skerne, four cavities
filled with water, reputed to be unfathomable, and measuring from 80 to
120 ft. in diameter. The water is sulphurous.
Except in the moorlands of the west only a few scraps of the county have
been left in their natural state; but these portions are of great
interest to the student of natural history. The ballast-hills at
Shields, Jarrow and Hartlepool, formed by the discharge of material from
ships arriving in ballast from foreign countries, are overgrown with
aliens, many of which are elsewhere unknown in this country. Nearly
fifty different species have been found. Stockton was almost the last
retreat in England of the native black rat. Of the former abundance of
deer, wild ox and boar every peat bog testifies by its remains; the boar
appears to have existed in the reign of Henry VIII., and records of red
deer in the county may be traced down to the middle of the 18th century.
_Geology._--The uplift of the Pennine hills causes nearly all the
stratified rocks of Durham to dip towards the east or south-east. Thus
the oldest rocks are to be found in the west, while in passing
eastward younger rocks are continually met. In the hilly district of
Weardale and Teesdale the Carboniferous Limestone series prevails;
this is a succession of thick beds of limestone with intervening
sandstones and shales. Some of the calcareous beds are highly
fossiliferous; those at Frosterley near Stanhope are full of the
remains of corals and the stone is polished as a marble. Much of the
higher ground in the west is capped by Millstone Grit, as at
Muggleswick and Walsingham commons. The outcrop of this formation
broadens eastward until it is covered by the Durham coalfield which
occupies the centre of the county from Newcastle and South Shields to
Barnard Castle. The Coal Measures are about 2000 ft. thick and contain
upwards of 100 seams of coal, including many of great importance--the
Brockwell coal, Low Main coal and High Main coal are some of the
well-known seams. Fireclays of great value are obtained from beneath
many of the coal seams. Apart from the coals, the Coal Measures are
made up of beds of sandstone and shale, the former called "post" and
the latter "plate" by the local miners. Permian magnesian limestone
succeeds the Coal Measures on the east, it reaches from the Tees to
South Shields in a broad tract and occupies the coast between that
town and Hartlepool. Remarkable concretionary forms are found in the
Fulwell Quarries simulating honeycomb and coral structures. The stone
is quarried at Marsden for the manufacture of Epsom salts; it is also
used for lime-making and building. Fish remains are not uncommon in
it. The sandstones and marls seen between the magnesian limestone and
the Coal Measures at South Shields, Newbottle and several miles
farther south are usually classed as Permian, but they may possibly
prove to belong to the lower series. In the south-east corner of the
county, by Darlington, Stockton and Seaton Carew, the low ground is
made of Triassic rocks, red marls and sandstones with beds of gypsum
and rock salt. Coal Measures undoubtedly underlie the Permian and
Triassic strata. Normal faults traverse the district, mostly from east
to west. Great dykes and sills of basalt lie in the Tees valley above
Middleton and one, the Great Whin Sill, may be followed in an easterly
direction for over 120 m. The Cockfield dyke and Little Whin Sill are
similar intrusions of basalt. Lead mines have been extensively worked
in the limestone districts of Weardale and Teesdale; the limestone
itself is quarried on a large scale for fluxing in the ironworks.
Glacial deposits obscure the older rocks over much of the county, they
contain travelled stones from the Pennines and Cheviots. Submerged
forests appear off the coast at West Hartlepool and other points. A
small patch of Silurian occurs near Cronkley on the Tees; here slate
pencils were formerly made.
_Agriculture._--Near the river Tees, and in some places bordering on the
other rivers, the soil is loam or a rich clay. At a farther distance
from these rivers it is of inferior quality, with patches of gravel
interspersed. The hills east of the line from Barnard Castle to Consett
are covered with a dry loam, the fertility of which varies with its
depth. West of the line the summits and flanks of the hills are in great
part waste moorland. Only some two-thirds of the total area of the
county are under cultivation, and nearly two-thirds of this are in
permanent pasture. There are also nearly 60,000 acres of hill-pasture.
Of the diminished area under corn crops oats occupy more than one-half,
and barley much exceeds wheat. Nearly two-thirds of the average under
green crops are occupied by turnips, as many cattle are raised and have
a long-standing reputation. The cows are especially good yielders of
milk. The sheep are also highly esteemed, particularly the Teesdale
breed. Those of Weardale are small, but their mutton is finely
flavoured.
_Mining._--The mountain limestone contains veins of lead ore and zinc
ore. The beds of coal in the Coal Measures have long been a source of
enormous wealth. The mines are among the most extensive and productive
in the kingdom. At Sunderland the coal trade furnishes employment for
hundreds of vessels, independently of the "keels" or lighters which
convey the coal from the termini of the railways and tramways to the
ships. The seams worked extend horizontally for many miles, and are from
20 to 100 fathoms beneath the surface. The Frosterley marble has been
quarried for many centuries near Stanhope for decorative purposes, in
Durham cathedral and elsewhere taking the place of Purbeck marble, while
in modern houses it is used chiefly for chimney-pieces. Ironstone is
worked in the neighbourhood of Whickham and elsewhere. Excellent slate
is quarried at several places. The neighbourhood of Wolsingham abounds
in fine millstones. The Newcastle grindstones are procured at Gateshead
Fell; and firestone for building ovens, furnaces and the like is
obtained in various parts of Durham, and exported in considerable
quantity.
_Other Industries._--The manufacturing industries are extensive, and all
are founded upon the presence of coal, of which, moreover, large
quantities are exported. The industrial and mining districts may be
taken to lie almost wholly east of a line from Darlington through Bishop
Auckland to Consett. Textile industries are not carried on to any great
extent, but a large number of hands are employed in the manufacture of
machines, appliances, conveyances, tools, &c. Of this manufacture the
branch of shipbuilding stands first; the yards on the Tyne are second
only to those on the Clyde, and the industry is prosecuted also at
Sunderland, the Hartlepools and Stockton-on-Tees. The founding and
conversion of metal stands next in importance; and other industries
include the manufacture of paper, chemicals (chiefly on the Tyne), glass
and bottles and earthenware (at Gateshead and Sunderland). The output of
limestone is greater than that of any other county in the United
Kingdom. As regards iron, the presence of the coal and the proximity of
the Cleveland iron district of North Yorkshire enable the county to
produce over one million tons of pig-iron annually, though the output
of iron from within the county itself is inconsiderable. There is a
large production of salt from brine. The sea fisheries of Sunderland and
Hartlepool are valuable.
_Communications._--Railway communication is provided entirely by the
North Eastern company. The main line runs northward through Darlington,
Durham and Gateshead, and there are a large number of branches through
the mining and industrial districts, while the company also owns some of
the docks. From Stockton to Darlington ran the railway engineered by
George Stephenson and opened in 1825. The chief ports of Durham are
Jarrow and South Shields on the Tyne, Sunderland at the mouth of the
Wear, Seaham Harbour, Hartlepool East and West and Stockton-on-Tees.
_Administration and Population._--Durham is one of the Counties
Palatine, the others being Lancashire and Cheshire. The area of the
ancient county is 649,352 acres, and that of the administrative county
649,244 acres. There were formerly three outlying portions of the
county, known as North Durham (including Norhamshire and Islandshire),
Bedlingtonshire and Crayke. These were attached to the county as having
formed parcels of the ancient "patrimony of St Cuthbert," of which the
land between Tyne and Tees was the chief portion. The population in 1891
was 1,016,454 and in 1901 1,187,361. The birth-rate is much above, the
death-rate also above, but the percentage of illegitimacy considerably
below, the average. The county is divided into 4 wards. The following
are municipal boroughs: Darlington (pop. 44,511), Durham, city (14,679),
Gateshead, county borough (109,888), Hartlepool (22,723), Jarrow
(34,295), South Shields, county borough (97,263), Stockton-on-Tees
(51,478), Sunderland, county borough (146,077), West Hartlepool
(62,627). The other urban districts may be distributed so as to indicate
roughly the most populous and industrial districts:
1. In the Tyne district (where Gateshead, Jarrow and South Shields are
the chief centres)--Blaydon (19,623), Felling (22,467), Hebburn
(20,901), Ryton (8452), Whickham (12,852).
2. North-western district--Annfield Plain (12,481), Benfieldside (7457),
Consett (9694), Leadgate (4657), Tanfield (8276), Stanley (13,554).
3. Durham and Bishop Auckland district (continuation south of the
preceding)--Bishop Auckland (11,969), Brandon and Byshottles (15,573),
Crook (11,471), Shildon and East Thickley (11,759), Spennymoor (16,665),
Tow Law (4371), Willington (7887).
4. Durham and Sunderland district (N.E. of preceding)--Hetton (13,673),
Houghton-le-Spring (7858), Seaham Harbour (10,163), Southwick-on-Wear
(12,643). The township of Chester-le-Street (11,753) is also in this
district.
The only other urban districts are Barnard Castle (4421) in Teesdale and
Stanhope (1964) in Weardale. Durham is in the north-eastern circuit, and
assizes are held at Durham. It has one court of quarter sessions and is
divided into 16 petty sessional divisions. All the boroughs have
separate commissions of the peace. The ancient county, which is in the
diocese of Durham, excepting part of one parish in that of York,
contains 243 ecclesiastical parishes wholly or in part. There are 288
civil parishes. The county is divided into eight parliamentary
divisions, each returning one member--Jarrow, Chester-le-Street,
Houghton-le-Spring, Mid, North-west, Barnard Castle, Bishop Auckland,
South-east. It also includes the parliamentary borough of Sunderland,
returning two members, and the boroughs of Darlington, Durham,
Gateshead, Hartlepool, South Shields and Stockton-on-Tees, returning one
member each. Among educational establishments there may be mentioned the
university and the grammar school in the city of Durham, and the Roman
Catholic college of Ushaw near Durham.
_History._--After the death of Ida in the 6th century the kingdom of
Northumbria was divided into the two states of Bernicia and Deira,
separated from each other by the Tees, the latter including the district
afterwards known as Durham. The post-conquest palatinate arose by a
process of slow growth from the grant of land made by Egfrith to St
Cuthbert on his election to the see of Lindisfarne in 684. On the
transference of the see to Chester-le-Street in the 9th century, Guthred
the Dane endowed it with the whole district between the Tyne and the
Wear, stretching west as far as Watling Street, a grant confirmed by
Alfred; and when in 995 the see was finally established at Durham, the
endowment was again largely enriched by various donations. Durham
continued, however, to form part of the earldom of Northumbria, and not
until after the purchase of the earldom by Bishop Walcher in 1075 did
the bishops begin to exercise regal rights in their territory. The term
_palatinus_ is applied to the bishop in 1293, and from the 13th century
onwards the bishops frequently claim such rights in their lands as the
king enjoys in his kingdom. At the time of the Conquest the bishop's
possessions included nearly all the district between the Tees and the
Tyne, except Sadberge, and also the outlying districts of
Bedlingtonshire, Norhamshire, Islandshire and Crayke, together with
Hexhamshire, the city of Carlisle, and part of Teviotdale. Henry I.
deprived the bishopric of the last three, but in compensation made over
to it the vills of Burdon, Aycliffe and Carlton, hitherto included in
the earldom of Northumberland. The wapentake of Sadberge also formed
part of the earldom of Northumberland; it was purchased for the see by
Bishop Pudsey in 1189, but continued an independent franchise, with a
separate sheriff, coroner and court of pleas. In the 14th century
Sadberge was included in Stockton ward and was itself divided into two
wards. The division into the four wards of Chester-le-Street,
Darlington, Easington and Stockton existed in the 13th century, each
ward having its own coroner and a three-weekly court corresponding to
the hundred court. The diocese was divided into the archdeaconries of
Durham and Northumberland. The former is mentioned in 1072, and in 1291
included the deaneries of Chester-le-Street, Auckland, Lanchester and
Darlington.
Until the 15th century the most important administrative officer in the
palatinate was the steward. Other officers were the sheriff, the
coroners, the chamberlain and the chancellor. The palatine exchequer was
organized in the 12th century. The palatine assembly represented the
whole county, and dealt chiefly with fiscal questions. The bishop's
council, consisting of the clergy, the sheriff and the barons, regulated
the judicial affairs, and later produced the Chancery and the courts of
Admiralty and Marshalsea. The prior of Durham ranked first among the
bishop's barons. He had his own court, and almost exclusive jurisdiction
over his men. The _quo warranto_ proceedings of 1293 exhibit twelve
lords enjoying more or less extensive franchises under the bishop. The
repeated efforts of the crown to check the powers of the palatinate
bishops culminated in 1536 in the Act of Resumption, which deprived the
bishop of the power to pardon offences against the law or to appoint
judicial officers; indictments and legal processes were in future to run
in the name of the king, and offences to be described as against the
peace of the king, not against that of the bishop. In 1596 restrictions
were imposed on the powers of the chancery, and in 1646 the palatinate
was formally abolished. It was revived, however, after the Restoration,
and continued with much the same power until the act of 1836, which
provided that the palatine jurisdiction should in future be vested in
the crown. There were ten palatinate barons in the 12th century, the
most important being the Hiltons of Hilton Castle, the Bulmers of
Brancepeth, the Conyers of Sockburne, the Hansards of Evenwood, and the
Lumleys of Lumley Castle. The Nevilles owned large estates in the
county; Raby Castle, their principal seat, was built by John de Neville
in 1377. Owing to its isolated position the palatinate took little part
or interest in any of the great rebellions of the Norman and Plantagenet
period. During the Wars of the Roses Henry VI. passed through Durham,
and the novelty of a royal visit procured him an enthusiastic reception.
On the outbreak of the Great Rebellion Durham inclined to support the
cause of the parliament, and in 1640 the high sheriff of the palatinate
guaranteed to supply the Scottish army with provisions during their stay
in the county. In 1642 the earl of Newcastle formed the western counties
into an association for the king's service, but in 1644 the palatinate
was again overrun by the Scottish army, and after the battle of Marston
Moor fell entirely into the hands of the parliament.
Durham has never possessed any manufactures of importance, and the
economic history of the county centres round the growth of the mining
industry, which employed almost the whole of the non-agricultural
population. Stephen possessed a mine in Durham which he granted to
Bishop Pudsey, and in the same century colliers are mentioned at
Coundon, Bishopwearmouth and Sedgefield. Cockfield Fell was one of the
earliest Landsale collieries in Durham. Edward III. issued an order
allowing coal dug at Newcastle to be taken across the Tyne, and Richard
II. granted to the inhabitants of Durham licence to export the produce
of the mines, without paying dues to the corporation of Newcastle. Among
other early industries lead-mining was carried on in the western part of
the county, and mustard was extensively cultivated. Gateshead had a
considerable tanning trade and shipbuilding was carried on at Jarrow.
In 1614 a bill was introduced in parliament for securing representation
to the county and city of Durham and the borough of Barnard Castle. The
movement was strongly opposed by the bishop, as an infringement of his
palatinate rights, and the county was first summoned to return members
to parliament in 1654. After the Restoration the county and city
returned two members each. By the Reform Act of 1832 the county returned
two members for two divisions, and the boroughs of Gateshead, South
Shields and Sunderland acquired representation. The boroughs of
Darlington, Stockton and Hartlepool returned one member each from 1868
until the Redistribution Act of 1885.
_Antiquities._--To the Anglo-Saxon period are to be referred portions of
the churches of Monk Wearmouth (Sunderland), Jarrow, Escomb near Bishop
Auckland, and numerous sculptured crosses, two of which are _in situ_ at
Aycliffe. The best remains of the Norman period are to be found in
Durham cathedral and in the castle, also in some few parish churches, as
at Pittington and Norton near Stockton. Of the Early English period are
the eastern portion of the cathedral, the fine churches of Darlington,
Hartlepool, and St Andrew, Auckland, Sedgefield, and portions of a few
other churches. The Decorated and Perpendicular periods are very
scantily represented, on account, as is supposed, of the incessant wars
between England and Scotland in the 14th and 15th centuries. The
principal monastic remains, besides those surrounding Durham cathedral,
are those of its subordinate house or "cell," Finchale Priory,
beautifully situated by the Wear. The most interesting castles are those
of Durham, Raby, Brancepeth and Barnard. There are ruins of castelets or
peel-towers at Dalden, Ludworth and Langley Dale. The hospitals of
Sherburn, Greatham and Kepyer, founded by early bishops of Durham,
retain but few ancient features.
See W. Hutchinson, _History and Antiquities of the County Palatine of
Durham_ (3 vols., Newcastle, 1785-1794); R. Surtees, _History and
Antiquities of the County Palatine of Durham_ (4 vols., London,
1816-1840); B. Bartlet, _The Bishoprick Garland, Collection of
Legends, Songs, Ballads ... of Durham_ (London, 1834); J. Raine,
_History and Antiquities of North Durham_ (London, 1852); Perry and
Herman, _Illustrations of the Medieval Antiquities of the County of
Durham_ (Oxford, 1867); G.T. Lapsley, _The County Palatine of Durham_
(New York, &c., 1900); _Victoria County History, Durham_. See also the
Surtees Society's Publications, and _Transactions of the Architectural
Society of Durham and Northumberland_.
DURHAM, a city and municipal and parliamentary borough, and the county
town of Durham, England, 256 m. N. by W. from London, on the North
Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 14,679. The nucleus of the site is a
narrow, bold peninsula formed by a bend of the river Wear, on which
stand the cathedral and the castle. The city, however, extends both E.
and W. of this.
Cathedral.
The position of the cathedral of St Cuthbert, its west end rising
immediately from the steep wooded bank of the river, is surpassed in
beauty by no other English cathedral. Its foundation arose from the fact
that here, after wandering far over the north of England, the monks of
Lindisfarne rested with the body of St Cuthbert, which they had removed
from its tomb in fear of Danish invaders. This was in 995. Soon
afterwards a church was built by Bishop Ealdhune, and the see was
removed hither from Lindisfarne. The peninsula was called Dunholme (Hill
Island), which in Norman times was softened to Duresme, whence Durham.
It is said that the monks of Lindisfarne, knowing the name of the place
where they should find retreat, but ignorant of its situation, were
guided hither by a woman searching for her cow, and the bas-relief of a
cow on the north wall of the church commemorates this incident. In 1093
Ealdhune's church was rebuilt by Bishop Carilef, who changed the early
establishment of married priests into a Benedictine abbey. The grand
Norman building in which his designs were carried out remains with
numerous additions. The stone-vaulting is particularly noteworthy. The
choir contains the earliest work, but Carilef's eastern apses made way
for the exquisite chapel of the Nine Altars, with its rose windows and
beautiful carving, of late Early English workmanship. The nave is
massive Norman, with round pillars ornamented with surface-carving of
various patterns. The western towers are Norman with an Early English
superstructure. The famous Galilee chapel, of the finest late Norman
work, projects from the west end. The central tower is a lofty and
graceful Perpendicular structure. Other details especially worthy of
notice are the altar screen of c. 1380, and the curious semi-classical
font-cover of the 17th century. There is a fine sanctuary-knocker on the
north door. The cloisters are of the early part of the 15th century. The
chapter-house is a modern restoration of the original Norman structure,
a very fine example, which was destroyed by James Wyatt c. 1796, in the
course of restoration of which much was ill-judged. The cathedral
library, formerly the dormitory and refectories of the abbey, contains a
number of curious and interesting printed books and MSS., and the
portable altar, vestments and other relics found in St Cuthbert's grave.
The Galilee contains the supposed remains of the Venerable Bede. The
total length of the cathedral within is 496-1/2 ft., the greatest height
within (except the lantern) 74-1/2 ft., and the height of the central
tower 218 ft. The diocese of Durham covers the whole county excepting a
small fragment, and also very small parts of Northumberland and
Yorkshire.
Castle.
The naturally strong position selected for the resting-place of St
Cuthbert's remains was possibly artificially fortified also, but it was
not until 1072 that William the Conqueror caused the erection of a
castle to the north of the cathedral across the neck of the peninsula.
Of this there remain a beautiful crypt-chapel, and a few details
incorporated in later work. Other interesting portions are the Norman
gallery, with its fine arcade, Bishop Hatfield's hall of c. 1350, a
reconstruction of the previous Norman one by Bishop Pudsey, and the
Black Staircase of fine woodwork of the 17th century. The keep is a
modern reconstruction. The castle, with the exception of some apartments
used by the judges of assize, is appropriated to the uses of Durham
University. On the peninsula are also the churches of St Mary le Bow in
the North Bailey and St Mary the Less, the one a 17th-century building
on a very ancient site, possibly that on which the first church rose
over St Cuthbert's remains; the other possessing slight traces of Norman
work, but almost completely modernized. Of other churches in Durham, the
site of St Oswald is apparently pre-Norman, and the building contains
Norman work of Bishop Pudsey, also some fine early 15th-century
woodwork. St Margaret's and St Giles' churches show work of the same
period, and the second of these has earlier portions.
Several of the streets of Durham preserve an appearance of antiquity.
Three of the bridges crossing the Wear are old, that of Framwellgate
having been built in the 13th century and rebuilt in the 15th. In the
neighbourhood of the city certain sites are of interest as adding detail
to its history. To the south on Maiden Hill there is an encampment,
occupied, if not constructed, by the Romans. Immediately W. of Durham is
Neville's Cross, of which little remains. The battle of Neville's Cross
was fought in 1346, resulting in the defeat of the invading Scots by the
English under Lord Neville and Henry Percy. The Scots had encamped at
Beaurepaire or Bearpark, where a few ruins mark the site of the county
residence of the priors of Durham, which had suffered from previous
invaders. On the Wear below Durham is the priory of Finchale (1196), of
which there are considerable remains of Early English date and later,
but in the main Decorated. The valley of the Wear in the neighbourhood
of Durham is well wooded and picturesque, but there are numerous
collieries on the uplands above it, and the beauty of the county is
marred.
University.
Among educational establishments in Durham the university stands first.
The earliest connexion of the ecclesiastical foundation at Durham with
an actual educational foundation was made by Prior Richard de Hoton
(1290-1308), who erected a hall in Oxford for students from Durham, who
had previously enjoyed no such provision. In 1380 Bishop Hatfield
refounded this hall as Durham College, which became Trinity College (see
OXFORD) on a new foundation (1555) when the possessions of the abbey of
Durham had been surrendered in 1540, after which Durham College survived
as a secular foundation only for a few years. Henry VIII. had the
unfulfilled intention of founding a college in Durham, and a similar
attempt failed in the time of the Commonwealth. In 1831 the scheme for a
college was projected by the chapter; an act of 1832 specified the
foundation as a university, and in Michaelmas 1833 its doors were
opened. The first warden, and a prime mover in the scheme of foundation,
was Archdeacon Charles Thorp (d. 1862). In 1837 the university received
its charter from William IV. The dean and chapter of the cathedral are
governors, and the bishop of Durham is visitor, but the active
management is in the hands of the warden, senate and convocation. The
system and life of the university are broadly similar to those of the
greater universities of Oxford and Cambridge. Proctorial administration
is carried on by two proctors annually nominated by the warden. Among
the various residential divisions of the university may be mentioned
Bishop Hatfield's Hall (1846), which, through its endowment, by means of
such methods of economy as provision for all meals in common, permits
men of limited means to become students. The degree for bachelor of arts
is awarded after two public examinations, and may be taken in two years,
with a total of six months' residence in each year. Special examinations
are provided for candidates who seek honours, and those who obtain
honours are admissible, after a certain period, to the mastership of
arts without further examination, but in other cases further examination
must have been taken, or an essay presented as a qualification for this
degree. A theological course is provided for bachelors of the
university, those who have passed a similar course elsewhere, or
non-graduates aged nineteen who have passed a certain standard of
examination. Instruction in civil engineering and mining was established
as early as 1837, but was subsequently given up; and in 1871 the
university and the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical
Engineers co-operated to found the college of physical science at
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, which provides such instruction and was
incorporated with the university in 1874. The college of medicine at
Newcastle has been in connexion with Durham University since 1852, and
the professors there are professors of the university. In 1895 degrees
for women were established, and in 1889 a hostel was opened for the
accomodation of women, who may take any course of instruction except the
theological. In 1889 musical degrees were instituted, and a
professorship was founded in 1897. Among other subjects may be mentioned
the granting of degrees in hygiene, and of diplomas in public health and
education (see J.T. Fowler, _Durham University_, uniform with series of
College Histories; London, 1904).
The grammar school was refounded by Henry VIII. out of the monastic
school. It is a flourishing institution on the lines of the public
schools, and has "king's scholarships" tenable in the school, and
scholarships and exhibitions tenable at the universities. There are also
a diocesan training college for schoolmasters and mistresses, and a high
school for girls; and 4 m. W. of the city is the great Roman Catholic
College of St Cuthbert, Ushaw, the representative of the old college at
Douai. Here are preserved the magnificent natural history collections of
Charles Waterton. Other buildings worthy of notice in Durham are the
town-hall, a 16th-century building reconstructed in 1851, the police
station, and the guildhall, the shire hall and county buildings, and the
county hospital. There are ironworks and manufactures of hosiery,
carpets and mustard in the city. The parliamentary borough returns one
member. The corporation consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18
councillors. Area, 1070 acres.
_History of the City._--The foundation of the city followed on that of
the church by the monks of Lindisfarne at the close of the 10th century.
The history of the city is closely associated with that of the
palatinate of Durham. The bishop of Durham among other privileges
claimed a mint in the city, which, according to Boldon Book, rendered
ten marks yearly until its value was reduced by that established by
Henry II. at Newcastle, and it was temporarily abolished by the same
king. The earliest charter, dated 1179 or 1180, is a grant of exemption
from toll merchet and heriot made by Bishop Hugh Pudsey and confirmed by
Pope Alexander. Before that time, however, the monks had a little
borough at Elvet, which is divided from Durham by the Wear and
afterwards became part of the city. In 1183 the city was at farm and
rendered sixty marks. It was at first governed by a bailiff appointed by
the bishop, but in 1565 Bishop Pilkington ordained that the government
should consist, in addition to the bailiff, of one alderman and twelve
assistants, the latter to continue in office for life, and the former to
be chosen every year from among their number. This form of government
was replaced in 1602, under the charter of Bishop Matthew, by that of a
mayor, 12 aldermen and 24 burgesses, the aldermen and burgesses forming
a common council and electing a mayor every year from among the
aldermen. This was confirmed by James I., but in 1684 the corporation
were obliged to resign their charters to Bishop Crew, who granted them a
new one, probably reserving to himself a right of veto on the election
of the mayor and aldermen. At the time of the Revolution, however,
Bishop Matthew's charter was revived, and continued to be the governing
charter of the city until 1770, when, owing to dissensions as to the
election of the common council, the number of aldermen was reduced to
four and the charter became void. No mayor or aldermen were elected for
ten years, but in 1780 Bishop Egerton, on the petition of the burgesses,
granted them a new charter, which was practically a confirmation of that
of 1602, and remained in force until the Municipal Reform Act of 1835.
Being within the county palatine, the city of Durham sent no members to
parliament, until, after several attempts beginning in 1614, it was
enabled by an act of 1673 to return two members, which it continued to
do until 1885, when by the Redistribution of Seats Act the number was
reduced to one.
The corporation of Durham claim their fair and market rights under
Bishop Pudsey's charter of 1179, confirmed in 1565, as a weekly market
on Saturday and three yearly fairs on the feasts of St Cuthbert in
September and March and on Whit Monday, each continuing for two days. In
1610 the bishop of Durham brought a suit in chancery against the
burgesses and recovered from them the markets and fairs, which he
afterwards leased to the corporation for a rent of L20 yearly until they
were purchased from the Ecclesiastical Commissioners in 1860. Durham has
never been noted for any particular trade; and the attempts to introduce
the manufacture of cloth and wool in the 17th and 18th centuries were
failures. The manufacture of carpets was begun in 1814.
DURHAM, a city and the county-seat of Durham county, North Carolina,
U.S.A., in a township of the same name, 25 m. N.W. of Raleigh. Pop.
(1900) 6679, of whom 2241 were negroes; (1910) 18,241; of the township
(1900) 19,055; (1910) 27,606. Adjacent to the city and also in the
township are East Durham and West Durham (both unincorporated), which
industrially are virtually part of the city. Durham is served by the
Southern, the Seaboard Air Line, the Norfolk & Western, and the Durham &
Southern railways, the last a short line connecting at Apex and Dunn,
N.C., respectively with the main line of the Seaboard and the Atlantic
Coast Line railways. Durham is nearly surrounded by hills. Its streets
are shaded by elms. The city is the seat of Trinity College (Methodist
Episcopal, South), opened in 1851 as a normal college, growing out of an
academy called Union Institute, which was established in the
north-western part of Randolph county in 1838 and was incorporated in
1841. In 1852 the college was empowered to grant degrees; in 1856 it
became the property of the North Carolina Conference of the Methodist
Episcopal Church, South; in 1859 it received its present name; and in
1892 it was removed to a park near Durham, included in 1901 in the
corporate limits of the city. A new charter was adopted in 1903, and a
law school was organized in 1904. The college has received many gifts
from the Duke family of Durham. In 1908 its endowment and property were
valued at about $1,198,400, and the number of its students was 288.
Although not officially connected with the college, the _South Atlantic
Quarterly_, founded by a patriotic society of the college and published
at Durham since 1902, is controlled and edited by members of the college
faculty. The _North Carolina Journal of Education_ and the _Papers of
the Trinity College Historical Society_ also are edited by members of
the college faculty. The Trinity Park school is preparatory for the
college. Near the city are Watts hospital (for whites) and Lincoln
hospital (for negroes). Durham's chief economic interest is in the
manufacture of granulated smoking tobacco, for which it became noted
after the Civil War. In the city are two large factories and store
houses of the American Tobacco Company. The tobacco industry was founded
by W.T. Blackwell (1839-1904) and Washington Duke (1820-1905). The city
also manufactures cigars, cigarettes, snuff, a fertilizer having tobacco
dust as the base, cotton goods, lumber, window sashes, blinds, drugs and
hosiery. Durham has a large trade with the surrounding region. The town
of Durham was incorporated in 1869, and became the county-seat of the
newly-erected county in 1881, and in 1899 was chartered as a city. Its
growth is due to the tobacco and cotton industries. In the Bennett
house, at Durham Station, near the city, General J.E. Johnston
surrendered on the 26th of April 1865 the Confederate army under his
command to General W.T. Sherman.
DURIAN (Malay, _duri_, a thorn), the fruit of _Durio zibethinus_, a tree
of the natural order Bombaceae, which attains a height of 70 or 80 ft.,
has oblong, tapering leaves, rounded at the base, and yellowish-green
flowers, and bears a general resemblance to the elm. The durio is
cultivated in Sumatra, Java, Celebes and the Moluccas, and northwards as
far as Mindanao in the Philippines; also in the Malay Peninsula, in
Tenasserim, on the Bay of Bengal, to 14 deg. N. lat., and in Siam to the
13th and 14th parallels. The fruit is spherical, and 6 to 8 in. in
diameter, approaching the size of a large coco-nut; it has a hard
external husk or shell, and is completely armed with strong pyramidal
tubercles, meeting one another at the base, and terminating in sharp
thorny points; these sometimes inflict severe injuries on persons upon
whom the fruit may chance to fall when ripe. On dividing the fruit at
the joins of the carpels, where the spines arch a little, it is found to
contain five oval cells, each filled with a cream-coloured, glutinous,
smooth pulp, in which are embedded from one to five seeds about the size
of chestnuts. The pulp and the seeds, which latter are eaten roasted,
are the edible parts of the fruit. With regard to the taste of the pulp,
A.R. Wallace remarks, "A rich butter-like custard, highly flavoured
with almonds, gives the best idea of it, but intermingled with it come
wafts of flavour that call to mind cream-cheese, onion-sauce, brown
sherry and other incongruities;... it is neither acid, nor sweet, nor
juicy, yet one feels the want of none of these qualities, for it is
perfect as it is." The fruit, especially when not fresh from the tree,
has, notwithstanding, a most offensive smell, which has been compared to
that of rotten onions or of putrid animal matter. The Dyaks of the
Sarawak river in Borneo esteem the durian above all other fruit, eat it
unripe both cooked and raw, and salt the pulp for use as a relish with
rice.
See Linschoten, _Discours of Voyages_, bk. i. chap. 57, p. 102, fol.
(London, 1598); Bickmore, _Travels in the East Indian Archipelago_, p.
91 (1868); Wallace, _The Malay Archipelago_ (3rd ed., 1872).
DURIS, of Samos, Greek historian, according to his own account a
descendant of Alcibiades, was born about 340 B.C. He must have been born
and passed his early years in exile, since from 352 to 324 Samos was
occupied by Athenian cleruchs, who had expelled the original
inhabitants. He was a pupil of Theophrastus of Eresus, whom he met at
Athens. When quite young, he obtained a prize for boxing at the Olympic
games; a statue by Hippias was set up in commemoration of his victory
(Pausanias vi. 13. 5). He was for some time despot of his native island.
Duris was the author of a comprehensive historical work ([Greek:
Historiai]) on Hellenico-Macedonian history, from the battle of Leuctra
(371) down to the death of Lysimachus (281), which was largely used by
Diodorus Siculus. Other works by him included a life of Agathocles of
Syracuse, the annals ([Greek: oroi]) of Samos chronologically arranged
according to the lists of the priests of Hera, and a number of treatises
on literary and artistic subjects. Ancient authorities do not appear to
have held a very high opinion of his merits as a historian. Plutarch
(_Pericles_, 28) expresses doubt as to his trustworthiness, Dionysius of
Halicarnassus (_De compos. verborum_, 4) speaks disparagingly of his
style, and Photius (_cod._ 176) regards the arrangement of his work as
altogether faulty. Cicero (_ad Att._ vi. 1) accords him qualified praise
as an industrious writer.
Fragments in C.W. Muller, _Frag. Hist. Graec._ ii. 446, where the
passage of Pausanias referred to above and the date of Duris's victory
at Olympia are discussed.
DURKHEIM, a town of Germany, in the Bavarian Palatinate, near the foot
of the Hardt Mountains, and at the entrance of the valley of the
Isenach, 15 m. N.W. of Spires on the railway Monsheim-Neustadt. Pop.
6300. It possesses two Evangelical churches and one Roman Catholic, a
town hall occupying the site of the castle of the princes of
Leiningen-Hartenburg, an antiquarian and a scientific society, a public
library and a high school. It is well known as a health resort, for the
grape cure and for the baths of the brine springs of Philippshalle, in
the neighbourhood, which not only supply the bathing establishment, but
produce considerable quantities of marketable salt. There is a brisk
trade in wine and oil; tobacco, glass and paper are manufactured.
As a dependency of the Benedictine abbey of Limburg, which was built and
endowed by Conrad II., Durkheim or Thurnigheim came into the possession
of the counts of Leiningen, who in the 14th century made it the seat of
a fortress, and enclosed it with wall and ditch. In the three following
centuries it had its full share of the military vicissitudes of the
Palatinate; but it was rebuilt after the French invasion of 1689, and
greatly fostered by its counts in the beginning of next century. In 1794
its new castle was sacked by the French, and in 1849 it was the scene of
a contest between the Prussians and the insurrectionists. The ruins of
the Benedictine abbey of Limburg lie about 1 m. S.W. of the town; and in
the neighbourhood rises the Kastanienberg, with the ancient rude stone
fortification of the Heidenmauer or Heathen's Wall.
DURLACH, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Baden, 2-1/2 m. by
rail from Carlsruhe, with which it is connected by a canal and an avenue
of poplars, on the left bank of the Pfinz, at the foot of the
vineyard-covered Thurmberg, which is crowned by a watch-tower and to the
summit of which a funicular railway ascends. Pop. (1905) 6207. It
possesses a castle erected in 1565 and now used as barracks, an ancient
town hall, a church with an excellent organ, a high-grade school, an
orphan asylum, and in the market-place a statue of the margrave Charles
II. It has manufactures of sewing-machines, brushes, chemicals, tobacco,
beer, vinegar and chicory; and considerable trade in market produce.
Durlach was bestowed by the emperor Frederick II. on the margrave
Hermann V. of Zahringen as an allodial possession, but afterwards came
into the hands of Rudolph of Habsburg. It was chosen as his residence by
the margrave Charles II. in 1565, and retained this distinction till the
foundation of Carlsruhe in 1715, though it was almost totally destroyed
by the French in 1688. In 1846 it was the seat of a congress of the
Liberal party of the Baden parliament; and in 1849 it was the scene of
an encounter between the Prussians and the insurgents. Reichenbach the
mechanician, and E.L. Posselt (1763-1804) the historian, were natives
of the town.
See Fecht, _Geschichte der Stadt Durlach_ (Heidelberg, 1869).
DUROC, GERAUD CHRISTOPHE MICHEL, duc de Frioul (1772-1813), French
general, was born at Pont a Mousson (Meurthe et Moselle) on the 25th of
October 1772. The son of an officer, he was educated at the military
schools of his native town and of Chalons. He was gazetted second
lieutenant (artillery) in the 4th regiment in 1793, and advanced
steadily in the service. Captain Duroc became aide-de-camp to Napoleon
in 1796, and distinguished himself at Isonzo, Brenta and Gradisca in the
Italian campaigns of 1796-97. He served in Egypt, and was seriously
wounded at Aboukir. His devotion to Napoleon was rewarded by complete
confidence. He became first aide-de-camp (1798), general of brigade
(1800), and governor of the Tuileries. After the battle of Marengo he
was sent on missions to Vienna, St Petersburg, Stockholm and Copenhagen.
As grand marshal of the Tuileries he was responsible for the measures
taken to secure Napoleon's personal safety whether in France or on his
campaigns, and he directed the minutest details of the imperial
household. After Austerlitz, where he commanded the grenadiers in the
absence of General Oudinot, he was employed in a series of important
negotiations with Frederick William of Prussia, with the elector of
Saxony (December 1806), in the incorporation of certain states in the
Confederation of the Rhine, and in the conclusion of the armistice of
Znaim (July 1808). In 1808 he was created duke of Friuli, and after the
Russian campaign he became senator (1813). He was in attendance on
Napoleon at the battle of Bautzen (20th-21st May 1813) in Saxony, when
he was mortally wounded, and died in a farmhouse near the battlefield on
the 23rd of May. Napoleon bought the farm and erected a monument to his
memory. Duroc was buried in the Invalides.
The chief source for Duroc's biography is the _Moniteur_ (31st of May
1797, 24th of October 1798, 30th of May 1813, &c.).
DUROCHER, JOSEPH MARIE ELISABETH (1817-1858), French geologist, was born
at Rennes on the 31st of May 1817. Educated at the Ecole Polytechnique
and Ecole des Mines in Paris, he qualified as a mining engineer. Early
in his career he travelled in the northern parts of Europe to study the
metalliferous deposits, and he contributed the articles on geology,
mineralogy, metallurgy and chemistry to Paul Gaimard's _Voyages de la
Commission scientifique du nord, en Scandinavie, en Laponie, au
Spitzberg et aux Feroe, pendant les annees 1838-1840_. In 1844 he became
professor of geology and mineralogy at Rennes. His attention was now
largely directed to the study of the artificial production of minerals,
to the metamorphism of rocks, and to the genesis of igneous rocks. In
1857 he published his famous _Essai de petrologie comparee_, in which he
expressed the view that the igneous rocks have been derived from two
magmas which coexist beneath the solid crust, and are respectively acid
and basic. He died at Rennes on the 3rd of December 1858.
DURRA (also written _dourah_, _dhura_, &c.; Arabic for a pearl, hence a
grain of corn), a cereal grass, _Sorghum vulgare_, extensively
cultivated in tropical and semi-tropical countries, where the grain,
made into bread, forms an important article of diet. In
non-Arabic-speaking countries it is known by other names, such as Indian
or African millet, pearl millet, Guinea corn and Kaffir corn. In India
it is called jowari, jowaree, jawari, &c. (Hindi, _jawari_).
DURUY, JEAN VICTOR (1811-1894), French historian and statesman, was born
in Paris on the 11th of September 1811. The son of a workman at the
factory of the Gobelins, he was at first intended for his father's
trade, but succeeded in passing brilliantly through the Ecole Normale
Superieure, where he studied under Michelet, whom he accompanied as
secretary in his travels through France, supplying for him at the Ecole
Normale in 1836, when only twenty-four. Ill-health forced him to resign,
and poverty drove him to undertake that extensive series of school
textbooks which first brought him into public notice. He devoted
himself with ardour to secondary school education, holding his chair in
the College Henri IV. at Paris for over a quarter of a century. Already
known as a historian by his _Histoire des Romains et des peuples soumis
a leur domination_ (2 vols., 1843-1844), he was chosen by Napoleon III.
to assist him in his life of Julius Caesar, and his abilities being thus
brought under the emperor's notice, he was in 1863 appointed minister of
education. In this position he displayed incessant activity, and a
desire for broad and liberal reform which aroused the bitter hostility
of the clerical party. Among his measures may be cited his organization
of higher education ("enseignement special"), his foundation of the
"conferences publiques," which have now become universal throughout
France, and of a course of secondary education for girls by lay
teachers, and his introduction of modern history and modern languages
into the curriculum both of the _lycees_ and of the colleges. He greatly
improved the state of primary education in France, and proposed to make
it compulsory and gratuitous, but was not supported in this project by
the emperor. In the new cabinet that followed the elections of 1869,
Duruy was replaced by Louis Olivier Bourbeau, and was made a senator.
After the fall of the Empire he took no part in politics, except for an
unsuccessful candidature for the senate in 1876. From 1881 to 1886 he
served as a member of the Conseil Superieur de l'Instruction Publique.
In 1884 he was elected to the Academy in succession to Mignet. He died
in Paris on the 25th of November 1894.
As a historian Duruy aimed in his earlier works at a graphic and
picturesque narrative which should make his subject popular. His fame,
however, rests mainly on the revised edition of his Roman history, which
appeared in a greatly enlarged form in 7 vols. under the title of
_Histoire des Romains depuis les temps les plus recules jusqu'a la mort
de Theodose_ (1879-1885), a really great work; a magnificent illustrated
edition was published from 1879 to 1885 (English translation by W.J.
Clarke, in 6 vols., 1883-1886). His _Histoire des Grecs_, similarly
illustrated, appeared in 3 vols. from 1886 to 1891 (English translation
in 4 vols., 1892). He was the editor, from its commencement in 1846, of
the _Histoire universelle, publiee par une societe de professeurs et de
savants_, for which he himself wrote a "Histoire sainte d'apres la
Bible," "Histoire grecque," "Histoire romaine," "Histoire du moyen age,"
"Histoire des temps modernes," and "Abrege de l'histoire de France." His
other works include _Atlas historique de la France accompagne d'un
volume de texte_ (1849); _Histoire de France de 1453 a 1815_ (1856), of
which an expanded and illustrated edition appeared as _Histoire de
France depuis l'invasion des barbares dans la Gaule romaine jusqu'a nos
jours_ (1892); _Histoire populaire de la France_ (1862-1863); _Histoire
populaire contemporaine de la France_ (1864-1866); _Causeries de voyage_
(1864); and _Introduction generale a l'histoire de France_ (1865).
A memoir by Ernest Lavisse appeared in 1895 under the title of Un
Ministre: _Victor Duruy_. See also the notice by Jules Simon (1895),
and _Portraits et souvenirs_ by S. Monod (1897).
DU RYER, PIERRE (1606-1658), French dramatist, was born in Paris in
1606. His earlier comedies are in the loose style of Alexandre Hardy,
but after the production of the _Cid_ (1636) he copied the manner of
Corneille, and produced his masterpiece _Scevole_, probably in 1644 (the
date generally given is 1646). _Alcionee_ (1638) was so popular that the
abbe d'Aubignac knew it by heart, and Queen Christina is said to have
had it read to her three times in one day. Du Ryer was a prolific
dramatist. Among his other works may be mentioned _Saul_ (printed 1642),
and a comedy, _Les Vendanges de Suresnes_ (1635 or 1636). He died in
Paris on the 6th of November 1658.
DUSE, ELEANORA (1859- ), Italian actress, was born at Vigevano of a
family of actors, and made her first stage appearance at a very early
age. The hardships incident to touring with travelling companies
unfavourably affected her health, but by 1885 she was recognized at home
as Italy's greatest actress, and this verdict was confirmed by that of
all the leading cities of Europe and America. In 1893 she made her first
appearances in New York and in London. For some years she was closely
associated with the romanticist Gabriele d'Annunzio, and several of his
plays, notably _La Citta morta_ (1898) and _Francesca da Rimini_ (1901),
provided her with important parts. But some of her great successes
during the 'eighties and early 'nineties--the days of her chief
triumphs--were in Italian versions of such plays as _La Dame aux
camelias_, in which Sarah Bernhardt was already famous; and Madame
Duse's reputation as an actress was founded less on her "creations" than
on her magnificent individuality. In contrast to the great French
actress she avoided all "make-up"; her art depended on intense
naturalness rather than stage effect, sympathetic force and poignant
intellectuality rather than the theatrical emotionalism of the French
tradition. Her dramatic genius gave a new reading to the parts, and
during these years the admirers of the two leading actresses of Europe
practically constituted two rival schools of appreciation. Ill-health
kept Madame Duse off the stage for some time; but though, after 1900, it
was no longer possible for her to avoid "make-up," her rank among the
great actresses of history remained indisputable.
See also a biography by L. Rasi (1901); A. Symons, _Studies in Seven
Arts_ (1906).
DUSSEK, JOHANN LUDWIG (1761-1812), Bohemian pianist and composer, was
born at Czaslau, in Bohemia, on the 9th of February 1761. His father,
Johann Joseph Dussek, a musician of high reputation, was organist and
choir-master in the collegiate church of Czaslau, and several other
members of the family were distinguished as organists. Under the careful
instruction of his father he made such rapid progress that he appeared
in public as a pianist at the age of six. A year or two later he was
placed as a choir boy at the convent of Iglau, and he obtained his first
instruction in counterpoint from Spenar, the choir-master. When his
voice broke he entered on a course of general study, first at the
Jesuits' college, and then at the university of Prague, where he took
his bachelor's degree in philosophy. During his curriculum of two and a
half years he had paid unremitting attention to the practice and study
of his art, and had received further instruction in composition from a
Benedictine monk. In 1779 he was for a short time organist in the church
of St Rombaut at Mechlin. At the close of his engagement he proceeded to
Holland, where he attained great distinction as a pianist, and was
employed by the stadtholder as musical instructor to his family. While
at the Hague he published his first works, several sonatas and concertos
for the piano. He had already composed at the age of thirteen a solemn
mass and several small oratorios. In 1783 he visited Hamburg, and placed
himself under the instruction of Philip Emmanuel Bach. After spending
two years in Lithuania in the service of Prince Radziwill, he went in
1786 to Paris, where he remained, with the exception of a short period
spent at Milan, until the outbreak of the Revolution, enjoying the
special patronage of Marie Antoinette and great popularity with the
public. In Milan he appeared not only as a pianist but also as a player
of the harmonica, an instrument which was much sought after on account
of its novelty in those days. Towards the close of 1789 he removed to
London, where on the 2nd of March 1790 he appeared at Salomon's
concerts, and he married a daughter of Dominico Corri, herself a clever
harpist and pianist. Unfortunately he was tempted by the large sale of
his numerous compositions to open a music-publishing warehouse in
partnership with Montague Corri, a relative of his wife. The result was
injurious to his fame and disastrous to his fortune. Writing solely for
the sake of sale, he composed many pieces that were quite unworthy of
his genius; and, as he was entirely destitute of business capacity,
bankruptcy was inevitable. In 1800 he was obliged to flee to Hamburg to
escape the claims of his creditors. Some years later he was attached in
the capacity of musician to the household of Prince Louis Ferdinand of
Prussia, with whom he formed an intimate friendship. On the death of his
patron in 1806 he passed into the service of the prince of Isenburg as
court musician. In 1809 he went to Paris to fill a similar situation in
the household of Prince Talleyrand, which he held until his death on the
20th of March 1812.
Dussek had an important influence on the development of pianoforte
music. As a performer he was distinguished by the purity of his tone,
the combined power and delicacy of his touch, and the facility of his
execution. His sonatas, known as _The Invocation_, _The Farewell_ and
_The Harmonic Elegy_, though not equally sustained throughout, contain
movements that have scarcely been surpassed for solemnity and beauty of
idea.
See also Alexander W. Thayer's articles in Dwight's _Journal of Music_
(Boston, 1861).
DUSSELDORF, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, on the
right bank of the Rhine, 24 m. by rail N. by W. from Cologne. Pop.
(1885) 115,190; (1895) 175,985; (1905) 252,630. Dusseldorf is one of the
handsomest cities of western Germany. Its situation on the great
mid-European waterway and as the junction of several main lines of
railway has largely favoured its rapid growth and industrial
development. It is the principal banking centre of the Westphalian coal
and iron trade, and the favourite residence of the leading merchants of
the lower Rhine.
The city consists of five main portions--the Altstadt, the original town
with narrow, irregular streets; the Karlstadt, dating from 1787 and so
called after the electoral prince Charles Theodore; the Neustadt, laid
out between 1690 and 1716; and the Friedrichstadt and the Konigstadt, of
recent formation. In addition, the former villages of Pempelfort,
Oberbilk, Unterbilk, Flingern and Derendorf have been incorporated and
form the outer suburbs of the town proper. On the south side the town
has been completely metamorphosed by the removal of the Koln-Mindner and
Bergisch-Maerkisch stations to a central station lying to the east. The
site thus gained was converted into new boulevards, while the railway to
Neuss and Aix-la-Chapelle was diverted through the suburb of Bilk and
thence across the Rhine by an iron bridge. A road bridge (completed
1898, 2087 ft. long), replacing the old bridge of boats, carries the
electric tram-line to Crefeld. The town, with the exception of the
Altstadt, is regularly built, but within its area are numerous open
grounds and public squares, which prevent the regularity of its plan
degenerating into monotony: the market-place, with the colossal bronze
statue of the elector John William, the parade, the Allee Strasse, the
Konigs Allee, and the Konigs Platz may be specially mentioned. Of the
thirty-seven churches, of which twenty-six are Roman Catholic, the most
noticeable are:--St Andrew's, formerly the Jesuit and court church, with
frescoes by J. Hubner (1806-1882), E. Deger (1809-1885), and H. Mucke
(1806-1891), and the embalmed bodies of several Rhenish electors; St
Lambert's, with a tower 180 ft. high and containing a monument to Duke
William (d. 1592); Maximilians, with frescoes by J.A.N. Settegast
(1813-1890); the Romanesque St Martin's, and the new Gothic church of St
Mary. Besides the old ducal palace, laid in ruins by the French in 1794,
but restored in 1846, the secular buildings comprise the government
offices, the post-office in Italian style, the town hall on the market
square, the law courts, the municipal music hall, the municipal theatre,
the assembly hall of the Rhenish provincial diet, an Italian Renaissance
edifice erected in 1879, the academy of art (1881; in pure Renaissance),
the industrial art museum (1896), the historical museum, and the
industrial art school. The town also possesses a library of 50,000
volumes, several high-grade schools, and is the seat of a great number
of commercial and intellectual associations; but to nothing is it more
indebted for its celebrity than to the Academy of Painting. This famous
institution, originally founded by the elector Charles Theodore in 1767,
was reorganized by King Frederick William III. in 1822, and has since
attained a high degree of prosperity as a centre of artistic culture.
From 1822 till 1826 it was under the direction of Cornelius, a native of
the town, from 1826 to 1859 under Schadow, and from 1859 to 1864 under
E. Bendemann (1811-1889). From Bendemann's resignation it continued in
the hands of a body of curators till 1873, when Hermann Wislicenus
(1825-1899) of Weimar was chosen director. The noble collection of
paintings which formerly adorned the Dusseldorf gallery was removed to
Munich in 1805, and has not since been restored; but there is no lack
of artistic treasures in the town. The academy possesses 14,000 original
drawings and sketches by the great masters, 24,000 engravings, and 248
water-colour copies of Italian originals; the municipal gallery contains
valuable specimens of the local school; and the same is the case with
the Schulte collection. The principal names are Cornelius, Lessing, the
brothers Andreas and Oswald Achenbach, A. Baur (b. 1835), A. Tidemand
(1814-1876), and L. Knaus (b. 1829). An annual exhibition is held under
the auspices of the Art Union; and the members of the Artists' Society,
or _Malkasten_, as they are called, have annual festivals and
masquerades.
The town is embellished with many handsome monuments--notably a bronze
statue of Cornelius, by A. Donndorf (b. 1835), an equestrian statue of
the emperor William I. (1896), and a large bronze group in front of the
assembly hall of the diet, representing the river Rhine and its chief
tributaries. In the suburb of Bilk there are the Floragarten and
Volksgarten, the astronomical observatory and the harbour. Extensive
quays afford accommodation for vessels of deep draught, and the trade
with the Dutch cities and with London has been thereby greatly enhanced.
Within recent years Dusseldorf has made remarkable progress as an
industrial centre. The first place is occupied by the iron industries,
embracing foundries, furnaces, engineering and machine shops, &c. Next
come cotton spinning and weaving, calico printing, yarn-spinning, dyeing
and similar textile branches, besides a variety of other industries.
A little to the north of the town lies the village of Dusselthal, with
Count von der Recke-Volmerstein's establishment for homeless children in
the former Trappist monastery, and in the suburb of Pempelfort is the
_Jagerhof_, the residence at one time of Prince Frederick of Prussia,
and afterwards of the prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen.
Dusseldorf, as the form of the name--the village on the Dussel--clearly
indicates, was long a place of small consideration. In 1288 it was
raised to the rank of a town by Count Adolf of Berg; from his successors
it obtained various privileges, and in 1385 was chosen as their
residence. After it had suffered greatly in the Thirty Years' War and
the War of the Spanish Succession, it recovered its prosperity under the
patronage of the electoral prince John William of the Palatinate, who
dwelt in the castle for many years before his death in 1716. In 1795 the
town, after a violent bombardment, was surrendered to the French; and
after the peace of Luneville it was deprived of its fortifications. In
1805 it became the capital of the Napoleonic duchy of Berg; and in 1815
it passed with the duchy into Prussian possession. Among its celebrities
are Johann Georg and Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi, Heinrich Heine,
Varnhagen von Ense, Peter von Cornelius, Wilhelm Camphausen and Heinrich
von Sybel.
See H. Ferber, _Historische Wanderung durch die alte Stadt Dusseldorf_
(Dusseldorf, 1889-1890); Brandt, _Studien zur Wirtschafts- und
Ver-waltungsgeschichte der Stadt Dusseldorf_ (Dusseldorf, 1902); and
local _Guide_ by Bone.
DUSSERAH, or DASARA, a Hindu new-moon festival (sometimes called
Maha-navami), held in October, and specially connected with ancestral
worship. In the native states, such as Mysore, the rajas give public
entertainments lasting for ten days, and especially invite European
officials to the festivities, which include horse-racing, athletic
contests, and banquets.
See J.A. Dubois, _Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies_, p. 577.
DUST, earth or other matter reduced to fine dry and powdery particles;
the word is Teutonic and appears in such various forms as the Dutch
_duist_, Danish _dyst_, for the dust of flour or meal, and in the older
forms _donst_; the modern German _Dunst_, vapour, probably preserves the
original form and meaning, that of something which can be blown about by
the wind.
_Atmospheric Dust._--The presence of dust in the atmosphere has probably
been known from the earliest ages, as prehistoric man must have had
plenty of opportunities of noticing it lighting up the paths of sunbeams
that penetrated his dark caves, yet it is only of recent years that it
has become the subject of scientific observation. Formerly it was
considered as simply matter in the wrong place, the presence of which
had to be tolerated, but was supposed to serve no useful purpose in
nature. It was not till the year 1880 that atmospheric dust came under
scientific investigation, when it soon became evident that it played a
most important part in nature, and that instead of being a nuisance to
be got rid of, it added much to the comforts and pleasures of life.
The atmosphere is composed of a number of gases which have a nearly
constant proportion to each other, and of varying proportions of water
vapour. This vapour, constantly rising from land and sea, mixes with the
gases in the atmosphere and so long as it remains vapour is invisible,
but when it becomes cooled by the actual processes in nature the vapour
tends to condense to the liquid condition and form cloud particles.
Before 1880 it had always been assumed that when this condensation took
place, the vapour molecules simply combined with each other to form the
little globules of water, but J. Aitken showed that vapour molecules in
the atmosphere do not combine with each other, that before condensation
can take place there must be some solid or liquid nucleus on which the
vapour molecules can combine, and that the dust in the atmosphere forms
the nuclei on which the water-vapour molecules condense. Every cloud
particle being grown round a dust nucleus thus has a dust particle in
it. The presence of dust in the atmosphere allows the condensation of
the vapour to take place whenever the air is cooled to the saturation
point, and if there were no dust present the condensation would not take
place till the air was cooled far below that point, and become highly
supersaturated; and when it did take place the condensation would be
violent and result in heavy rain-drops without the formation of what we
know as cloud. This might be in some ways an advantage, but living in
such supersaturated air would have many disadvantages. The
supersaturated air having no dust to condense on would condense on our
clothes, the inside and outside walls of our dwellings, and on every
solid and liquid surface with which it came in contact.
Many of the dust particles in the atmosphere which form the nuclei of
condensation are extremely minute, so small as to be beyond the powers
of the microscope, and at first sight it might appear to be impossible
to get any reliable information as to their numbers. But Aitken, having
shown that water vapour must have a nucleus to condense on, saw that
this placed in our hands the means of counting the dust particles in our
atmosphere, and in 1888 showed how it could be done. As water vapour in
the air condenses on the dust particles present and forms cloud
particles, he showed that all that would be necessary would be to cause
the dust particles to become centres of condensation, when they would be
so increased in size as to come within the range of an ordinary
magnifying lens, and that by counting the cloud particles it would be
possible to determine the number of dust particles. To carry out this
idea the air under examination was placed in an air-tight receiver and
saturated with water vapour. It was then expanded by an air-pump, and in
this way cooled and condensation produced. The cloud particles so formed
were allowed to fall on a micrometer and their number counted by the aid
of an ordinary short-focussed lens. Certain precautions are necessary in
carrying out this process. There must not be more than 500 particles per
cubic centimetre of air, or all the particles will not form nuclei, and
will not therefore be thrown down as cloud particles. When the number in
the air tested exceeds that figure, the dusty air must be mixed with
such a quantity of dustless air as will reduce the number below 500 per
c.c., and the correct number in the air tested is obtained by allowing
for the proportion of dustless air to dusty air, and for the expansion
necessary for cooling.
Thousands of tests of the atmospheric dust have been made with this
instrument at many places over the world, and in no part of it has
dustless air been found; indeed it is very rare to find air with less
than 100 particles per c.c., whilst in most country places the numbers
rise to thousands, and in cities such as London and Paris the number may
be as high as 100,000 to 150,000 per c.c.
The sources of dust particles in the atmosphere are numerous. In nature
volcanoes supply a large quantity, and the meteoric matter constantly
falling towards the earth and becoming dissipated by the intense heat
produced by the friction of the atmosphere keep up a constant supply.
Large quantities of dust are also raised from the surface of the earth
by strong winds, from dusty roads and dry soil, and there is good reason
for supposing that large quantities of sand are carried from the deserts
by the wind and transported great distances, the sand, for instance,
from the desert of Africa being carried to Europe. It is, however, to
artificial causes that most of the dust is due. The burning of coal is
the principal source of these, not only when the coal is burned with the
production of smoke, but also when smokeless, and even when the coal is
first converted into gas and burned in the most perfect forms of
combustion. It results from this that while in the air over the
uninhabited parts of the earth and over the ocean the number of
particles is small, being principally produced by natural causes or
carried from distant lands, they are much more numerous in inhabited
areas, especially in those where much coal is burned. It is evident that
if there were not some purifying process in nature there would be a
tendency for the dust particles to increase in numbers, because though
some dust particles may fall out of the air, many of them are so small
they have but little tendency to settle, but by becoming centres of
cloud particles they are carried downwards to the earth, and, further,
these when showering down as rain tend to wash the others out of the
atmosphere. We may therefore look on all uninhabited areas of the earth
as purifying areas, and their purifying power seems to depend partly on
their extent, but principally on their rainfall. The following table
illustrates the purifying effect of some of these areas obtained from
the results of hundreds of observations. The areas referred to are: (1)
Mediterranean Sea, the observations being made on the south coast of
France on the air blowing inshore; (2) the Alps, the observations being
made on the Rigi Kulm; (3) the Highlands of Scotland, the observations
being made at various places; and (4) the Atlantic Ocean, the
observations being made on the west coast of Scotland, when the wind
blew from the ocean.
+----------------+----------------+-------+------------+-----------+
| | Mediterranean. | Alps. | Highlands. | Atlantic. |
+----------------+----------------+-------+------------+-----------+
| Mean of lowest | 891 | 381 | 141 | 72 |
| Mean of number | 1611 | 892 | 552 | 338 |
+----------------+----------------+-------+------------+-----------+
These numbers are all low for atmospheric dust, much lower than in air
from inhabited areas. On the Rigi Kulm, for instance, the number was
sometimes over 10,000 per c.c. when the wind was from inhabited areas
and the sun causing ascending currents; and at the same place as the
Atlantic air was tested the numbers went up to over 5000 per c.c. when
the wind blew from the inhabited areas of Scotland, though the distance
to the nearest was over 60 m.
E.D. Fridlander[1] made many observations on the dust of the atmosphere
with the same instrument as employed by Aitken. In crossing the Atlantic
he got no low numbers, always over 2000 per c.c., but in the Gulf of St
Lawrence he got a reading as low as 280 per c.c. In crossing the Pacific
the lowest obtained was 245, in the Indian Ocean 243, in the Arabian Sea
280, in the Red Sea 383, and in the Mediterranean 875 per c.c. He has
also made observations in Switzerland. The lowest number obtained by him
was in the air at the top of the Bieshorn, 13,600 ft. above sea-level,
where the number was as low as 157 per c.c. Professor G. Melander[2] of
Helsingfors studied the dust in the atmosphere. His observations were
made in Switzerland, Biskra in the Sahara, Finland, the borders of
Russia, and in Norway; but in none of these places were low numbers
observed. The minimum numbers were over 300 per c.c., while maximum
numbers in some cases went high.
Aitken when observing on the Rigi Kulm noticed during some conditions
of weather that there was a daily variation in the number of particles,
a maximum near the hottest part of the day and a minimum in the morning,
and attributed the rise in the numbers to the impure air of the valleys
rising on the sun-heated slopes of the mountain or driven up by the
wind. A. Rankin, at the Ben Nevis observatory, also observed this daily
variation, and his observations also indicate a yearly variation at that
station, the numbers being highest in March, April and May. This may
possibly be due to small rainfall in these months, but more probably to
the fact that south-easterly winds blow more frequently during these
months on Ben Nevis than at any other season, and these winds bring the
impure air from the more densely inhabited parts of the country.
Without atmospheric dust not only would we not have the glorious cloud
scenery we at present enjoy, but we should have no haze in the
atmosphere, none of the atmospheric effects that delight the artist. The
white haze, the blue haze, the tender sunset glows of red, orange and
yellow, would all be absent, and the moment the sun dipped below the
horizon the earth would be in darkness; no twilight, no after-glows,
such as those given some years ago by the volcanic dust from Krakatoa;
none of the poetry of eventide. Why, it may be asked, is this so? Simply
because all these are due to matter suspended in the air, to dust. Water
has no such effects as long as it is a vapour, and if it condensed
without the presence of dust, the particles would be far too few to give
any appreciable effect and too heavy to remain in suspension.
Turning now to the investigations on this point, Aitken has shown that
there is no evidence to indicate that water vapour has any hazing
effect, and shows that the haze is entirely due to dust, the density of
the haze increasing with the increase in the number of dust particles in
the air, and also with the _relative_ humidity; but the humidity does
not act as vapour, but by condensing on the dust and increasing the size
of the particles, as it is not the amount of vapour present but the
degree of saturation that affects the result; the more saturated the
air, the more vapour is condensed on the particles, they so become
larger and their hazing effect increased.
The relation of haze or transparency of the air to the number of dust
particles was observed on five visits to the Rigi Kulm. The visibility
of Hochgerrach, a mountain 70 m. distant from the Rigi, was used for
estimating the amount of haze when the air was clear. During the visits
this mountain was visible thirteen times, and it was never seen except
when the number of particles was low. On eight occasions the mountain
was only one-half to one-fifth hazed, and on these days the number of
particles was as low as from 326 to 850 per c.c. It was seen five times
when the number was from 950 to 2000 per c.c., but the mountain on these
occasions was only just visible, and it was never seen when the number
was a little over 2000 per c.c.
It has been pointed out that the relative humidity has an effect on the
dust by increasing the size of the particles and so increasing the haze.
It was therefore necessary in working out the dust and haze observations
made at the different places to arrange all the observations in tables
according to the wet-bulb depressions at the time. All the observations
taken when the wet-bulb depression was between 2 deg. and 4 deg. were
put in one table, all those when it was between 4 deg. and 7 deg. in
another, and all those when it was over 7 deg. in a third. It should be
here noted that when the dust particles were counted and the wet and dry
bulb observations taken, an estimate of the amount of haze was also
made. This was done by estimating the amount of haze on a mountain at a
known distance. Suppose the mountain to be 25 m. distant, and at the
time to be one-half hazed, then the limit of visibility of the mountain
under the conditions would be 50 m., and that was taken as the number
representing the transparency of the atmosphere at the time. In the
tables above referred to along with the number of particles was entered
the limit of visibility at the time; when this was done it was at once
seen that as the number of particles increased the limit of visibility
decreased, as will be seen from the following short table of the Rigi
Kulm observations when the wet-bulb depression was between 2 deg. and 4
deg.
+---------------+---------+---------+---------+---------------+------------------+
| | Lowest | Highest | Mean | Limit of | |
| Date. | Number. | Number. | Number. | Visibility in | C. |
| | | | | Miles. | |
+---------------+---------+---------+---------+---------------+------------------+
| 19th May 1891 | 428 | 690 | 559 | 150 | 83,850 \ Mean |
| 22nd May 1889 | 434 | 850 | 642 | 100 | 64,200 > 75,176.|
| 16th May 1893 | 1225 | 2600 | 1912 | 40 | 77,480 / |
+---------------+---------+---------+---------+---------------+------------------+
When the number of particles is multiplied by the limit of visibility in
the tables a fairly constant number C. is obtained; see preceding table.
All the observations taken at the different places were treated in a
similar manner and the means of all the observations at the different
humidities were obtained, and the following table gives the mean values
of C. at the different wet-bulb depressions of all the observations made
at the different places.
+---------------------+------------------+------------------+-----------------+
| Wet-bulb depression | 2 deg. to 4 deg. | 4 deg. to 7 deg. | 7 deg. and over |
| Mean values of C. | 76,058 | 105,545 | 141,148 |
+---------------------+------------------+------------------+-----------------+
From the above table it will be seen that as the dryness of the air
increased it required a larger number of particles to produce a complete
haze, nearly double the number being required when the wet-bulb
depression was over 7 deg. than when it was only from 2 deg. to 4 deg.
To find the number of particles required to produce a complete haze,
that is, to render a mountain just invisible, all that is necessary is
to multiply the above constant C. by 160,930, the number of centimetres
in a mile, when this is done with the observations made in the West
Highlands we get the numbers given in the following table:--
+----------------------+--------------------------+
| Wet-bulb depression. | Number of Particles to |
| | produce a complete haze. |
+----------------------+--------------------------+
| 2 deg. to 4 deg. | 12,500,000,000 |
| 4 deg. to 7 deg. | 17,100,000,000 |
| 7 deg. to 10 deg. | 22,600,000,000 |
+----------------------+--------------------------+
The above table gives the number of particles of atmospheric dust in a
column of air having a section of one centimetre square, at the
different humidities, required to produce a complete haze, that is, to
make a distant object invisible, and is of course quite independent of
the length of the column.
In making these dust and transparency observations three things were
noted: 1st, the number of particles; 2nd, the humidity; and 3rd, the
limit of visibility. From the results above given, it is evident that if
we now know any two of these we can calculate the third. Suppose we know
the limit of visibility and the humidity, then the number of particles
can be calculated by the aid of the above tables.
To show the hazing effects of dust it is not, however, necessary to use
a dust counter. Aitken for some years made observations on the haze in
the air at Falkirk by simply noting the direction of the wind, the
wet-bulb depression at the time, and the transparency of the air.
Falkirk is favourably situated for such observations owing to the
peculiar distribution of the population surrounding it. The whole area
from west, north-west to north, is very thinly populated, while in all
other directions it is densely populated. It was found that the air from
the thinly inhabited parts, that is, the north-west quadrant, was nine
times clearer than the air from other directions with the same wet-bulb
depression, and that the density of the haze was directly proportional
to the density of the population of the area from which the wind blew.
These observations also showed that the transparency of the air
increases with the dryness, being 3.7 times clearer when the wet-bulb
depression is 8 deg. than when it is only 2 deg., and that the air
coming from the densely inhabited parts is about 10 times more hazed
than if there were no inhabitants in the country. (J. A.*)