[1] One branch of the Blackwood family emigrated to France; the head
of this line being Adam Blackwood (d. 1613), jurist, poet and divine,
and senator of the presidial court of Poitiers.
DUFF-GORDON, LUCIE (1821-1869), English woman of letters, daughter of
John and Sarah Austin (q.v.), was born on the 24th of June 1821. Her
chief playfellows as a child were her cousin, Henry Reeve, and John
Stuart Mill, who lived next door in Queen Square, London. In 1834 the
Austins went to Boulogne, and at table d'hote Lucie found herself next
to Heinrich Heine. The poet and the little girl became fast friends, and
years afterwards she contributed to Lord Houghton's _Monographs Personal
and Social_ a touching account of a renewal of their friendship when
Heine lay dying in Paris. Her parents went to Malta in 1836, and Lucie
Austin was left in England at school, but her unconventional education
made the restrictions of a girls' school exceedingly irksome. She showed
her independence of character by joining the English Church, though this
step was certain to cause pain to her parents, who were Unitarians, and
to many of her friends. She married in 1840 Sir Alexander Duff-Gordon
(1811-1872). With her mother's beauty she had inherited her social
gifts, and she gathered round her a brilliant circle of friends. George
Meredith has analysed and described her extraordinary success as a
hostess, and the process by which she reduced too ardent admirers to
"happy crust-munching devotees." "In England, in her day," he says,
"while health was with her, there was one house where men and women
conversed. When that house perforce was closed, a light had gone out in
our country." After her father's death, she fell into weak health and
was obliged to seek sunnier climes. She went in 1860 to the Cape of Good
Hope, and later to Egypt, where she died on the 14th of July 1869. She
had translated among other works _Ancient Grecian Mythology_ (1839) from
the German of Niebuhr; _Mary Schweidler_; _The Amber Witch_ (1844) from
the German of Wilhelm Meinhold; and _Stella and Vanessa_ (1850) from the
French of A.F.L. de Wailly. Her _Letters from the Cape_ (1862-1863)
appeared in 1865; and in 1865 her _Letters from Egypt_, edited by her
mother, attracted much attention. _Last Letters from Egypt_ (1875)
contained a memoir by her daughter, Mrs Janet Ross. Lady Duff-Gordon won
the hearts of her Arab dependents and neighbours. She doctored their
sick, taught their children, and sympathized with their sorrows.
The _Letters front Egypt_ were not originally published in a complete
form. A fuller edition than had before been possible, with an
introduction by George Meredith, was edited in 1902 by Mrs Janet Ross.
See also Mrs Ross's _Three Generations of Englishwomen_ (1886).
DUFFTOWN, a municipal and police burgh of Banffshire, Scotland, on the
Fiddich, 64 m. W.N.W. of Aberdeen by the Great North of Scotland
railway. Pop. (1901) 1823. It dates from 1817 and bears the name of its
founder, James Duff, 4th earl of Fife. Although planned in the shape of
a cross, with a square and tower in the middle, the arms of the cross
are not straight, the constructor holding the ingenious opinion that, in
order to prevent little towns from being taken in at a glance, their
streets should be crooked. The leading industries are lime-works and
distilleries, the water being specially fitted for the making of whisky.
The town has considerable repute as a health resort, owing partly to its
elevation (737 ft.) and partly to the natural charms of the district.
The parish of Mortlach, in which Dufftown is situated, is rich in
archaeological and historical associations. What is called the Stone of
Mortlach is traditionally believed to have been erected to commemorate
the success of Malcolm II. over the Danes in 1010. The three large
stones known as "The King's Grave," a hill-fort, and cairns are of
interest to the antiquary. The old church of Mortlach, though restored
and almost renewed, still contains some lancet windows and a
round-headed doorway, besides monuments dating from 1417. A portion of
old Balvenie Castle, a ruin, is considered to be of Pictish origin, but
most of it is in the Scots Baronial. It has associations with Alexander
Stewart, earl of Buchan and lord of Badenoch (1343-1405), son of Robert
II., whose ruffianly conduct in Elginshire earned him the designation of
the Wolf of Badenoch, the Comyns, the Douglases (to whom it gave the
title of baron in the 15th century), the Stuarts and the Duffs. The new
castle, an uninteresting building, was erected in 1724 by the earl of
Fife, and though untenanted is maintained in repair. Two miles to the
S.E. of Dufftown is the ruined castle of Auchindown, finely situated on
a limestone crag, 200 ft. high, of which three sides are washed by the
Fiddich and the fourth was protected by a moat. It dates from the 11th
century, and once belonged to the Ogilvies, from whom it passed in 1535
to the Gordons. The Gothic hall with rows of fluted pillars is in fair
preservation. Ben Rinnes (2755 ft.) and several other hills of lesser
altitude all lie within a few miles of Dufftown. About 4 m. to the N.W.
is Craigellachie--Gaelic for "the rock of alarm"--(pop. 454), on the
confines of Elginshire. It is situated on the Spey amidst scenery of
surpassing loveliness. The slogan of the Grants is "Stand fast
Craigellachie!" The place has become an important junction of the Great
North of Scotland railway system.
DUFFY, SIR CHARLES GAVAN (1816-1903), Irish and colonial politician, was
born in Monaghan, Ireland, on the 12th of April 1816. At an early age he
became connected with the press, and was one of the founders (1842) of
the _Nation_, a Dublin weekly which was remarkable for its talent, for
its seditious tendencies, and for the fire and spirit of its political
poetry. In 1844 Duffy was included in the same indictment with
O'Connell, and shared his conviction in Dublin and his acquittal by the
House of Lords upon a point of law. His ideas, nevertheless, were too
revolutionary for O'Connell; a schism took place in 1846, and Duffy
united himself to the "Young Ireland" party. He was tried for
treason-felony in 1848, but the jury were unable to agree. Duffy
continued to agitate in the press and in parliament, to which he was
elected in 1852, but his failure to bring about an alliance between
Catholics and Protestants upon the land question determined him in 1856
to emigrate to Victoria. There he became in 1857 minister of public
works, and after an active political career, in the course of which he
was prime minister from 1871 to 1873, when he was knighted, he was
elected speaker of the House of Assembly in 1877, being made K.C.M.G. in
the same year. In 1880 he resigned and returned to Europe, residing
mostly in the south of France. He published _The Ballad Poetry of
Ireland_ (1845), several works on Irish history, _Conversations with
Carlyle_ (1892), _Memoirs_ (1898), &c. In 1891 he became first president
of the Irish Literary Society. He was married three times, his third
wife dying in 1889. He died on the 9th of February 1903.
DUFOUR, WILHELM HEINRICH [GUILLAUME HENRI] (1787-1875), Swiss general,
was born at Constance of Genevese parents temporarily in exile, on the
15th of September 1787. In 1807 he went to the Ecole Polytechnique at
Paris, Switzerland being then under French rule, taking the 140th place
only in his entrance examination. By two years' close study he so
greatly improved his position that he was ranked fifth in the exit
examination. Immediately on leaving the school he received a commission
in the engineers, and was sent to serve in Corfu, which was blockaded by
the English. During the Hundred Days he attained the rank of captain,
and was employed in raising fortifications at Grenoble. After the peace
that followed Waterloo he resumed his status as a Swiss citizen, and
devoted himself to the military service of his native land. From 1819 to
1830 he was chief instructor in the military school of Thun, which had
been founded mainly through his instrumentality. Among other
distinguished foreign pupils he instructed Louis Napoleon, afterwards
emperor of the French. In 1827 he was raised to the rank of colonel, and
commanded the Federal army in a series of field manoeuvres. In 1831 he
became chief of the staff, and soon afterwards he was appointed
quartermaster-general. Two years later the diet commissioned him to
superintend the execution of a complete trigonometrical survey of
Switzerland. He had already made a cadastral survey of the canton of
Geneva, and published a map of the canton on the scale of 1/25000. The
larger work occupied thirty-two years, and was accomplished with
complete success. The map in 25 sheets on the scale of 1/100000 was
published at intervals between 1842 and 1865, and is an admirable
specimen of cartography. In recognition of the ability with which Dufour
had carried out his task, the Federal Council in 1868 ordered the
highest peak of Monte Rosa to be named Dufour Spitze. In 1847 Dufour was
made general of the Federal Army, which was employed in reducing the
revolted Catholic cantons. The quickness and thoroughness with which he
performed the painful task, and the wise moderation with which he
treated his vanquished fellow-countrymen, were acknowledged by a gift of
60,000 francs from the diet and various honours from different cities
and cantons of the confederation. In politics he belonged to the
moderate conservative party, and he consequently lost a good deal of his
popularity in 1848. In 1864 he presided over the international
conference which framed the Geneva Convention as to the treatment of the
wounded in time of war, &c. He died on the 14th of July 1875. His _De la
fortification permanente_ (1850) is an important and original
contribution to the science of fortification, and he was also the author
of a _Memoire sur l'artillerie des anciens et sur celle du moyen age_
(1840), _Manuel de tactique pour les officiers de toutes armes_ (1842),
and various other works in military science. His memoir, _La Campagne du
Sonderbund_ (Paris, 1876), is prefaced by a biographical notice. An
equestrian statue of General Dufour was erected after his death at
Geneva by national subscription.
DUFRENOY, OURS PIERRE ARMAND PETIT (1792-1857), French geologist and
mineralogist, was born at Sevran, in the department of Seine-et-Oise, in
France, on the 5th of September 1792. After leaving the Imperial Lyceum,
in 1811, he studied till 1813 at the Ecole Polytechnique, and then
entered the Corps des Mines. He subsequently assisted in the management
of the Ecole des Mines, of which he was professor of mineralogy and
afterwards director. He was also professor of geology at the Ecole des
Ponts et Chausses. In conjunction with Elie de Beaumont he in 1841
published a great geological map of France, the result of investigations
carried on during thirteen years (1823-1836). Five years (1836-1841)
were spent in writing the text to accompany the map, the publication of
the work with two quarto vols. of text extending from 1841-1848; a third
volume was issued in 1873. The two authors had already together
published _Voyage metallurgique en Angleterre_ (1827, 2nd ed.
1837-1839), _Memoires pour servir a une description geologique de la
France_, in four vols. (1830-1838), and a _Memoire_ on Cantal and
Mont-Dore (1833). Other literary productions of Dufrenoy are an account
of the iron mines of the eastern Pyrenees (1834), and a treatise on
mineralogy (3 vols. and atlas, 1844-1845; 2nd ed., 4 vols. and atlas,
1856-1859), in which the geological relations as well as the physical
and chemical properties of minerals were dealt with; he likewise
contributed numerous papers to the Annales des mines and other
scientific publications, one of the most interesting of which is
entitled _Des terrains volcaniques des environs de Naples_. Dufrenoy was
a member of the Academy of Sciences, a commander of the Legion of
Honour, and an inspector-general of mines. He died in Paris on the 20th
of March 1857.
DUFRESNY, CHARLES, SIEUR DE LA RIVIERE (1648-1724), French dramatist,
was born in Paris in 1648. The allegation that his grandfather was an
illegitimate son of Henry IV. procured him the liberal patronage of
Louis XIV., who gave him the post of _valet de chambre_, and affixed his
name to many lucrative privileges. Dufresny's expensive habits
neutralized all efforts to enrich him, and as if to furnish a piquant
commentary on the proverb that poverty makes us acquainted with strange
bedfellows, he married, as his second wife, a washerwoman, in discharge
of her bill--a whimsicality which supplied Le Sage with an episode in
the _Diable boiteux_, and was made the subject of a comedy by J.M.
Deschamps (_Charles Riviere Dufresny, ou le mariage impromptu_). He died
in Paris on the 6th of October 1724. His plays, destitute for the most
part of all higher qualities, abound in sprightly wit and pithy sayings.
In the six volumes of his _Theatre_ (Paris, 1731), some of the best are
_L'Esprit de contradiction_ (1700), _Le Double Veuvage_ (1701), _La
Joueuse_ (1709), _La Coquette de village_ (1715), _La Reconciliation
normande_ (1719) and _Le Mariage fait et rompu_ (1721). A volume of
_Poesies diverses_, two volumes of _Nouvelles historiques_ (1692), and
_Les Amusements serieux et comiques d'un Siamois_ (1705), a work to
which Montesquieu was indebted for the idea of his _Lettres persanes_,
complete the list of Dufresny's writings. The best edition of his works
is that of 1747 (4 vols.). His _Theatre_ was edited (1882) by Georges
d'Heylli.
DUGAZON [JEAN HENRI GOURGAUD] (1746-1809), French actor, was born in
Marseilles on the 15th of November 1746, the son of the director of
military hospitals there. He began his career in the provinces, making
his debut in 1770 at the Comedie Francaise, where he aspired to leading
comedy roles. He pleased the public at once and was made _societaire_ in
1772. Dugazon was an ardent revolutionist, helped the schism which
divided the company, and went with Talma and the others to what became
the Theatre de la Republique. After the closing of this theatre, and the
dissolution of the Comedie Francaise, he took refuge at the Theatre
Feydeau until (1799) he returned to the restored Comedie. He retired in
1807, and died insane at Sandillon in 1809. Dugazon wrote three mediocre
comedies of a political character, performed at the Theatre de la
Republique. He married, in 1776, Louis Rose Lefevre, but was soon
divorced and then married again. The first Madame Dugazon (1755-1821),
the daughter of a Berlin dancing master, was a charming actress. Her
first appearance on the stage was made at the age of twelve as a dancer.
It was as an actress "with songs" that she made her debut at the Comedie
Italienne in 1774 in Gretry's _Sylvain_. She was at once admitted
_pensionnaire_ and in 1776 _societaire_. Madame Dugazon delighted all
Paris, and nightly crowded the Comedie Italienne for more than twenty
years. The two kinds of parts with which she was especially
identified--young mothers and women past their first youth--are still
called "_dugazons_" and "_meres dugazons_." Examples of the first are
Jenny in _La Dame blanche_ and Berthe de Simiane in _Les Mousquetaires
de la reine_; of the second, Marguerite in _Le Pre aux clercs_ and the
queen in _La Part du diable_.
Dugazon's sister, MARIE ROSE GOURGAUD (1743-1804), was an actress who
first played at Stuttgart, where she married Angelo, brother of Gaetano
Vestris, the dancer. Under the protection of the dukes of Choiseul and
Duras, she was commanded to make her debut at the Comedie Francaise in
1768, where she created important parts in a number of tragedies.
DUGDALE, SIR WILLIAM (1605-1686), English antiquary, was born at
Shustoke, near Coleshill, in Warwickshire, on the 12th of September
1605, the son of a country gentleman of an old Lancashire stock; he was
educated at Coventry. To please his father, who was old and infirm, he
married at seventeen. He lived with his wife's family until his father's
death in 1624, when he went to live at Fillongley, near Shustoke, an
estate formerly purchased for him by his father. In 1625 he purchased
the manor of Blythe, Shustoke, and removed thither in 1626. He had early
shown an inclination for antiquarian studies, and in 1635, meeting Sir
Symon Archer (1581-1662), himself a learned antiquary, who was then
employed in collecting materials for a history of Warwickshire, he
accompanied him to London. There he made the acquaintance of Sir
Christopher (afterwards Lord) Hatton, comptroller of the household, and
Thomas, earl of Arundel, then earl marshal of England. In 1638 Dugdale
was created a pursuivant of arms extraordinary by the name of Blanch
Lyon, and in 1639 rouge croix pursuivant in ordinary. He now had a
lodging in the Heralds' Office, and spent much of his time in London
examining the records in the Tower and the Cottonian and other
collections of MSS. In 1641 Sir Christopher Hatton, foreseeing the war
and dreading the ruin and spoliation of the Church, commissioned him to
make exact drafts of all the monuments in Westminster Abbey and the
principal churches in England, including Peterborough, Ely, Norwich,
Lincoln. Newark, Beverley, Southwell, Kingston-upon-Hull, York, Selby,
Chester, Lichfield, Tamworth and Warwick. In June 1642 he was summoned
to attend the king at York. When war broke out Charles deputed him to
summon to surrender the castles of Banbury and Warwick, and other
strongholds which were being rapidly filled with ammunition and rebels.
He went with Charles to Oxford, remaining there till its surrender in
1646. He witnessed the battle of Edgehill, where he made afterwards an
exact survey of the field, noting how the armies were drawn up, and
where and in what direction the various movements took place, and
marking the graves of the slain. In November 1642 he was admitted M.A.
of the university, and in 1644 the king created him Chester herald.
During his leisure at Oxford he collected material at the Bodleian and
college libraries for his books. In 1646 Dugdale returned to London and
compounded for his estates, which had been sequestrated, by a payment of
L168. After a visit to France in 1648 he continued his antiquarian
researches in London, collaborating with Richard Dodsworth in his
_Monasticon Anglicanum_, which was published successively in single
volumes in 1655, 1664 and 1673. At the Restoration he obtained the
office of Norroy king-at-arms, and in 1677 was created garter principal
king-at-arms, and was knighted. He died "in his chair" at Blythe Hall on
the 10th of February 1686.
Dugdale's most important works are _Antiquities of Warwickshire_
(1656); _Monasticon Anglicanum_ (1655-1673); _History of St Paul's
Cathedral_ (1658); and _Baronage of England_ (1675-1676). His _Life_,
written by himself up to 1678, with his diary and correspondence, and
an index to his manuscript collections, was edited by William Hamper,
and published in 1827.
DUGONG, one of the two existing generic representatives of the Sirenia,
or herbivorous aquatic mammals. Dugongs are distinguished from their
cousins the manatis by the presence in the upper jaw of the male of a
pair of large tusks, which in the female are arrested in their growth,
and remain concealed. There are never more than five molar teeth on each
side of either jaw, or twenty in all, and these are flat on the grinding
surface. The flippers are unprovided with nails, and the tail is broad,
and differs from that of the manati in being crescent-shaped instead of
rounded. The bones are hard and firm, and take a polish equal to that of
ivory. Dugongs frequent the shallow waters of the tropical seas,
extending from the east coast of Africa north of the mouth of the
Zambezi, along the shores of the Indian, Malayan and Australian seas,
where they may be seen basking on the surface of the water, or browsing
on submarine pastures of seaweed, for which the thick obtuse lips and
truncated snout pre-eminently fit them. They are gregarious, feeding in
large numbers in localities where they are not often disturbed. The
female produces a single young one at a birth, and is remarkable for the
great affection it shows for its offspring, so that when the young
dugong is caught there is no difficulty in capturing the mother. Three
species--the Indian dugong (_Halicore dugong_), the Red Sea dugong (_H.
tabernaculi_) and the Australian dugong (_H. australis_)--are commonly
recognized. The first is abundant along the shores of the Indian Ocean,
and is captured in large numbers by the Malays, who esteem its flesh a
great delicacy; the lean portions, especially of young specimens, are
regarded by Europeans as excellent eating. It is generally taken by
spearing, the main object of the hunter being to raise the tail out of
the water, when the animal becomes perfectly powerless. It seldom
attains a length of more than 8 or 10 ft. The Australian dugong is a
larger species, attaining sometimes a length of 15 ft.; it occurs along
the Australian coast from Moreton Bay to Cape York, and is highly valued
by the natives, who hunt it with spears, and gorge themselves with its
flesh, when they are fortunate enough to secure a carcase. Of late years
the oil obtained from the blubber of this species has been largely used
in Australia as a substitute for cod-liver oil. It does not contain
iodine, but is said to possess all the therapeutic qualities of
cod-liver oil without its nauseous taste. A full-grown dugong yields
from 10 to 12 gallons of oil, and this forms in cold weather a thick
mass, and requires to be melted before a fire previous to being used.
The flesh of the Australian dugong is easy of digestion, the muscular
fibre when fresh resembling beef, and when salted having the flavour of
bacon. In the earliest Australian dugong-fishery natives were employed
to harpoon these animals, which soon, however, became too wary to allow
themselves to be approached near enough for this purpose, and the
harpoon was abandoned for the net. The latter is spread at night, and in
its meshes dugongs are caught in considerable numbers. (R. L.*)
[Illustration: The Dugong.]
DUGUAY-TROUIN, RENE (1673-1736), French sea captain, belonged to a
well-known family of merchants and sea captains of St Malo. He was born
at St Malo on the 10th of June 1673. He was originally intended for the
church, and studied with that view at Rennes and Caen; but on the
breaking out of the war with England and Holland in 1689 he went to sea
in a privateer owned by his family. During the first three months his
courage was tried by a violent tempest, an imminent shipwreck, the
boarding of an English ship, and the threatened destruction of his own
vessel by fire. The following year, as a volunteer in a vessel of 28
guns, he was present in a bloody combat with an English fleet of five
merchant vessels. The courage he then showed was so remarkable that in
1691, at the age of eighteen, his family gave him a corsair of 14 guns;
and having been thrown by a tempest on the coast of Ireland, he burned
two English ships in the river Limerick. In 1694 his vessel of 40 guns
was captured by the English, and, being taken prisoner, he was confined
in the castle of Plymouth. He escaped, according to his own account, by
the help of a pretty shopwoman and her lover, a French refugee in the
English service. He then obtained command of a vessel of 48 guns, and
made a capture of English vessels on the Irish coast. In 1696 he made a
brilliant capture of Dutch vessels, and the king hearing an account of
the affair gave him a commission as _capitaine de fregate_ (commander)
in the royal navy. In 1704-1705 he desolated the coasts of England. In
1706 he was raised to the rank of captain of a vessel of the line. In
1707 he was made chevalier of the order of St Louis, and captured off
the Lizard the greater part of an English convoy of troops and munitions
bound for Portugal. His most glorious action was the capture in 1711 of
Rio Janeiro, on which he imposed a heavy contribution. In 1715 he was
made _chef d'escadre_, the rank which in the French navy answered to the
English commodore, and in 1728 commander of the order of St Louis and
_lieutenant general des armees navales_. In 1731 he commanded a squadron
for the protection of French commerce in the Levant. He died on the 27th
of September 1736.
See his own _Memoires_ (1740); and J. Poulain, _Duguay-Trouin_ (1882).
DU GUESCLIN, BERTRAND (c. 1320-1380), constable of France, the most
famous French warrior of his age, was born of an ancient but
undistinguished family at the castle of La Motte-Broons (Dinan). The
date of his birth is doubtful, the authorities varying between 1311 and
1324. The name is spelt in various ways in contemporary records, e.g.
Claquin, Klesquin, Guescquin, Glayaquin, &c. The familiar form is found
on his monument at St Denis, and in some legal documents of the time. In
his boyhood Bertrand was a dull learner, spending his time in open-air
sports and exercises, and could never read or write. He was remarkable
for ugliness, and was an object of aversion to his parents. He first
made himself a name as a soldier at the tournament held at Rennes in
1338 to celebrate the marriage of Charles of Blois with Jeanne de
Penthievre, at which he unseated the most famous competitors. In the war
which followed between Charles of Blois and John de Montfort, for the
possession of the duchy of Brittany, he served his apprenticeship as a
soldier (1341). As he was not a great baron with a body of vassals at
his command, he put himself at the head of a band of adventurers, and
fought on the side of Charles and of France. He distinguished himself by
a brilliant action at the siege of Vannes in 1342; and after that he
disappears from history for some years.
In 1354, having shortly before been made a knight, he was sent into
England with the lords of Brittany to treat for the ransom of Charles of
Blois, who had been defeated and captured by the English in 1347. When
Rennes and Dinan were attacked by the duke of Lancaster in 1356, Du
Guesclin fought continuously against the English, and at this time he
engaged in a celebrated duel with Sir Thomas Canterbury. He finally
forced his way with provisions and reinforcements into Rennes, which he
successfully defended till June 1357, when the siege was raised in
pursuance of the truce of Bordeaux. For this service he was rewarded
with the lordship of Pontorson. Shortly afterwards he passed into the
service of France, and greatly distinguished himself at the siege of
Melun (1359), being, however, taken prisoner a little later by Sir
Robert Knollys. In 1360, 1361 and 1362 he was continually in the field,
being again made prisoner in 1360. In 1364 he married, but was soon
again in the field, this time against the king of Navarre. In May 1364
he won an important victory over the Navarrese at Cocherel, and took the
famous Captal de Buch prisoner. He had previously been made lord of La
Roche-Tesson (1361) and chamberlain (1364); he was now made count of
Longueville and lieutenant of Normandy. Shortly afterwards, in aiding
Charles of Blois, Du Guesclin was taken prisoner by Sir John Chandos at
the battle of Auray, in which Charles was killed. The close of the
general war, however, had released great numbers of mercenaries (the
great companies) from control, and, as they began to play the part of
brigands in France, it was necessary to get rid of them. Du Guesclin was
ransomed for 100,000 crowns, and was charged to lead them out of France.
He marched with them into Spain, supported Henry of Trastamara against
Pedro the Cruel, set the former upon the throne of Castile (1366), and
was made constable of Castile and count of Trastamara. In the following
year he was defeated and captured by the Black Prince, ally of Pedro, at
Navarette, but was soon released for a heavy ransom. Once more he fought
for Henry, won the battle of Montiel (1369), reinstated him on the
throne, and was created duke of Molinas.
In May 1370, at the command of Charles V., who named him constable of
France, he returned to France. War had just been declared against
England, and Du Guesclin was called to take part in it. For nearly ten
years he was engaged in fighting against the English in the south and
the west of France, recovering from them the provinces of Poitou,
Guienne and Auvergne, and thus powerfully contributing to the
establishment of a united France. In 1373, when the duke of Brittany
sought English aid against a threatened invasion by Charles V., Du
Guesclin was sent at the head of a powerful army to seize the duchy,
which he did; and two years later he frustrated the attempt of the duke
with an English army to recover it. Finding in 1379 that the king
entertained suspicions of his fidelity to him, he resolved to give up
his constable's sword and retire to Spain. His resolution was at first
proof against remonstrance; but ultimately he received back the sword,
and continued in the service of France. In 1380 he was sent into
Languedoc to suppress disturbances and brigandage, provoked by the harsh
government of the duke of Anjou. His first act was to lay siege to the
fortress of Chateauneuf-Randon, but on the eve of its surrender the
constable died on the 13th of July 1380. His remains were interred, by
order of the king, in the church of St Denis. Du Guesclin lost his first
wife in 1371, and married a second in 1373, but he left no legitimate
children.
See biography by D.F. Jamison (Charleston, 1863), which was
translated into French (1866) by order of Marshal Count Randon,
minister of war; also S. Luce, _Histoire de B. du Guesclin_ (Paris,
1876).
DUHAMEL, JEAN BAPTISTE (1624-1706), French physicist, was born in 1624
at Vire in Normandy. He studied at Caen and Paris; wrote at eighteen a
tract on the _Spherics_ of Theodosius of Tripolis; then became an
Oratorian priest, and fulfilled with great devotion for ten years
(1653-1663) the duties of _cure_ at Neuilly-sur-Marne. He was appointed
in 1656 almoner to the king, and in 1666 perpetual secretary to the
newly founded Academy of Sciences. He died on the 6th of August 1706. He
published among other works: _Astronomia physica_ (1660) and _De
meteoris et fossilibus_ (1660), both in dialogue form; _De consensu
veteris et novae philosophiae_ (1663); _De corporum affectionibus_
(1672); _De mente humana_ (1673); _Regiae scientiarum Academiae
historia_, 1666-1696 (1698), new edition brought down to 1700 (1701);
_Institutiones biblicae_ (1698); followed by annotated editions of the
Psalms (1701), of the Book of Wisdom, &c. (1703), and of the entire
Bible in 1705.
DUHAMEL DU MONCEAU, HENRI LOUIS (1700-1782), French botanist and
engineer, son of Alexandre Duhamel, lord of Denainvilliers, was born at
Paris in 1700. Having been requested by the Academy of Sciences to
investigate a disease which was destroying the saffron plant in
Gatinais, he discovered the cause in a parasitical fungus which attached
itself to the roots, and this achievement gained him admission to the
Academy in 1728. From then until his death he busied himself chiefly
with making experiments in vegetable physiology. Having learned from Sir
Hans Sloane that madder possesses the property of giving colour to the
bones, he fed animals successively on food mixed and unmixed with
madder; and he found that their bones in general exhibited concentric
strata of red and white, whilst the softer parts showed in the meantime
signs of having been progressively extended. From a number of
experiments he was led to believe himself able to explain the growth of
bones, and to demonstrate a parallel between the manner of their growth
and that of trees. Along with the naturalist Buffon, he made numerous
experiments on the growth and strength of wood, and experimented also on
the growth of the mistletoe, on layer planting, on smut in corn, &c. He
was probably the first, in 1736, to distinguish clearly between the
alkalis, potash and soda. From the year 1740 he made meteorological
observations, and kept records of the influence of the weather on
agricultural production. For many years he was inspector-general of
marine, and applied his scientific acquirements to the improvement of
naval construction. He died at Paris on the 13th of August 1782.
His works are nearly ninety in number, and include many technical
handbooks. The principal are:--_Traite des arbres et arbustes qui se
cultivent en France en pleine terre_; _Elements de l'architecture
navale_; _Traite general des peches maritimes et fluviatiles_;
_Elements d'agriculture_; _La Physique des arbres_; _Des Semis et
plantations des arbres et de leur culture_; _De l'exploitation des
bois_; _Traite des arbres fruitiers_.
DUHRING, EUGEN KARL (1833-1901), German philosopher and political
economist, was born on the 12th of January 1833 at Berlin. After a legal
education he practised at Berlin as a lawyer till 1859. A weakness of
the eyes, ending in total blindness, occasioned his taking up the
studies with which his name is now connected. In 1864 he became _docent_
of the university of Berlin, but, in consequence of a quarrel with the
professoriate, was deprived of his licence to teach in 1874. Among his
works are _Kapital und Arbeit_ (1865); _Der Wert des Lebens_ (1865);
_Naturliche Dialektik_ (1865); _Kritische Geschichte der Philosophie_
(1869); _Kritische Geschichte der allgemeinen Principien der Mechanik_
(1872)--one of his most successful works; _Kursus der National- und
Sozialokonomie_ (1873); _Kursus der Philosophie_ (1875), entitled in a
later edition _Wirklichkeitsphilosophie; Logik und Wissenschaftstheorie_
(1878); _Der Ersatz der Religion durch Vollkommeneres_ (1883). He
published his autobiography in 1882 under the title _Sache, Leben und
Feinde_; the mention of "Feinde" (enemies) is characteristic. Duhring's
philosophy claims to be emphatically the philosophy of reality. He is
passionate in his denunciation of everything which, like mysticism,
tries to veil reality. He is almost Lucretian in his anger against
religion which would withdraw the secret of the universe from our direct
gaze. His "substitute for religion" is a doctrine in many points akin
to Comte and Feuerbach, the former of whom he resembles in his
sentimentalism. Duhring's opinions changed considerably after his first
appearance as a writer. His earlier work, _Naturliche Dialektik_, in
form and matter not the worst of his writings, is entirely in the spirit
of the Critical Philosophy. Later, in his movement towards Positivism,
he strongly repudiates Kant's separation of phenomenon from noumenon,
and affirms that our intellect is capable of grasping the whole reality.
This adequacy of thought to things is due to the fact that the universe
contains but one reality, i.e. matter. It is to matter that we must look
for the explanation both of conscious and of physical states. But matter
is not, in his system, to be understood with the common meaning, but
with a deeper sense as the substratum of all conscious and physical
existence; and thus the laws of being are identified with the laws of
thought. In this materialistic or quasi-materialistic system Duhring
finds room for teleology; the end of Nature, he holds, is the production
of a race of conscious beings. From his belief in teleology he is not
deterred by the enigma of pain; he is a determined optimist. Pain exists
to throw pleasure into conscious relief. In ethics Duhring follows Comte
in making sympathy the foundation of morality. In political philosophy
he teaches an ethical communism, and attacks the Darwinian principle of
struggle for existence. In economics he is best known by his vindication
of the American writer H.C. Carey, who attracts him both by his theory
of value, which suggests an ultimate harmony of the interests of
capitalist and labourer, and also by his doctrine of "national"
political economy, which advocates protection on the ground that the
morals and culture of a people are promoted by having its whole system
of industry complete within its own borders. His patriotism is fervent,
but narrow and exclusive. He idolized Frederick the Great, and denounced
Jews, Greeks, and the cosmopolitan Goethe. Duhring's clear, incisive
writing is disfigured by arrogance and ill-temper, failings which may be
extenuated on the ground of his physical affliction. He died in 1901.
See H. Druskowitz, _Eugen Duhring_ (Heidelberg, 1888); E. Doll, _Eugen
Duhring_ (Leipzig, 1892); F. Engels, _Eugen D.'s Umwalzung der
Wissenschaft_ (3rd ed., Stuttgart, 1894); H. Vaihinger, _Hartmann,
Duhring und Lange_ (1876). (H. St.)
DUIGENAN, PATRICK (1735-1816), Irish lawyer and politician, was the son
of a Leitrim Roman Catholic farmer named O'Duibhgeannain. Through the
tuition of the local Protestant clergyman, who was interested in the
boy, he got a scholarship in 1756 at Trinity College, Dublin, and
subsequently became a fellow. He was called to the Irish bar in 1767 and
obtained a rich practice. He is remembered, however, mainly as a
politician, on account of his opposition to Grattan, his support of the
Union, and his violent antagonism to Catholic emancipation. He was
elected member for Armagh in the first united parliament, and was a
well-known character at Westminster till he died on the 11th of April
1816.
DUIKER (diver), or DUIKERBOK, the Dutch name of a small S. African
antelope, scientifically known as _Cephalophus grimmi_; the popular name
alluding to its habit of diving into and threading its way through thick
bush. Scientifically the name is extended to include all the members of
the African genus _Cephalophus_, which, together with the Indian
chousingha, or four-horned antelope (_Tetraceros_), constitutes the
subfamily _Cephalophinae_. Duikers are animals of small or medium size,
usually frequenting thick forest. The horns, usually present in both
sexes, are small and straight, situated far back on the forehead; and
between them rises the crest-like tuft of hair from which the genus
takes its scientific name. The common or true duiker (_C. grimmi_) is
found in bush-country from the Cape to the Zambezi and Nyasaland, and
ranges northward on the west coast to Angola. The banded duiker (_C.
doriae_) from West Africa is golden brown with black transverse bands on
the back and loins. _C. sylvicultor_, of West Africa, is the largest
species, and approaches a donkey in size. (See ANTELOPE.) (R. L.*)
DUILIUS (or DUELLIUS), GAIUS, Roman general during the first
Carthaginian War and commander in the first Roman naval victory. In 260
B.C., when consul in command of the land forces in Sicily, he was
appointed to supersede his colleague Cn. Cornelius Scipio Asina,
commander of the fleet, who had been captured in the harbour of Lipara.
Recognizing that the only chance of victory lay in fighting under
conditions as similar as possible to those of a land engagement, he
invented a system of grappling irons (_corvi_) and boarding bridges, and
gained a brilliant victory over the Carthaginian fleet off Mylae on the
north coast of Sicily. He was accorded a triumph and the distinction of
being accompanied, when walking in the streets during the evening, by a
torchbearer and a flute-player. A memorial column (_columna rostrata_),
adorned with the beaks of the captured ships, was set up in honour of
his victory. The inscription upon it (see LATIN LANGUAGE, section 3,
"The Language as Recorded") has been preserved in a restored form in
pseudo-archaic language, ascribed to the reign of Claudius.
See _Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum_, i. No. 195; Polybius i. 22;
Diod. Sic. xvii. 44; Frontinus, _Strat._ ii. 3; Florus ii. 2; Cicero,
_De senectute_, 13; Silius Italicus vi. 667; and PUNIC WARS.
DUISBURG, a town of Germany in the kingdom of Prussia, 15 m. by rail N.
from Dusseldorf, between the Rhine and the Ruhr, with which rivers it
communicates by a canal. It is an important railway centre. Pop. (1885)
47,519; (1900) 92,729; (1905), including many outlying townships then
recently incorporated, 191,551. It has six Roman Catholic and six
Protestant churches, among the latter the fine Gothic Salvatorkirche, of
the 15th century. It is well furnished with schools, which include a
school of machinery. Of modern erections, the concert hall, the law
courts and a memorial fountain to the cartographer Gerhard Kremer
(Mercator) are worthy of mention. There are important foundries, rolling
mills for copper, steel and brass plates, chemical works, saw-milling,
shipbuilding, tobacco, cotton, sugar, soap and other manufactures.
Duisburg was known to the Romans as _Castrum Deutonis_, and mentioned
under the Frankish kings as _Dispargum_. In the 12th century it attained
the rank of an imperial free town, but on being mortgaged in 1290 to
Cleves it lost its privileges. At the beginning of the 17th century it
was transferred to Brandenburg, and during the Thirty Years' War was
alternately occupied by the Spaniards and the Dutch. In 1655 the elector
Frederick William of Brandenburg founded here a Protestant university,
which flourished until 1802.
DUK-DUK, a secret society of New Britain or New Pomerania, Bismarck
Archipelago, in the South Pacific. The society has religious and
political as well as social objects. It represents a rough sort of law
and order through its presiding spirit Duk-Duk, a mysterious figure
dressed in leaves to its waist, with a helmet like a gigantic
candle-extinguisher made of network. Upon this figure women and children
are forbidden to look. Women, who are entitled in New Britain to their
own earnings and work harder than men, are the special victims of
Duk-Duk, who levies blackmail upon them if they are about during its
visits. These are generally timed to coincide with the hours at which
the women are out in the fields and therefore cannot help seeing the
figure. Justice is executed, fines extorted, taboos, feasts, taxes and
all tribal matters are arranged by the Duk-Duk members, who wear hideous
masks or chalk their faces. In carrying out punishments they are allowed
to burn houses and even kill people. Only males can belong to Duk-Duk,
the entrance fees of which vary from 50 to 100 fathoms of _dewarra_
(small cowrie shells strung on strips of cane). The society has its
secret signs and ritual, and festivals at which the presence of a
stranger would mean his death. Duk-Duk only appears with the full moon.
The society is now much discredited and is fast dying out.
See "Duk-Duk and other Customs or Forms of Expression of the
Melanesian's Intellectual Life," by Graf von Pfeil (_Journ. of
Anthrop. Instit._ vol. 27, p. 181).
DUKE (corresponding to Fr. _duc_, Ital. _duca_, Ger. _Herzog_), the
title of one of the highest orders of the European nobility, and of some
minor sovereign princes. The word "duke," which is derived from the Lat.
_dux_, a leader, or general, through the Fr. _duc_ (O. Fr. _dusc_,
_ducs_, _dus_), originally signified a leader, and more especially a
military chief, and in this latter sense was the equivalent of the A.S.
_heretoga_ (_here_, an army, and _teon_, from _togen_, to draw; Ger.
_ziehen_, _zog_; Goth, _tiuhan_; Lat. _ducere_) and the old Ger.
_herizog_. In this general sense the word survived in English literature
until the 17th century, but is now obsolete.
The origin of modern dukes is twofold. The _dux_ first appears in the
Roman empire under the emperor Hadrian, and by the time of the Gordians
has already a recognized place in the official hierarchy. He was the
general appointed to the command of a particular expedition and his
functions were purely military. In the 4th century, after the separation
of the civil and military administrations, there was a duke in command
of the troops quartered in each of the frontier provinces of the empire,
e.g. the _dux Britanniarum_. The number of dukes continually increased,
and in the 6th and 7th centuries there were _duces_ at Rome, Naples,
Rimini, Venice and Perugia. Gradually, too, they became charged with
civil as well as military functions, and even exercised considerable
authority in ecclesiastical administration. Under the Byzantine emperors
they were the representatives in all causes of the central power. The
Roman title of duke was less dignified than that of count (_comes_,
companion) which implied an honourable personal relation to the emperor
(see COUNT). Both titles were borrowed by the Merovingian kings for the
administrative machinery of the Frank empire, and under them the
functions of the duke remained substantially unaltered. He was a great
civil and military official, charged to watch, in the interests of the
crown, over groups of several _comitatus_, or countships, especially in
the border provinces. The sphere of the dukes was never rigidly fixed,
and their commission was sometimes permanent, sometimes temporary. Under
the Carolingians the functions of the dukes remained substantially the
same; but with the decay of the royal power in the 10th century, both
dukes and counts gained in local authority; the number of dukes became
for the time fixed, and finally title and office were made hereditary,
the relation to the crown being reduced to that of more or less shadowy
vassalage. (See FEUDALISM.)
Side by side with these purely official dukedoms, however, there had
continued to exist, or had sprung up, either independently or in more or
less of subjection to the Frank rulers, national dukedoms, such as those
of the Alemanni, the Aquitanians, and, later, of the Bavarians and
Thuringians. These were developed from the early Teutonic custom by
which the _herizog_ was elected by the nation as leader for a particular
campaign, as in the case of the _heretogas_ who had led the first Saxon
invaders into Britain. Tacitus says of the ancient Germans _reges ex
nobilitate, duces ex virtute sumunt_; i.e. they elected their dukes for
their warlike prowess only, and as purely military chiefs, whereas their
kings were chosen from a royal family of divine descent. Sometimes the
dukes so chosen succeeded in making their power permanent without taking
the style of king. To this national category belong, besides the great
German dukedoms, the dukes of Normandy, and the Lombard dukes of Spoleto
and Benevento, who traced their origin, not to an administrative office,
but to the leadership of Teutonic war bands. With the development of the
feudal system the distinction between the official and the national
dukedoms was more and more obliterated. By the 13th and 14th centuries
the title had become purely territorial, and implied no necessary
overlordship over counts and other nobles, who existed side by side with
the dukes as tenants-in-chief of the crown. From this time the
significance of the ducal title varies widely in different countries.
Whenever the crown got the better of the feudal spirit of independence,
as in France or Naples, it sank from being a sovereign title to a mere
social distinction, implying no political power, and not necessarily any
territorial influence. In northern Italy and in Germany, on the other
hand, where the crown had proved too weak to combat the forces of
disruption, it came ultimately to imply independent sovereignty.
The abolition of the Holy Empire in 1806 removed even the shadow of
vassalage from the German reigning dukes, who retain their sovereign
status under the new empire. Only one, however, the grand duke of
Luxemburg, is now both sovereign and independent. Besides the sovereign
dukes in Germany there are certain "mediatized" ducal houses, e.g. that
of Ratibor, which share with the dispossessed families of the Italian
sovereign duchies certain royal privileges, notably that of equality of
blood (_Ebenburtigkeit_). In Italy, where titles of nobility give no
precedence at court, that of duke (_duca_) has lost nearly all even of
its social significance owing to lavish creations by the popes and minor
sovereigns, and to the fact that the title often passes by purchase with
a particular estate. Political significance it has none. Some great
Italian nobles are dukes, notably the heads of the great Roman ducal
families, but not all Italian dukes are great nobles.
In France the title duke at one time implied vast territorial power, as
with the dukes of Burgundy, Normandy, Aquitaine and Brittany, who
asserted a practical independence against the crown, though it was not
till the 12th century that the title duke was definitely regarded as
superior to others. At first (in the 10th and 11th centuries) it had no
defined significance, and even a baron of the higher nobility called
himself in charters duke, count or even marquis, indifferently. In any
case the strengthening of the royal power gradually sapped the
significance of the title, until on the eve of the Revolution it implied
no more than high rank and probably territorial wealth.
There were, under the _ancien regime_, three classes of dukes in France:
(1) dukes who were peers (see PEERAGE) and had a seat in the parlement
of Paris; (2) hereditary dukes who were not peers; (3) "brevet" dukes,
created for life only. The French duke ranks in Spain with the "grandee"
(q.v.), and vice versa. In republican France the already existing titles
are officially recognized, but they are now no more than the badges of
distinguished ancestry. Besides the descendants of the feudal
aristocracy there are in France certain ducal families dating from
Napoleon I.'s creation of 1806 (e.g. ducs d'Albufera, de Montebello, de
Feltre), from Louis Philippe (duc d'Isly, and duc d'Audiffret-Pasquier),
and from Napoleon III. (Malakoff, Magenta, Morny).
In England the title of duke was unknown till the 14th century, though
in Saxon times the title ealdorman, afterwards exchanged for "earl," was
sometimes rendered in Latin as _dux_,[1] and the English kings till
John's time styled themselves dukes of Normandy, and dukes of Aquitaine
even later. In 1337 King Edward III. erected the county of Cornwall into
a duchy for his son Edward the Black Prince, who was thus the first
English duke. The second was Henry, earl of Lancaster, Derby, Lincoln
and Leicester, who was created duke of Lancaster in 1351. In Scotland
the title of duke was first bestowed in 1398 by Robert III. on his
eldest son David, who was made duke of Rothesay, and on his brother, who
became duke of Albany.
British dukes rank next to princes and princesses of the blood royal,
the two archbishops of Canterbury and York, the lord Chancellor, &c.,
but beyond this precedence they have no special privileges which are not
shared by peers of lower rank (see PEERAGE). Though their full style as
proclaimed by the herald is "most high, potent and noble prince," and
they are included in the _Almanach de Gotha_, they are not recognized as
the equals in blood of the crowned or mediatized dukes of the continent,
and the daughter of an English duke marrying a foreign royal prince can
only take his title by courtesy, or where, under the "house-laws" of
certain families, a family council sanctions the match. The eldest son
of an English duke takes as a rule by courtesy the second title of his
father, and ranks, with or without the title, as a marquess. The other
sons and daughters bear the titles "Lord" and "Lady" before their
Christian names, also by courtesy. A duke in the British peerage, if not
royal, is addressed as "Your Grace" and is styled "the Most Noble." (See
ARCHDUKE, GRAND DUKE, and, for the ducal coronet, CROWN AND CORONET.)
(W. A. P.)