[1] The date of Dunstan's birth here given is that given in the
Anglo-Saxon chronicle and hitherto accepted. In an appendix to the
_Bosworth Psalter_, edited by Mr Edmund Bishop and Abbot Gasquet
(1908), Mr Leslie A. St L. Toke gives reason to believe that the date
must be set back at least as early as 910.
DUNSTER, a market town in the Western parliamentary division of
Somersetshire, England, 1-1/2 m. from the shore of the Bristol Channel,
on the Minehead branch of the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 1182.
Its streets, sloping sharply, contain many old houses. On an eminence
stands the ancient castle, entered by a gateway of the 13th century.
There are portions of later date, but still ancient, in the main
building, but it has been considerably modernized as a residence. The
church of St George has Norman portions, but the building is in the main
Perpendicular. The fine tower in this style is characteristic of this
part of England. There are traces of monastic buildings near the church,
for it belonged to a Benedictine house of early Norman foundation. The
church is cruciform and the altar stands beneath the eastern lantern
arch, a fine rood screen separating off the choir, which was devoted to
monastic use, while the nave was kept for the parishioners, in
consequence of a dispute between the vicar and the monastery in 1499.
The Yarn Market, a picturesque octagonal building with deep sloping
roof, in the main street, dates from c. 1600, and is a memorial of
Dunster's former important manufacture of cloth.
There were British, Roman and Saxon settlements at Dunster (_Torre
Dunestorre_, _Dunester_), fortified against the piracies of the Irish
Northmen. The Saxon fort of Alaric was replaced by a Norman castle built
by William de Mohun, first lord of Dunster, who founded the priory of St
George. Before 1183, Dunster had become a mesne borough, owned by the de
Mohuns until the 14th century when it passed to the Luttrells, the
present owners. Reginald de Mohun granted the first charter between 1245
and 1247, which diminished fines and tolls, limited the lord's "mercy,"
and provided that the burgesses should not against their will be made
bailiffs or farmers of the seaport. John de Mohun granted other charters
in 1301 and 1307. Dunster was only represented in parliament in
conjunction with Minehead, one of its tithings being part of that
borough. Representation began in 1562, and was lost in 1832. Feudal in
origin, Dunster's later importance was commercial, and the port had a
considerable wool, corn and cattle trade with Ireland. During the middle
ages the Friday market and fair in Whit week, granted by the first
charter, were centres for the sale of yarn and cloth called "Dunsters,"
made in the town. The market day is still Friday. The manufacture of
cloth had disappeared, the harbour is silted up, and there is no special
local industry.
See Sir H.C. Maxwell Lyte, _Dunster and its Lords_ (1882); _Victoria
County History, Somerset_, vol. ii.
DUNTOCHER (Gaelic, "The Fort of ill hap"), a town on Dalmuir Burn,
Dumbartonshire, Scotland, 9 m. from Glasgow. Pop. (1901) 2122. The
district contains coal, limestone and ironstone, but there is not much
mining. Many of the inhabitants are employed at the Singer factory in
Kilbowie and at the Clyde Trust yards in Dalmuir. There are considerable
Roman remains in the neighbourhood. Antoninus' Wall passed immediately
to the south; the burn is crossed by a bridge alleged to be of Roman
origin (which at least is doubtful); subterranean remains indicate a
Roman structure; a Roman camp has been traced, and the vicinity has
yielded a number of altars, urns, vases, coins and tablets, which are
now in the custody of Glasgow University.
DUNTON, JOHN (1659-1733), English bookseller and author, was born at
Graffham, in Huntingdonshire, on the 4th of May 1659. His father,
grandfather and great-grandfather had all been clergymen. At the age of
fifteen he was apprenticed to Thomas Parkhurst, bookseller, at the sign
of the Bible and Three Crowns, Cheapside, London. Dunton ran away at
once, but was soon brought back, and began to "love books." During the
struggle which led to the Revolution, Dunton was the treasurer of the
Whig apprentices. He became a bookseller at the sign of the Raven, near
the Royal Exchange, and married Elizabeth Annesley, whose sister married
Samuel Wesley. His wife managed his business, so that he was left free
in a great measure to follow his own eccentric devices. In 1686,
probably because he was concerned in the Monmouth rising, he visited New
England, where he stayed eight months selling books and observing with
interest the new country and its inhabitants. Dunton had become security
for his brother's debts, and to escape the creditors he made a short
excursion to Holland. On his return to England, he opened a new shop in
the Poultry in the hope of better times. Here he published weekly the
_Athenian Mercury_ which professed to answer all questions on history,
philosophy, love, marriage and things in general. His wife died in 1697,
and he married a second time; but a quarrel about property led to a
separation; and being incapable of managing his own affairs, he spent
the last years of his life in great poverty. He died in 1733. He wrote a
great many books and a number of political squibs on the Whig side, but
only his _Life and Errors of John Dunton_ (1705), on account of its
naivete, its pictures of bygone times, and of the literary history of
the period, is remembered. His letters from New England were published
in America in 1867.
DUNTZER, JOHANN HEINRICH JOSEPH (1813-1901), German philologist and
historian of literature, was born at Cologne on the 12th of July 1813.
After studying philology and especially ancient classics and Sanskrit at
Bonn and Berlin (1830-1835), he took the degree of doctor of philosophy
and established himself in 1837 at Bonn as _Privat docent_ for classical
literature. He had already, in his Goethes _Faust in seiner Einheit und
Ganzheit_ (1836) and _Goethe als Dramatiker_ (1837), advocated a new
critical method in interpreting the German classics, which he wished to
see treated like the ancient classics. He subsequently turned his
attention almost exclusively to the poets of the German classical
period, notably Goethe and Schiller. Duntzer's method met with much
opposition and he consequently failed to obtain the professorship he
coveted. In 1846 he accepted the post of librarian at the Roman Catholic
gymnasium in Cologne, where he died on the 16th of December 1901.
Duntzer was a painstaking and accurate critic, but lacking in
inspiration and finer literary taste; consequently his work as a
biographer and commentator has, to a great extent, been superseded and
discredited.
Among his philological writings may be mentioned _Die Lehre von der
lateinischen Wortbildung_ (1836); _Die Deklination der
indogermanischen Sprachen_ (1839); _Homer und der epische Kyklos_
(1839); _Die homerischen Beiworter des Gotter- und
Menschengeschlechts_ (1859). Of his works on the German classical
poets, especially Goethe, Schiller and Herder, the following are
particularly worthy of note, _Erlauterungen zu den deutschen
Klassikern_ (1853-1892); _Goethes Prometheus und Pandora_ (1850);
_Goethes Faust_ (2 vols., 1850-1851; 2nd ed. 1857); _Goethes Gotz und
Egmont_ (1854); _Aus Goethes Freundeskreise_ (1868); _Abhandlungen zu
Goethes Leben und Werken_ (2 vols., 1885); _Goethes Tagebucher der
sechs ersten weimarischen Jahre_ (1889); _Goethes Leben_ (1880; 2nd
ed. 1883; Engl. transl. by T. Lyster, London, 1884); _Schillers Leben_
(1881); _Schiller und Goethe; Ubersicht und Erlauterung zum
Briefwechsel zwischen Schiller und Goethe_ (1859); _Herders Reise nach
Italien_ (1859); _Aus Herders Nachlass_ (3 vols., 1856-1857), and
further, _Charlotte von Stein_ (1874).
DUNWICH, a village in the Eye parliamentary division of Suffolk,
England, on the coast between Southwold and Aldeburgh, 5 m. S.S.W. of
Southwold. Pop. (1901) 157. This was in Anglo-Saxon days the most
important commercial centre and port of East Anglia. It was probably a
Romano-British site. The period of its highest dignity was the Saxon
era, when it was called Dommocceaster and Dunwyk. Early in the 7th
century, when Sigebert became king of East Anglia, Dunwich was chosen
his capital and became the nursery of Christianity in Eastern Britain. A
bishopric was founded (according to Bede in 630, while the Anglo-Saxon
chronicle gives 635), the name of the first bishop being Felix.
Sigebert's reign was notable for his foundation of a school modelled on
those he had seen in France; it was probably at Dunwich, but formed the
nucleus of what afterwards became the university of Cambridge. By the
middle of the 11th century (_temp._ Edward the Confessor) Dunwich was
declining, as it had already suffered from an evil which later caused
its total ruin, namely the inroads of the sea on the unstable coast. At
the Norman Conquest the manor was granted to Robert Malet; but the
history of the place remains blank until the reign of Henry II., when it
re-emerged into prosperity. In 1173 the sight of its strength caused
Robert earl of Leicester to despair of besieging it. The town received a
charter from King John. In the reign of Edward I. it is recorded to have
possessed 36 ships and "barks," trading to the North Seas, Iceland and
elsewhere, with 24 fishing boats, besides maintaining 11 ships of war.
But early in the reign of Edward III. the attacks of the sea began to
make headway again. In 1347 over 400 houses were destroyed. In 1570,
after a terrible storm, appeal was made to Elizabeth, who parsimoniously
granted money obtained by the sale of lead and other materials from
certain neighbouring churches. But the doomed town was gradually
engulfed, and now the only outward evidence of the old wealthy port is
the ruined fragment of the church of All Saints, overhanging a low
cliff, which, as it crumbles, exposes the coffins and bones in the
former churchyard, the greater part of which has disappeared. A small
white flower growing wild among the ruins is called the Dunwich Rose,
and is traditionally said to have been planted and cultivated by monks.
Many relics have been discovered by excavation, and even from beneath
the waves. Until 1832 Dunwich returned 2 members to parliament.
DUOVIRI, less correctly DUUMVIRI (from Lat. _duo_ two, and _vir_, man),
in ancient Rome, the official style of two joint magistrates. Such pairs
of magistrates were appointed at various periods of Roman history both
in Rome itself and in the colonies and municipia. (1) _Duumviri iuri
(iure) dicundo_, municipal magistrates, whose chief duties were
concerned with the administration of justice. Sometimes there were four
of these magistrates (_Quattuorviri_). (2) _Duumviri quinquennales_,
also municipal officers, not to be confused with the above, who were
elected every fifth year for one year to exercise the function of the
censorship which was in abeyance for the intervening four years. (3)
_Duumviri sacrorum_, officers who originally had charge of the
Sibylline books; they were afterwards increased to ten (_decemviri
sacris faciundis_), and in Sulla's time to fifteen (_quindecimviri_).
(4) _Duumviri aedi locandae_, originally officers specially appointed to
supervise the erection of a temple. There were also _duumviri aedi
dedicandae_. (5) _Duumviri navales_, extraordinary officers appointed
_ad hoc_ for the equipping of a fleet. Originally chosen by consuls or
dictator, they were elected by the people after 311 B.C. (Livy ix. 30;
xl. 18; xli. 1). (6) _Duumviri perduellionis_, the earliest criminal
court for trying offences against the state (see TREASON: _Roman Law_).
(7) _Duumviri viis extra urbem purgandis_, subordinate officers under
the aediles, whose duty it was to look after those streets of Rome which
were outside the city walls. Apparently in 20 B.C., certainly by 12
B.C., their duties were transferred to the _Curatores viarum_. From at
least as early as 45 B.C. (cf. the Lex Iulia Municipalis) the streets of
the city were superintended by _Quattuorviri viis in urbe purgandis_,
later called _Quattuorviri viarum purgandarum_.
See Fiebiger and Liebenam in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyc._ v. pt. 2.
DUPANLOUP, FELIX ANTOINE PHILIBERT (1802-1878), French ecclesiastic, was
born at St Felix in Savoy on the 3rd of January 1802. In his earliest
years he was confided to the care of his brother, a priest in the
diocese of Chambery. In 1810 he was sent to a _pensionnat
ecclesiastique_ at Paris. Thence he went to the seminary of St Nicolas
de Chardonnel in 1813, and was transferred to the seminary of St Sulpice
at Paris in 1820. In 1825 he was ordained priest, and was appointed
vicar of the Madeleine at Paris. For a time he was tutor to the Orleans
princes. He became the founder of the celebrated academy at St
Hyacinthe, and received a letter from Gregory XVI. eulogizing his work
there, and calling him _Apostolus juventutis_. His imposing height, his
noble features, his brilliant eloquence, as well as his renown for zeal
and charity, made him a prominent feature in French life for many years.
Crowds of persons attended his addresses, on whom his energy, command of
language, powerful voice and impassioned gestures made a profound
impression. When made bishop of Orleans in 1849, he pronounced a fervid
panegyric on Joan of Arc, which attracted attention in England as well
as France. Before this he had been sent by Archbishop Affre to Rome, and
had been appointed Roman prelate and protonotary apostolic. For thirty
years he remained a notable figure in France, doing his utmost to arouse
his countrymen from religious indifference. In ecclesiastical policy his
views were moderate; thus he opposed the definition of the dogma of
papal infallibility both before and during the Vatican council, but was
among the first to accept the dogma when decreed. He was a distinguished
educationist who fought for the retention of the Latin classics in the
schools and instituted the celebrated catechetical method of St Sulpice.
Among his publications are _De l'education_ (1850), _De la haute
education intellectuelle_ (3 vols., 1866), _Oeuvres choisies_ (1861, 4
vols.); _Histoire de Jesus_ (1872), a counterblast to Renan's _Vie de
Jesus_. He died on the 11th of October 1878.
See _Life_ by F. Lagrange (Eng. tr. by Lady Herbert, London, 1885).
DUPERRON, JACQUES DAVY (1556-1618), French cardinal, was born at St Lo,
in Normandy, on the 15th of November 1556. His father was a physician,
who on embracing the doctrines of the Reformation became a Protestant
minister, and to escape persecution settled at Bern, in Switzerland.
Here Jacques Davy received his education, being taught Latin and
mathematics by his father, and learning Greek and Hebrew and the
philosophy then in vogue. Returning to Normandy he was presented to the
king by Jacques of Matignon; after he had abjured Protestantism, being
again presented by Philip Desportes, abbot of Tiron, as a young man
without equal for knowledge and talent, he was appointed reader to the
king. He was commanded to preach before the king at the convent of
Vincennes, when the success of his sermon on the love of God, and of a
funeral oration on the poet Ronsard, induced him to take orders. On the
death of Mary queen of Scots he was chosen to pronounce her eulogy. On
the death of Henry III., after having supported for some time the
cardinal de Bourbon, the head of the league against the king, Duperron
became a faithful servant of Henry IV., and in 1591 was created by him
bishop of Evreux. He instructed Henry in the Catholic religion; and in
1594 was sent to Rome, where with Cardinal d'Ossat (1536-1604) he
obtained Henry's absolution. On his return to his diocese, his zeal and
eloquence were largely instrumental in withstanding the progress of
Calvinism, and among others he converted Henry Sponde, who became bishop
of Pamiers, and the Swiss general Sancy. At the conference at
Fontainebleau in 1600 he argued with much eloquence and ingenuity
against Du Plessis Mornay (1549-1623). In 1604 he was sent to Rome as
_charge d'affaires de France_; when Clement VIII. died, he largely
contributed by his eloquence to the election of Leo XI. to the papal
throne, and, on the death of Leo twenty-four days after, to the election
of Paul V. While still at Rome he was made a cardinal, and in 1606
became archbishop of Sens. After the death of Henry IV. he took an
active part in the states-general of 1614, when he vigorously upheld the
ultramontane doctrines against the Third Estate. He died in Paris on the
6th of September 1618.
See _Les Diverses Oeuvres de l'illustrissime cardinal Duperron_
(Paris, 1622); Pierre Feret, _Le Cardinal Duperron_ (Paris, 1877).
DUPIN, ANDRE MARIE JEAN JACQUES (1783-1865), commonly called Dupin the
Elder, French advocate, president of the chamber of deputies and of the
Legislative Assembly, was born at Varzy, in Nievre, on the 1st of
February 1783. He was educated by his father, who was a lawyer of
eminence, and at an early age he became principal clerk of an attorney at
Paris. On the establishment of the _Academie de Legislation_ he entered
it as pupil from Nievre. In 1800 he was made advocate, and in 1802, when
the schools of law were opened, he received successively the degrees of
licentiate and doctor from the new faculty. He was in 1810 an
unsuccessful candidate for the chair of law at Paris, and in 1811 he also
failed to obtain the office of advocate-general at the court of
cassation. About this time he was added to the commission charged with
the classification of the laws of the empire, and, after the interruption
caused by the events of 1814 and 1815, was charged with the sole care of
that great work. When he entered the chamber of deputies in 1815 he at
once took an active part in the debates as a member of the Liberal
Opposition, and strenuously opposed the election of the son of Napoleon
as emperor after his father's abdication. At the election after the
second restoration Dupin was not re-elected. He defended with great
intrepidity the principal political victims of the reaction, among
others, in conjunction with Nicolas Berryer, Marshal Ney; and in October
1815 boldly published a tractate entitled _Libre Defense des accuses_. In
1827 he was again elected a member of the chamber of deputies and in 1830
he voted the address of the 221, and on the 28th of February he was in
the streets exhorting the citizens to resistance. At the end of 1832 he
became president of the chamber, which office he held successively for
eight years. On Louis Philippe's abdication in 1848 Dupin introduced the
young count of Paris into the chamber, and proposed him as king with the
duchess of Orleans as regent. This attempt failed, but Dupin submitted to
circumstances, and, retaining the office of _procureur-general_, his
first act was to decide that justice should henceforth be rendered to the
"name of the French people." In 1849 he was elected a member of the
Assembly, and became president of the principal committee--that on
legislation. After the _coup d'etat_ of the 2nd of December 1851 he still
retained his office of _procureur-general_, and did not resign it until
effect was given to the decrees confiscating the property of the house of
Orleans. In 1857 he was offered his old office by the emperor, and
accepted it, explaining his acceptance in a discourse, a sentence of
which may be employed to describe his whole political career. "I have
always," he said, "belonged to France and never to parties." He died on
the 8th of November 1865. Among Dupin's works, which are numerous, may be
mentioned _Principia Juris Civilis_, 5 vols. (1806); _Memoires et
plaidoyers de 1806 au 1^er Janvier 1830_, in 20 vols.; and _Memoires ou
souvenirs du barreau_, in 4 vols. (1855-1857).
His brother, FRANCOIS PIERRE CHARLES DUPIN (1784-1873), wrote several
geometrical works, treating of descriptive geometry after the manner of
Monge, and of the theory of curves.
DU PIN, LOUIS ELLIES (1657-1719), French ecclesiastical historian, came
of a noble family of Normandy, and was born at Paris on the 17th of June
1657. When ten years old he entered the college of Harcourt, where he
graduated M.A. in 1672. He afterwards became a pupil of the Sorbonne,
and received the degree of B.D. in 1680 and that of D.D. in 1684. About
this time he conceived the idea of his _Bibliotheque universelle de tous
les auteurs ecclesiastiques_, the first volume of which appeared in
1686. The liberty with which he there treated the doctrines of the
Fathers aroused ecclesiastical prejudice, and the archbishop of Paris
condemned the work. Although Du Pin consented to a retractation, the
book was suppressed in 1693; he was, however, allowed again to continue
it on changing its title by substituting _nouvelle_ for _universelle_.
He was subsequently exiled to Chatellerault as a Jansenist, but the
sentence of banishment was repealed on a new retractation. In 1718 he
entered into a correspondence with William Wake, archbishop of
Canterbury, with a view to a union of the English and Gallican churches;
being suspected of projecting a change in the dogmas of the church, his
papers were seized in February 1719, but nothing incriminating was
found. The same zeal for union induced him, during the residence of
Peter the Great in France, and at that monarch's request, to draw up a
plan for uniting the Greek and Roman churches. He died at Paris on the
6th of June 1719.
Du Pin was a voluminous author. Besides his great work (Paris,
1686-1704, 58 vols. 8vo; Amsterdam, 19 vols. 4to; in the last of which
he gives much autobiographical information), mention may be made of
_Bibliotheque universelle des historiens_ (2 vols., 1707); _L'Histoire
de l'eglise en abrege_ (1712); and _L'Histoire profane depuis le
commencement du monde jusqu'a present_ (4 vols., 1712).
DUPLEIX, JOSEPH FRANCOIS (1697-1763), governor-general of the French
establishment in India, the great rival of Clive (q.v.), was born at
Landrecies, France, on the 1st of January 1697. His father, Francois
Dupleix, a wealthy farmer-general, wished to bring him up as a merchant,
and, in order to distract him from his taste for science, sent him on a
voyage to India in 1715 on one of the French East India Company's
vessels. He made several voyages to America and India, and in 1720 was
named a member of the superior council at Pondicherry. He displayed
great business aptitude, and, in addition to his official duties, made
large ventures on his own account, and acquired a fortune. In 1730 he
was made superintendent of French affairs in Chandernagore, the town
prospering under his energetic administration and growing into great
importance. His reputation procured him in 1742 the appointment of
governor-general of all French establishments in India. His ambition now
was to acquire for France vast territories in India; and for this
purpose he entered into relations with the native princes, and adopted a
style of oriental splendour in his dress and surroundings. The British
took the alarm. But the danger to their settlements and power was partly
averted by the bitter mutual jealousy which existed between Dupleix and
La Bourdonnais, French governor of the isle of Bourbon. When Madras
capitulated to the French in 1764, Dupleix opposed the restoration of
the town to the British, thus violating the treaty signed by La
Bourdonnais. He then sent an expedition against Fort St David (1747),
which was defeated on its march by the nawab of Arcot, the ally of the
British. Dupleix succeeded in gaining over the nawab, and again
attempted the capture of Fort St David, but unsuccessfully. A midnight
attack on Cuddalore was repulsed with great loss. In 1748 Pondicherry
was besieged by the British; but in the course of the operations news
arrived of the peace concluded between the French and the British at
Aix-la-Chapelle. Dupleix next entered into negotiations which had for
their object the subjugation of southern India, and he sent a large body
of troops to the aid of two claimants of the sovereignty of the Carnatic
and the Deccan. The British were engaged on the side of their rivals.
After temporary successes the scheme failed. Dupleix was a great
organizer, but did not possess the genius for command in the field that
was shown by Clive. The conflicts between the French and the British in
India continued till 1754, when the French government, anxious to make
peace, sent out to India a special commissioner with orders to supersede
Dupleix and, if necessary, to arrest him. These orders were carried out
with needless harshness, what survived of Dupleix's work was ruined at a
blow, and he himself was compelled to embark for France on the 12th of
October 1754. He had spent his private fortune in the prosecution of his
public policy; the company refused to acknowledge the obligation; and
the government would do nothing for a man whom they persisted in
regarding as an ambitious and greedy adventurer. The greatest of French
colonial governors died in obscurity and want on the 10th of November
1763. In 1741 he had married Jeanne Albert, widow of one of the
councillors of the company, a woman of strong character and intellect,
known to the Hindus as Joanna Begum, who proved of great use to her
husband in his negotiations with the native princes. She died in 1756,
and two years later he married again.
See Tibulle Hamont, _Dupleix, d'apres sa correspondance inedite_
(Paris, 1881); H. Castonnet, _Dupleix, ses expeditions et ses projets_
(Paris, 1888) and _La Chute de Dupleix_ (Angers, 1888); G.B.
Malleson, _Dupleix_ (Rulers of India series, 1890); and E. Guerin,
_Dupleix_ (1908).
DUPONT, PIERRE (1821-1870), French song-writer, the son of a blacksmith,
was born at Lyons on the 23rd of April 1821. His parents both died
before he was five years old, and he was brought up in the country by
his godfather, a village priest. He was educated at the seminary of
L'Argentiere, and was afterwards apprenticed to a notary at Lyons. In
1839 he found his way to Paris, and some of his poems were inserted in
the _Gazette de France_ and the _Quotidienne_. Two years later he was
saved from the conscription and enabled to publish his first
volume--_Les Deux Anges_--through the exertions of a kinsman and of
Pierre Lebrun. In 1842 he received a prize from the Academy, and worked
for some time on the official dictionary. Gounod's appreciation of his
peasant song, _J'ai deux grands boeufs dans mon etable_ (1846), settled
his vocation as a song-writer. He had no theoretical knowledge of music,
but he composed both the words and the melodies of his songs, the two
processes being generally simultaneous. He himself remained so innocent
of musical knowledge that he had to engage Ernest Reyer to write down
his airs. He sang his own songs, as they were composed, at the workmen's
concerts in the Salle de la Fraternite du Faubourg Saint-Denis; the
public performance of his famous _Le Pain_ was forbidden; _Le Chant des
ouvriers_ was even more popular; and in 1851 he paid the penalty of
having become the poet laureate of the socialistic aspirations of the
time by being condemned to seven years of exile from France. The
sentence was cancelled, and the poet withdrew for a time from
participation in politics. He died at Lyons, where his later years were
spent, on the 24th of July 1870. His songs have appeared in various
forms--_Chants et chansons_ (3 vols., with music, 1852-1854), _Chants et
poesies_ (7th edition, 1862), &c. Among the best-known are _Le
Braconnier_, _Le Tisserand_, _La Vache blanche_, _La Chanson du ble_,
but many others might be mentioned of equal spontaneity and charm. His
later works have not the same merit.
See also Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, iv.; Ch. Baudelaire,
_Notice sur P. Dupont_ (1849); Dechaut, _Biographie de Pierre Dupont_
(1871); and Ch. Lenient, _Poesie patriotique en France_ (1889), ii.
352 et seq.
DUPONT DE L'ETANG, PIERRE ANTOINE, COUNT (1765-1840), French general,
first saw active service as a member of Maillebois' legion in Holland,
and in 1791 was on the staff of the Army of the North under Dillon. He
distinguished himself at Valmy, and in the fighting around Menin in 1793
he forced an Austrian regiment to surrender. Promoted general of brigade
for this feat, he soon received further advancement from Carnot, who
recognized his abilities. In 1797 he became general of division. The
rise of Napoleon, whom he warmly supported in the _coup d'etat_ of 18th
Brumaire, brought him further opportunities. In the campaign of 1800 he
was chief of the staff to Berthier, the nominal commander of the "Army
of Reserve of the Alps", which won the battle of Marengo. After the
battle he sustained a brilliant combat, against greatly superior forces,
at Pozzolo. In the campaign on the Danube in 1805, as the leader of one
of Ney's divisions, he earned further distinction, especially at the
action of Albeck-Haslach, in which he prevented the escape of the
Austrians from Ulm, and so contributed most effectively to the isolation
and subsequent capture of Mack and his whole army (see NAPOLEONIC
CAMPAIGNS). At Friedland he won further fame. With a record such as but
few of Napoleon's divisional commanders possessed, he entered Spain in
1808 at the head of a corps. After the occupation of Madrid, Dupont,
newly created count by Napoleon, was sent to subdue Andalusia. After a
few initial successes he had to retire on the passes of the Sierra
Morena. Pursued and cut off by the Spanish army under Castanos, his
corps was defeated and he felt himself constrained to capitulate
(Baylen, 19th-23rd July; see PENINSULAR WAR). The disgrace which fell
upon the general was not entirely merited. His troops were for the most
part raw levies, and ill-luck contributed materially to the catastrophe,
but, after his return to France, Dupont was sent before a court-martial,
deprived of his rank and title, and imprisoned from 1812 to 1814.
Released only by the fall of Napoleon, he was employed by Louis XVIII.
in a military command, which he lost on the return of Napoleon. But the
Second Restoration saw him restored to the army, and appointed a member
of the _conseil prive_ of Louis XVIII. From 1815 to 1830 he was deputy
for the Charente. He lived in retirement from 1832 till his death in
1840. Amongst the writings Dupont left are some poems, including _L'Art
de la guerre_ (1838), and verse translations from Horace (1836), and the
following military works: _Opinion sur le nouveau mode de recrutement_
(1818), _Lettres sur l'Espagne en 1808_ (1823), _Lettre sur la campagne
d'Autriche_ (1826). At the time of his death he was on the point of
publishing his memoirs.
See Lieut.-Col. Titeux, _Le General Dupont: une erreur historique_
(Paris, 1903).
DUPONT DE L'EURE, JACQUES CHARLES (1767-1855), French lawyer and
statesman, was born at Neubourg (Eure), in Normandy, on the 27th of
February 1767. In 1789 he was an advocate at the parlement of Normandy.
During the republic and the empire he filled successively judicial
offices at Louviers, Rouen and Evreux. He had adopted the principles of
the Revolution, and in 1798 he commenced his political life as a member
of the Council of Five Hundred. In 1813 he became a member of the Corps
Legislatif. During the Hundred Days he was vice-president of the chamber
of deputies, and when the allied armies entered Paris he drew up the
declaration in which the chamber asserted the necessity of maintaining
the principles of government that had been established at the
Revolution. He was chosen one of the commissioners to negotiate with the
allied sovereigns. From 1817 till 1849 he was uninterruptedly a member
of the chamber of deputies, and he acted consistently with the liberal
opposition, of which at more than one crisis he was the virtual leader.
For a few months in 1830 he held office as minister of justice, but,
finding himself out of harmony with his colleagues, he resigned before
the close of the year and resumed his place in the opposition. At the
revolution of 1848 Dupont de l'Eure was made president of the
provisional assembly as being its oldest member. In the following year,
having failed to secure his re-election to the chamber, he retired into
private life. He died in 1855. The consistent firmness with which he
adhered to the cause of constitutional liberalism during the many
changes of his times gained him the highest respect of his countrymen,
by whom he was styled the Aristides of the French tribune.
DU PONT DE NEMOURS, PIERRE SAMUEL (1739-1817), French political
economist and statesman, was born at Paris on the 14th of September
1739. He studied for the medical profession, but did not enter upon
practice, his attention having been early directed to economic questions
through his friendship with Francois Quesnay, Turgot and other leaders
of the school known as the Economists. To this school he rendered
valuable service by several pamphlets on financial questions, and
numerous articles representing and advocating its views in a popular
style in the _Journal de l'agriculture, du commerce, et des finances_,
and the _Ephemerides du citoyen_, of which he was successively editor.
In 1772 he accepted the office of secretary of the council of public
instruction from Stanislas Poniatowski, king of Poland. Two years later
he was recalled to France by the advent of his friend Turgot to power.
After assisting the minister in his wisely-conceived but unavailing
schemes of reform during the brief period of his tenure of office, Du
Pont shared his dismissal and retired to Gatinais, in the neighbourhood
of Nemours, where he employed himself in agricultural improvements.
During his leisure he wrote a translation of Ariosto (1781), and
_Memoires sur la vie de Turgot_ (1782). He was drawn from his retirement
by C.G. de Vergennes, minister of foreign affairs, who employed him in
1782 in negotiating, with the English commissioner Dr James Hutton, for
recognition of the independence of the United States (1782), and in
preparing a treaty of commerce with Great Britain (1786). Under Calonne
he became councillor of state, and was appointed commissary-general of
commerce.
During the Revolution period he advocated constitutional monarchy, and
was returned as deputy by the Third Estate of the _bailliage_ of Nemours
to the states-general, and then to the Constituent Assembly, of which he
was elected president on the 16th of October 1790. But his conservative
opinions rendered him more and more unpopular, and after the 10th of
August 1792, when he took the side of the king, he was forced to lie
concealed for some weeks in the observatory of the Mazarin College, from
which he contrived to escape to the country. During the time that
elapsed before he was discovered and arrested he wrote his _Philosophie
de l'univers_. Imprisoned in La Force (1794), he was one of those who
had the good fortune to escape the guillotine till the death of
Robespierre set them free. As a member of the Council of Five Hundred,
Du Pont carried out his policy of resistance to the Jacobins, and made
himself prominent as a member of the reactionary party. After the
republican triumph on the 18th Fructidor (4th of September) 1797 his
house was sacked by the mob, and he himself only escaped transportation
to Cayenne through the influence of M.J. Chenier. In 1799 he found it
advisable for his comfort, if not for his safety, to emigrate with his
family to the United States. Jefferson's high opinion of Du Pont was
shown in using him in 1802 to convey to Bonaparte unofficially a threat
against the French occupation of Louisiana; and also, earlier, in
requesting him to prepare a scheme of national education, which was
published in 1800 under the title _Sur l'education nationale dans les
Etats-Unis d'Amerique_. Though the scheme was not carried out in the
United States, several of its features have been adopted in the existing
French code. On his return to France in 1802 he declined to accept any
office under Napoleon, devoted himself almost exclusively to literary
pursuits, and was elected to the _Institut_. On the downfall of Napoleon
in 1814 Du Pont became secretary to the provisional government, and on
the restoration he was made a councillor of state. The return of the
emperor in 1815 determined him to quit France, and he spent the close of
his life with his younger son, Eleuthere Irenee (1771-1834), who had
established a powder manufactory in Delaware. He died at Eleutherian
Mills near Wilmington, Delaware, on the 6th of August 1817.
His family continued to conduct the powder-mills, which brought them
considerable wealth. The business was subsequently converted into the E.
I. Du Pont de Nemours Powder Company. His grandson, Admiral Samuel
Francis Du Pont (1803-1865), played a conspicuous part as a U.S. naval
officer in the American Civil War. His great-grandson, Henry Algernon Du
Pont (b. 1838), president of the Wilmington & Northern railway, was a
soldier in the Civil War, and afterwards a United States senator.
Du Pont's most important works, besides those mentioned above, were
his _De l'origine et des progres d'une science nouvelle_ (London and
Paris, 1767); _Physiocratie, ou constitution naturelle du gouvernement
le plus avantageux au genre humain_ (Paris, 1768); and his
_Observations sur les effets de la liberte du commerce des grains_
(1760). They are gathered together in vol. ii. of the _Collection des
economistes_ (1846). See notices of his life (1818) by Silvestre and
Baron de Gerando; also Schelle, _Du Pont de Nemours et l'ecole
physiocratique_ (1888).
DUPORT, ADRIEN (1759-1798), French politician, was born in Paris. He
became an influential advocate in the parlement, becoming prominent in
opposition to the ministers Calonne and Lomenie de Brienne. Elected in
1789 to the states-general by the _noblesse_ of Paris, he soon revealed
a remarkable eloquence. A learned jurist, he contributed during the
Constituent Assembly to the organization of the judiciary of France. His
report of the 29th of March 1790 is especially notable. In it he
advocated trial by jury; but he was unable to obtain the jury system in
civil cases. Duport had formed with Barnave and Alexandre de Lameth a
group known as the "triumvirate," which was popular at first. But after
the flight of the king to Varennes, Duport sought to defend him; as
member of the commission charged to question the king, he tried to
excuse him, and on the 14th of July 1791 he opposed the formal
accusation. He was thus led to separate himself from the Jacobins and to
join the Feuillant party. After the Constituent Assembly he became
president of the criminal tribunal of Paris, but was arrested during the
insurrection of the 10th of August 1792. He escaped, thanks probably to
the complicity of Danton, returned to France after the 9th of Thermidor
of the year II., left it in exile again after the republican _coup
d'etat_ of the 18th of Fructidor of the year V., and died at Appenzell
in Switzerland in 1798.
See F.A. Aulard, _Les Orateurs de la Constituante_ (2nd ed., Paris,
1905, 8vo).
DUPORT, JAMES (1606-1679), English classical scholar, was born at
Cambridge. His father, John Duport, who was descended from an old Norman
family (the Du Ports of Caen, who settled in Leicestershire during the
reign of Henry IV.), was master of Jesus College. The son was educated
at Westminster and at Trinity College, where he became fellow and
subsequently vicemaster. In 1639 he was appointed regius professor of
Greek, in 1664 dean of Peterborough, and in 1668 master of Magdalene
College. He died at Peterborough on the 17th of July 1679. Throughout
the troublous times of the Civil War, in spite of the loss of his
clerical offices and eventually of his professorship, Duport quietly
continued his lectures. He is best known by his _Homeri gnomologia_
(1660), a collection of all the aphorisms, maxims and remarkable
opinions in the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_, illustrated by quotations from
the Bible and classical literature. His other published works chiefly
consist of translations (from the Bible and Prayer Book into Greek) and
short original poems, collected under the title of _Horae subsecivae_ or
_Stromata_. They include congratulatory odes (inscribed to the king);
funeral odes; _carmina comitialia_ (tripos verses on different theses
maintained in the schools, remarkable for their philosophical and
metaphysical knowledge); sacred epigrams; and three books of
miscellaneous poems (_Sylvae_). The character of Duport's work is not
such as to appeal to modern scholars, but he deserves the credit of
having done much to keep alive the study of classical literature in his
day.
The chief authority for the life of Duport is J.H. Monk's "Memoir"
(1825); see also Sandys, _Hist. Class. Schol._ (1908), ii. 349.
DUPPEL, a village of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Schleswig-Holstein, opposite the town of Sonderburg (on the island of
Alsen). (Pop. 600.) The position of Duppel, forming as it does a
bridge-head for the defenders of the island of Alsen, played a
conspicuous part in the wars between Denmark and the Germans. On the
28th of May 1848 the German federal troops were there defeated by the
Danes under General Hedemann, and a second battle was fought on the 6th
of June 1848. On the 13th of April 1849 an indecisive battle was fought
between the federal troops under von Prittwitz and the Danes under von
Bulow. The most important event in the military history of Duppel was,
however, the siege by the Prussians of the Danish position in 1864. The
flanks of the defenders' line rested upon the Alsen Sund and the sea,
and it was strengthened by ten redoubts. A second line of trenches with
lunettes at intervals was constructed behind the front attacked, and a
small reduit opposite Sonderburg to cover the bridges between Alsen and
the mainland. The Prussian siege corps was commanded by Prince
Frederick Charles (headquarters, Duppel village), and after three weeks'
skirmishing a regular siege was begun, the batteries being opened on the
15th of March. The first parallel was completed fifteen days later, the
front of attack being redoubts II. to VI., forming the centre of the
Danish entrenchments on the road Duppel-Sonderburg. The siege was pushed
rapidly from the first parallel and the assault delivered on the 18th of
April, against the redoubts I. to VI., each redoubt being attacked by a
separate column. The whole line was carried after a brief but severe
conflict, and the Prussians had penetrated to and captured the reduit
opposite Sonderburg by 2 P.M. The loss of the Danes, half of whose
forces were not engaged, included 1800 killed and wounded and 3400
prisoners. This operation was followed by the daring passage of the
Alsen Sund, effected by the Prussians in boats almost under the guns of
the Danish war-ships, and resulting in the capture of the whole island
of Alsen (June 29th, 1864). After being still further strengthened and
linked with similar defences at Sonderburg, the Duppel entrenchments
were abandoned in 1881 in favour of landward fortifications around Kiel.
See R. Neumann, _Uber den Angriff der Duppeler Schanzen in der Zeit
vom 15. Marz bis 18. April 1864_ (Berlin, 1865); and _Der
deutschdanische Krieg 1864_, published by the Prussian General Staff
(Berlin, 1887).
DU PRAT, ANTOINE (1463-1535), chancellor of France and cardinal, was
born at Issoire on the 17th of January 1463. He began life as a lawyer,
and rose rapidly in the legal hierarchy owing to the influence of his
cousin Antoine Bohier, cardinal archbishop of Bourges. The first office
which he held was that of lieutenant-general in the _bailliage_ of
Montferrand; in 1507 he became first president of the parlement of
Paris. Louise of Savoy had employed him as her adviser in her affairs,
and had made him tutor to her son. When Francis I. ascended the throne
he made Du Prat chancellor of France, in which capacity he played an
important part in the government. It was he who negotiated with Leo X.
concerning the abolition of the Pragmatic Sanction and the establishment
of a concordat. After the meeting of the Field of the Cloth of Gold
(1520) he was engaged in unsuccessful negotiations with Wolsey. During
the regency of Louise of Savoy he, together with Florimond Robertet, was
at the head of affairs. He took an active part in the suit brought by
Louise of Savoy against the Constable de Bourbon, and in 1532 completed
the work of uniting Brittany to France. After the death of his wife in
1507 Du Prat had taken orders; he received the bishoprics of Valence,
Die, Meaux and Albi, and the archbishopric of Sens (1525); in 1527 he
became cardinal, and in 1530 papal legate. He was a determined adversary
of the Reformation. He died on the 9th of July 1535.
See the marquis Du Prat, _Vie d'Antoine Du Prat_ (Paris, 1857).
DUPRE, JULES (1812-1889), French painter, was one of the chief members
of the Barbizon group of romantic landscape painters. If Corot stands
for the lyric and Rousseau for the epic aspect of the poetry of nature,
Dupre is the exponent of her tragic and dramatic aspects. He was the son
of a porcelain manufacturer, and started his career in his father's
works, whence he went to his uncle's china factory at Sevres. After
studying for some time under Diebold, a painter of clock faces, he had
to pass through a short period of privation, until he attracted the
attention of a wealthy patron, who came to his studio and bought all the
studies on the walls at the price demanded by the artist--20 francs
apiece. Dupre exhibited first at the Salon in 1831, and three years
later was awarded a second-class medal. In the same year he came to
England, where he was deeply impressed by the genius of Constable. From
him he learnt how to express movement in nature; and the district of
Southampton and Plymouth, with its wide, unbroken expanses of water, sky
and ground, gave him good opportunities for studying the tempestuous
motion of storm-clouds and the movement of foliage driven by the wind.
He received the cross of the Legion of Honour in 1848. Dupre's colour is
sonorous and resonant; the subjects for which he showed marked
preference are dramatic sunset effects and stormy skies and seas. Late
in life he changed his style and gained appreciably in largeness of
handling and arrived at greater simplicity in his colour harmonies.
Among his chief works are the "Morning" and "Evening" at the Louvre, and
the early "Crossing the Bridge" in the Wallace Collection.
DUPUIS, CHARLES FRANCOIS (1742-1809), French scientific writer and
politician, was born of poor parents at Trye-Chateau, between Gisors and
Chaumont, on the 26th of October 1742. His father, who was a teacher,
instructed him in mathematics and land-surveying. While he was engaged
in measuring a tower by a geometrical method, the duc de la
Rochefoucauld met him and was so taken by the lad's intelligence that he
gave him a bursary in the college of Harcourt. Dupuis made such rapid
progress that, at the age of twenty-four, he was appointed professor of
rhetoric at the college of Lisieux, where he had previously passed as a
licentiate of theology. In his hours of leisure he studied law, and in
1770 he abandoned the clerical career and became an advocate. Two
university discourses which he delivered in Latin were printed, and laid
the foundation of his literary fame. His chief attention, however, was
devoted to mathematics, the object of his early studies; and for some
years he attended the astronomical lectures of Lalande, with whom he
formed an intimate friendship. In 1778 he constructed a telegraph on the
principle suggested by Guillaume Amontons (q.v.), and employed it in
keeping up a correspondence with his friend Jean Fortin in the
neighbouring village of Bagneux, until the Revolution made it necessary
to destroy his machine to avoid suspicion. About the same time Dupuis
formed his theory as to the origin of the Greek months. He endeavoured
to account for the want of any resemblance between the groups of stars
and the names by which they are known, by supposing that the zodiac was,
for the people who invented it, a sort of calendar at once astronomical
and rural, and that the figures chosen for the constellations were such
as would naturally suggest the agricultural operations of the season. It
seemed only necessary, therefore, to discover the clime and the period
in which the constellation of Capricorn must have arisen with the sun on
the day of the summer solstice, and the vernal equinox must have
occurred under Libra. It appeared to Dupuis that this clime was Upper
Egypt, and that the perfect correspondence between the signs and their
significations had existed in that country at a period of between
fifteen and sixteen thousand years before the present time; that it had
existed only there; and that this harmony had been disturbed by the
effect of the precession of the equinoxes. He therefore ascribed the
invention of the signs of the zodiac to the people who then inhabited
Upper Egypt or Ethiopia. This was the basis on which Dupuis established
his mythological system, and endeavoured to explain fabulous history and
the whole system of the theogony and theology of the ancients. Dupuis
published several detached parts of his system in the _Journal des
savants_ for 1777 and 1781. These he afterwards collected and published,
first in Lalande's _Astronomy_, and then in a separate volume in 4to,
1781, under the title of _Memoire sur l'origine des constellations et
sur l'explication de la fable par l'astronomie_. The theory propounded
in this memoir was refuted by J.S. Bailly in his _Histoire de
l'astronomie_, but, at the same time, with a just acknowledgment of the
erudition and ingenuity exhibited by the author.
Condorcet proposed Dupuis to Frederick the Great of Prussia as a fit
person to succeed Thiebault in the professorship of literature at
Berlin; and Dupuis had accepted the invitation, when the death of the
king cancelled the engagement. The chair of humanity in the College of
France having at the same time become vacant, it was conferred on
Dupuis; and in 1788 he became a member of the Academy of Inscriptions.
He now resigned his professorship at Lisieux, and was appointed by the
administrators of the department of Paris one of the four commissioners
of public instruction. At the outbreak of the Revolutionary troubles
Dupuis sought safety at Evreux; and, having been chosen a member of the
National Convention by the department of Seine-et-Oise, he distinguished
himself by his moderation. In the third year of the republic he was
elected secretary to the Assembly, and in the fourth he was chosen a
member of the Council of Five Hundred. After Bonaparte's _coup d'etat_
of the 18th Brumaire he was elected by the department of Seine-et-Oise a
member of the Legislative Body, of which he became the president. He was
proposed as a candidate for the senate, but resolved to abandon
politics, devoting himself during the rest of his life to his favourite
studies.
In 1795 he published the work by which he is best known, entitled
_Origine de tous les cultes, ou la religion universelle_ (3 vols. 4to,
with an atlas, or 12 vols. 12mo). This work, of which an edition revised
by P.R. Auguis was published in 1822 (10th ed., 1835-1836), became the
subject of much bitter controversy, and the theory it propounded as to
the origin of mythology in Upper Egypt led to the expedition organized
by Napoleon for the exploration of that country. In 1798 Dupuis
published an abridgment of his work in one volume 8vo, which met with no
better success than the original. Another abridgment of the same work,
executed upon a much more methodical plan, was published by M. de Tracy.
The other works of Dupuis consist of two memoirs on the Pelasgi,
inserted in the _Memoirs of the Institute_; a memoir "On the Zodiac of
Tentyra," published in the _Revue philosophique_ for May 1806; and a
_Memoire explicatif du zodiaque chronologique et mythologique_,
published the same year, in one volume 4to. He died on the 29th of
September 1809.
DUPUY, CHARLES ALEXANDRE (1851- ), French statesman, was born at Le
Puy on the 5th of November 1851, his father being a local official.
After being a professor of philosophy in the provinces, he was appointed
a school inspector, and thus obtained a practical acquaintance with the
needs of French education. In 1885 he was elected to the chamber as an
Opportunist Republican. After acting as "reporter" of the budget for
public instruction, he became minister for the department, in M. Ribot's
cabinet, in 1892. In April 1893 he formed a ministry himself, taking as
his office that of minister of the interior, but resigned at the end of
November, and on 5th December was elected president of the chamber.
During his first week of office an anarchist, Vaillant, who had managed
to gain admission to the chamber, threw a bomb at the president, and M.
Dupuy's collected bearing, and his historic words: "Messieurs, la seance
continue," gained him much credit. In May 1894 he again became premier
and minister of the interior; and he was by President Carnot's side when
the latter was stabbed to death at Lyons in June. He then became a
candidate for the presidency, but was defeated, and his cabinet remained
in office till January 1895; it was under it that Captain Dreyfus was
arrested and condemned (23rd of December 1894). The progress of
_l'affaire_ then cast its shadow upon M. Dupuy, along with other French
"ministrables," but in November 1898, after M. Brisson had at last
remitted the case to the judgment of the court of cassation, he formed a
cabinet of Republican concentration. In view of the apparent likelihood
that the judges of the criminal division of the court of cassation--who
formed the ordinary tribunal for such an appeal--would decide in favour
of Dreyfus, it was thought that M. Dupuy's new cabinet would be strong
enough to reconcile public opinion to such a result; but, to the
surprise of outside observers, it was no sooner discovered how the
judges were likely to decide than M. Dupuy proposed a law in the chamber
transferring the decision to a full court of all the divisions of the
court of cassation. This arbitrary act, though adopted by the chamber,
was at once construed as a fresh attempt to maintain the judgment of the
first court-martial; but in the interval President Faure (an
anti-Dreyfusard) died, and the accession of M. Loubet doubtless had some
effect in quieting public feeling. At all events, the whole court of
cassation decided that there must be a new court-martial, and M. Dupuy
at once resigned (June 1899). In June 1900 he was elected senator for
the Haute Saone.
DUPUY, PIERRE (1582-1651), French scholar, otherwise known as PUTEANUS,
was born at Agen (Lot-et-Garonne) on the 27th of November 1582. In 1615
he was commissioned by Mathieu Mole, first president of the parlement of
Paris, to draw up an inventory of the documents which constituted what
at that time was known as the _Tresor des chartes_. This work occupied
eleven years. His MS. inventory is preserved in the original and in copy
in the Bibliotheque Nationale, and transcriptions are in the national
archives in Paris, at the record office in London, and elsewhere.
Dupuy's classification is still regarded with respect, but the inventory
has been partially replaced by the publication of the _Layettes du
tresor_ (four volumes, coming down to 1270; 1863-1902). Dupuy also
published, with his brother Jacques, and their friend Nicolas Rigault,
the _History_ of Aug. de Thou (1620, 1626). The two brothers then bought
from Rigault the post of keeper of the king's library, and drew up a
catalogue of the library (Nos. 9352-9354 and 10366-10367 of the Latin
collection in the Bibliotheque Nationale). In the course of this work,
Dupuy became acquainted with and copied an enormous mass of unpublished
documents, which furnished him with the material for some excellent
works: _Traite des droits et des libertes de l'eglise gallicane, avec
les preuves_ (1639), _Histoire de l'ordre militaire des Templiers_
(1654), _Histoire generale du schisme qui a ete dans l'eglise depuis
1378 jusqu'a 1428_ (1654), and _Histoire du differend entre le pape
Boniface VIII et le roi Philippe le Bel_ (1655). These works, especially
the last, are important contributions to the history of the relations of
church and state in the middle ages. They were written from the Gallican
standpoint, i.e. in favour of the rights of the crown in temporal and
political matters, and this explains the delay in their publication
until after Dupuy's death. He wrote also _Traite des regences et des
majorites des rois de France_ (1655) and _Recueil des droits du roi_
(1658). Dupuy's papers, preserved in the Bibliotheque Nationale, were
inventoried by Leon Dorez (_Catalogue de la collection Dupuy_, 1899).
See also L. Delisle's _Le Cabinet des manuscrits de la bibliotheque
imperiale_. Dupuy died in Paris on the 14th of December 1651.
DUPUY DE LOME, STANISLAS CHARLES HENRI LAURENT (1816-1885), French naval
architect, the son of a retired naval officer, was born at Ploemeur,
near Lorient, on the 15th of October 1816. He entered the Ecole
Polytechnique in 1835, and in 1842 was sent to England to study and
report on iron shipbuilding. Acting on his report, which was published
in 1844, the government built their first iron vessels under his
supervision. He planned and built the steam line-of-battle ship
"Napoleon" (1848-1852), and devised the method of altering sailing ships
of the line into steamers, which was afterwards extensively practised in
both France and England. He also showed the practicability of armouring
the sides of a ship, and the frigate "Gloire" gave a very clear
demonstration of his views. It was the beginning of the great change in
the construction of ships of war which has been going on ever since. In
1857 Dupuy de Lome was appointed "chef de la direction du materiel," at
Paris; and in 1861, "inspecteur general du materiel de la marine." In
1866 he was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences. At the
beginning of the Franco-German War he was appointed a member of the
committee of defence, and during the siege of Paris occupied himself
with planning a steerable balloon, for carrying out which he was given a
credit of 40,000 fr.; but the balloon was not ready till a few days
before the capitulation. The experiments that were afterwards made with
it did not prove entirely satisfactory. In 1875 he was busy over a
scheme for embarking a railway train at Calais, and exhibited plans of
the improved harbour and models of the "bateaux porte-trains" to the
Academy of Sciences in July. In 1877 he was elected a senator for life.
He received the cross of the Legion of Honour in 1845, was made a
commander in 1858, and grand officer in December 1863. He died at Paris
on the 1st of February 1885.
DUPUYTREN, GUILLAUME, BARON (1777-1835), French anatomist and surgeon,
was born on the 6th of October 1777 at Pierre Buffiere (Haute Vienne).
He studied medicine in Paris at the newly established Ecole de Medecine,
and was appointed by competition prosector when only eighteen years of
age. His early studies were directed chiefly to morbid anatomy. In 1803
he was appointed assistant-surgeon at the Hotel-Dieu, and in 1811
professor of operative surgery in succession to R.B. Sabatier
(1732-1811). In 1815 he was appointed to the chair of clinical surgery,
and became head surgeon at the Hotel-Dieu. Dupuytren's energy and
industry were alike remarkable. He visited the Hotel-Dieu morning and
evening, performing at each time several operations, lectured to vast
throngs of students, gave advice to his outdoor patients, and fulfilled
the duties consequent upon one of the largest practices of modern times.
By his indefatigable activity he amassed a fortune of L300,000, the bulk
of which he bequeathed to his daughter, with the deduction of
considerable sums for the endowment of the anatomical chair in the Ecole
de Medecine, and the establishment of a benevolent institution for
distressed medical men. The most important of Dupuytren's writings is
his _Treatise on Artificial Anus_, in which he applied the principles
laid down by John Hunter. In his operations he was remarkable for his
skill and dexterity, and for his great readiness of resource. He died in
Paris on the 8th of February 1835.
DUQUE DE ESTRADA, DIEGO (1589-?), Spanish memoir writer, soldier and
adventurer, son of Juan Duque de Estrada, also a soldier of rank, was
born at Toledo on the 15th of August 1589. Having been left an orphan
when very young, he was educated by a cousin. While still young he was
betrothed to his cousin's daughter. One night he found an intruder in
the house, a gentleman with whom he was acquainted, and in a fit of
jealousy killed both him and the young lady. The prevailing code of
honour was considered a sufficient justification for Duque de Estrada's
violence, but the law looked upon the act as a vulgar assassination, and
he had to flee. After leading a vagabond life in the south of Spain, he
was arrested at Ecija, was brought to Toledo, and was there put to the
torture with extreme ferocity, in order to extort a general confession
as to his life during the past months. He had the strength not to yield
to pain, and was finally able to escape from prison, partly by the help
of a nun in a religious house which faced the prison, and partly by the
intervention of friends. He made his way to Naples, where he entered the
service of the duke of Osuna (q.v.), at that time viceroy. Duque de
Estrada saw a good deal of fighting both with the Turks and the
Venetians; but he is mainly interesting because he was employed by the
viceroy in the conspiracy against Venice. He was one of the disguised
Spanish soldiers who were sent into the town to destroy the arsenal, and
who were warned in time that the conspiracy had been betrayed, and
therefore escaped. After the fall of his patron, Duque de Estrada
resumed his vagabond life, served under Bethlen Gabor in Transylvania,
and in the Thirty Years' War. In 1633 he entered the order of San Juan
de Dios, and died at some time after 1637 in Sardinia, where he is known
to have taken part in the defence of the island against an attack by the
French. He left a book of memoirs, entitled _Comentarios de el
desengenado de si Mismo prueba de todos estados, y eleccion del Mejor de
ellos_--"The Commentaries of one who knew his own little worth, the
touchtstone of all the state of man, and the choice of the best." They
were written at different times, and part has been lost. The style is
incorrect, and it would be unsafe to trust them in every detail, but
they are amazingly vivid, and contain a wonderful picture of the moral
and intellectual state of a large part of Spanish society at the time.
The memoirs have been reprinted by Don Pascual de Gayangos in the
_Memorial historico espanol_, vol. xii. (Madrid, 1860).
DUQUESNE, ARRAHAM, MARQUIS (1610-1688), French naval officer, was born
at Dieppe in 1610. Born in a stirring seaport, the son of a
distinguished naval officer, he naturally adopted the profession of a
sailor. He spent his youth in the merchant service, and obtained his
first distinction in naval warfare by the capture of the island of
Lerins from the Spaniards in May 1637. About the same time his father
was killed in an engagement with the Spaniards, and the news raised his
hatred of the national enemy to the pitch of a personal and bitter
animosity. For the next five years he sought every opportunity of
inflicting defeat and humiliation on the Spanish navy, and he
distinguished himself by his bravery in the engagement at Guetaria
(1638), the expedition to Corunna (1639), and in battles at Tarragona
(1641), Barcelona (1643), and the Cabo de Gata. The French navy being
left unemployed during the minority of Louis XIV., Duquesne obtained
leave to offer his services to the king of Sweden, who gave him a
commission as vice-admiral in 1643. In this capacity he defeated the
Danish fleet near Gothenburg and thus raised the siege of the city. The
Danes returned to the struggle with increased forces under the command
of King Christian in person, but they were again defeated--their admiral
being killed and his ship taken. Peace having been concluded between
Sweden and Denmark in 1645, Duquesne returned to France. The revolt at
Bordeaux, supported as it was by material aid from Spain, gave him the
opportunity of at once serving his country and gratifying his
long-cherished hatred of the Spaniards. In 1650 he fitted out at his own
expense a squadron with which he blockaded the mouth of the Gironde, and
compelled the city to surrender. For this service he was promoted in
rank, and received a gift of the castle and isle of Indre, near Nantes.
Peace with Spain was concluded in 1659, and for some years afterwards
Duquesne was occupied in endeavours to suppress piracy in the
Mediterranean. On the revolt of Messina from Spain, he was sent to
support the insurgents, and had to encounter the united fleets of Spain
and Holland under the command of the celebrated Admiral de Ruyter. After
several battles, in which the advantage was generally on the side of the
French, a decisive engagement took place near Catania, on the 20th of
April 1676, when the Dutch fleet was totally routed and de Ruyter
mortally wounded. The greater part of the defeated fleet was afterwards
burned in the harbour of Palermo, where it had taken refuge, and the
French thus secured the undisputed command of the Mediterranean. For
this important service Duquesne received a letter of thanks from Louis
XIV., together with the title of marquis and the estate of Bouchet. His
last achievements were the bombardment of Algiers (1682-1683), in order
to effect the deliverance of the Christian captives, and the bombardment
of Genoa in 1684. He retired from service in 1684, on the ground of age
and ill-health. It is probable also that he foresaw the revocation of
the edict of Nantes, which took place in the following year. He died in
Paris on the 2nd of February 1688.
See Jal, _Abraham Duquesne, et la marine de son temps_ (1873).
DUQUESNE, a borough of Allegheny county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the
Monongahela river, about 12 m. S.E. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1900) 9036, of
whom 3451 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 15,727. It is served by the
Pennsylvania railway. Its most prominent buildings are the Carnegie free
library and club (opened in 1904 and containing 17,500 volumes in 1908),
and the city hall. A short distance N. of the borough limits Kennywood
Park, with a large auditorium and pavilion, is an attractive resort. By
far the most important industry of the borough is the manufacture of
steel. The value of the borough's factory products increased from
$20,333,476 in 1900 to $28,494,303 in 1905, or 40.1%. The municipality
owns and operates its water-works. Duquesne was settled in 1885 and was
incorporated in 1891.
DURAMEN (a rare Latin word, meaning hardness, from _durus_, hard), a
botanical term for the inner, harder wood of a tree, the heart-wood.
DURAN, a Jewish Provencal family of rabbis and scholars, of whom the
following are the most important.
1. PROFIAT DURAN, called also EPHODI. He was in 1391 compelled to
profess Christianity, but remained devoted to Judaism. His chief works
were grammatical and philosophical. In the former realm his most
important contribution was the _Ma'aseh 'Ephod_ (completed in 1403); in
the latter, his commentary to the _Guide of the Perplexed_ by Maimonides
(q.v.).
2. SIMON BEN ZEMAH DURAN (1361-1441), rabbi of Algiers. He was one of
the first of the medieval rabbis to be a salaried official of the
synagogue. Before the 14th century the rabbinical post had been almost
invariably honorary, and filled by men who derived their income from a
profession, especially medicine. Duran wrote a systematic work on
theology, _Magen 'Aboth_, but is chiefly famous for his numerous
_Responsa_ (known as _Tashbaz_) published in three vols. in 1738-1739.
These _Responsa_, "Answers to questions sent from many lands," give
valuable information as to social and religious conditions in the
earlier part of the 15th century. (I. A.)
DURAN, AGUSTIN (1789-1862), Spanish scholar, was born in 1789 at Madrid,
where his father was court physician. He was sent to the seminary at
Vergara, whence he returned learned in the traditions of Spanish
romance. In 1817 he began the study of philosophy and law at the
university of Seville, and in due course was admitted to the bar at
Valladolid. From 1821 to 1823 he held a post in the education department
at Madrid, but in the latter year he was suspended on account of his
political opinions. In 1834 he became secretary of the board for the
censorship of the press, and shortly afterwards obtained a post in the
national library at Madrid. The revolution of 1840 led to his dismissal;
but he was reinstated in 1843, and in 1854 was appointed chief
librarian. Next year, however, he retired to devote himself to his
literary work. In 1828, shortly after his first discharge from office,
he published anonymously his _Discurso sobre el influjo que ha tenido la
critica moderna en la decadencia del teatro antiguo_; this treatise
greatly influenced the younger dramatists of the day. He next
endeavoured to interest his fellow-countrymen in their ancient,
neglected ballads, and in the forgotten dramas of the 17th century. Five
volumes of a _Romancero general_ appeared from 1828 to 1832
(republished, with considerable additions, in 2 vols. 1849-1851), and
_Talia espanola_ (1834), a reprint of old Spanish comedies. Duran's
_Romancero general_ is the fullest collection of the kind and is
therefore unlikely to be superseded, though the texts are inferior to
those edited by Menendez y Pelayo.
DURANCE (anc. _Druentia_), one of the principal rivers descending from
the French slope of the Alps towards the Mediterranean. Its total length
from its source to its junction with the Rhone (of which it is one of
the principal affluents), a little below Avignon, is 217-1/2 m. For the
greater part of its course it flows in a south-westerly direction, but
near Pertuis gradually bends N.W. and thenceforth preserves this
direction. It passes through the departments of Hautes-Alpes, of
Basses-Alpes, and between those of Vaucluse and Bouches-du-Rhone. It is
commonly said to take its origin in some small lakes a little south of
the summit plateau of the Mont Genevre Pass. But really this stream is
surpassed both in volume and length of course by two others which it
joins beneath Briancon:--the Clairee, flowing in from the north, through
the smiling Nevache glen, at the head of which, not far from the foot of
the Mont Thabor (10,440 ft.), it rises in some small lakes, on the east
side of the Col des Rochilles; and the Guisane (flowing in from the
north-west and rising near the Col du Lautaret, 6808 ft.). The united
stream soon receives its first affluent, the Cerveyrette (left), and,
after having passed through some fine deep-cut gorges, the Gyronde
(right). It then runs through a stony plain, where it frequently
overflows and causes great damage, this being indeed the main
characteristic of the Durance throughout its course. At the foot of the
fortress of Mont Dauphin it receives (left) the Guil, which flows
through the Queyras valley from near the foot of Monte Viso. Some way
beyond it passes beneath Embrun, the first important town on its banks.
It soon becomes the boundary for a while between the departments of the
Hautes-Alpes and of the Basses-Alpes, and receives successively the
considerable Ubaye river, flowing from near the foot of Monte Viso past
Barcelonnette (left), and then the small stream of the Luye (right), on
which, a few miles above, is Gap. It enters the Basses-Alpes shortly
before reaching Sisteron, where it is joined (right) by the wild torrent
of the Buech, flowing from the desolate region of the Devoluy, and
receives the Bleone (left) (on which Digne, the capital of the
department, is situated) and the Asse (left), before quitting the
department of the Basses-Alpes just as it is reinforced (left) by the
Verdon, flowing from the lower summits of the Maritime Alps past
Castellane. After passing through some narrow gorges near Sisteron the
bed of the river becomes wide, and spreads desolation around, the
frequent overflows being kept within bounds by numerous dykes and
embankments. These features are especially marked when the river, after
leaving the Basses-Alpes, soon bends N.W. and, always serving as the
boundary between the departments of Vaucluse (N.) and of the
Bouches-du-Rhone (S.), passes Cavaillon before it effects its junction
with the Rhone. The drainage area of the Durance is about 5166 sq. m.,
while the height it descends is 6550 ft., if reckoned from the lakes on
the Mont Genevre, or 7850 ft. if we take those at the head of the
Nevache valley as the true source of the river. (W. A. B. C.)
DURAND, ASHER BROWN (1796-1886), American painter and engraver, was born
at South Orange, New Jersey, on the 21st of August 1796. He worked with
his father, a watchmaker; was apprenticed in 1812 to an engraver named
Peter Maverick; and his first work, the head of an old beggar after
Waldo, attracted the attention of the artist Trumbull. Durand
established his reputation by his engraving of Trumbull's "Declaration
of Independence." After 1835, however, he devoted himself chiefly to
portrait painting. He painted several of the presidents of the United
States and many other men of political and social prominence. In 1840 he
visited Europe, where he studied the work of the old masters; after his
return he devoted himself almost entirely to landscape. He died at South
Orange on the 17th of September 1886. He had been one of the founders of
the National Academy of Design in 1826, and was its president in
1845-1861. Durand may be called the father of the Hudson River School.
Although there was something hard and unsympathetic about his
landscapes, and unnecessary details and trivialities were
over-prominent, he was a well-trained craftsman, and his work is marked
by sincerity.
DURAND, GUILLAUME (GUILLELMUS DURANDUS), also known as DURANTI or
DURANTIS, from the Italian form of _Durandi filius_, as he sometimes
signed himself (c. 1230-1296), French canonist and liturgical writer,
and bishop of Mende, was born at Puimisson, near Beziers, of a noble
family of Languedoc. He studied law at Bologna, especially with
Bernardus of Parma, and about 1264 was teaching canon law with success
at Modena. Clement IV., his fellow-countryman, called him to the
pontifical court as a chaplain and auditor of the palace, and in 1274 he
accompanied Clement's successor Gregory X. to the council of Lyons, the
constitutions of which he drew up, along with some other prelates. As
spiritual and temporal legate of the patrimony of St Peter, he received
in 1278, in the name of the pope, the homage of Bologna and of the other
cities of Romagna. Martin IV. made him vicar spiritual in 1281, then
governor of Romagna and of the March of Ancona (1283). In the midst of
the struggles between Guelfs and Ghibellines, Durandus successfully
defended the papal territories, both by diplomacy and by arms. Honorius
IV. retained him in his offices, and although elected bishop of Mende in
1286, he remained in Italy until 1291. In 1295 he refused the
archbishopric of Ravenna, offered him by Boniface VIII., but accepted
the task of pacifying again his former provinces of Romagna and the
March of Ancona. In 1296 he withdrew to Rome, where he died on the 1st
of November.
Durandus' principal work is the _Speculum judiciale_, which was drawn up
in 1271, and revised in 1286 and 1291. It is a general explanation of
civil, criminal and canonical procedure, and also includes a survey of
the subject of contracts. It is a remarkable synthesis of Roman and
ecclesiastical law, distinguished by its clarity, its method, and
especially its practical sense, in a field in which it was pioneer, and
its repute was as great and lasting in the courts as in the schools. It
won for Durandus the name of "The Speculator." It was commented upon by
Giovanni Andrea (in 1346), and by Baldus, and in 1306 Cardinal Beranger
drew up an alphabetical table of its contents (_Inventorium_). There are
many manuscripts of the _Speculum_, and several editions, of which the
most usual is that of Turin in 1578 in 2 volumes, containing all
additions and tables. This edition was reproduced at Frankfort in 1612
and 1668. The next important work of Durandus is the _Rationale divinorum
officiorum_, a liturgical treatise written in Italy before 1286, on the
origin and symbolic sense of the Christian ritual. It presents a picture
of the liturgy of the 13th century in the West, studied in its various
forms, its traditional sources, and its relation to the church buildings
and furniture. With Martene's _De antiquis Ecclesiae ritibus_ it is the
main authority on Western liturgies. It has run through various editions,
from its first publication in 1459 to the last edition at Naples, 1866.
The other important works of Durandus comprise a _Repertorium juris
canonici_ (_Breviarium aureum_), a collection of citations from canonists
on questions of controversy--often published along with the _Speculum_; a
_Commentarius in sacrosanctum Lugdunense concilium_ (ed. Fano, 1569), of
especial value owing to the share of Durandus in the elaboration of the
constitutions of this council (1274), and inserted by Boniface VIII. in
the _Sextus_.
A nephew of "The Speculator," also named GUILLAUME DURAND (d. 1330), and
also a canonist, was rector of the university of Toulouse and succeeded
his uncle as bishop of Mende. He wrote in 1311, in connexion with the
council of Vienne, _De modo celebrandi concilii et corruptelis in
Ecclesia reformandis_. It attacks the abuses of the Church with extreme
sincerity and vigour.