to extraordinary height--a manifestation indicative of the pyæmic
character of the affection. The fever intermits or remits, with a more
or less profuse perspiration. The febrile phenomena are similar in
their objective expression to malarial fever, but there is an important
difference in respect to the periods of recurrence of the chills. The
paroxysms are very irregular as to time: there may a daily seizure at
different hours, or there may be several chills on the same day. In
other words, the {1100} paroxysms have the pyæmic characteristics
rather than the malarial. After a time the intermittent phenomenon
ceases, and there occurs a remission merely, the exacerbation being
preceded by chilliness and succeeded by sweating. The sweats are
characteristically profuse and exhausting. During the sweating the
temperature begins to decline, and reaches its lowest point just before
the chilly sensations during the early morning announce the onset of
the daily exacerbation of the afternoon and evening. The thermal line
exhibits many irregularities until the febrile movement assumes the
remittent type, when there occur the morning remission and nocturnal
exacerbation. The maxima may be from 103° F. to 105°, even to 106°.
When the pain and chill come on, disturbances of the digestive organs
ensue. When a large vein of the portal system is occluded, the
remaining veins must be over-distended, and congestion of a part or of
all of the digestive tract will be a result. An acute gastric catarrh
is set up. The appetite is lost, the stomach becomes irritable, and
vomiting is a usual incident. Sometimes the disgust for food is
extreme, and the nausea and vomiting are almost incessant. The vomited
matters consist of a watery mucus mixed with thin bile after a time,
and now and then of a bloody mucus. Thrombosis of a stomach vein may
occur, to be followed by an acute ulcer, and from this considerable
hemorrhage may proceed, when the vomit will consist of blood. Such an
accident, happening to the mucous membrane of the intestine, will be
indicated by bloody stools if the ulceration is low down, or by
brownish, blackish, or chocolate-colored stools if higher up in the
small bowel.
The tongue has usually a characteristic coating in these cases. Large
patches of a rather heavy and darkish fur form, and, cast off from time
to time, leave a glazed and somewhat raw surface. Sometimes there is a
profuse salivary flow, but more frequently the mouth is dry. The lips
are fissured or contain patches of herpes, and the buccal cavity may be
more or less completely lined by patches of aphthæ.
Diarrhoea is a usual symptom, the stools being dark when mixed with
blood, or grayish and pasty or clay-colored when there is jaundice.
Three-fourths of the cases of pylephlebitis are free from jaundice.
This symptom may occur at the onset when the common duct is obstructed
by a calculus, but in other cases it appears when the formation of pus
in the liver exerts sufficient compression of the hepatic ducts to
prevent the passage of the bile.
When jaundice occurs, it is accompanied by the usual symptoms. The
urine, previously unchanged, is now colored by bile-pigment, and the
alterations in the renal structure and function belonging to jaundice
also take place.
It sometimes happens that the obstruction of the portal vein is
sufficient to cause enlargement of the superficial veins of the
abdomen, but the duration of the disease is usually too brief to permit
much deviation from the normal, except rarely. In the cases
characterized by the occurrence of diffuse peritonitis the abdomen will
present a swollen and tense appearance, and there will be acute
tenderness to pressure. The area of hepatic and splenic dulness is not
increased from the outset, but is evident, as respects the spleen, soon
after the obstruction at the liver, and as respects the liver when the
formation of abscesses occurs.
{1101} COURSE, DURATION, AND TERMINATION.--The course of pylephlebitis
is compounded of the disturbance at the original point of disease, and
of the secondary inflammation at the several points in the liver where
emboli set up purulent inflammation. There are, therefore, two distinct
symptom-groups, and a short intervening period in which the first is
being merged into the second. The duration is variable, but the extreme
limits are not remote from each other, the condition of pylephlebitis
terminating in from two weeks to three months, the shorter being the
more usual. The termination is death, doubtless invariably; for, as in
true pyæmia arising from other causes, the septic changes in the blood
are such as to preclude the possibility of a return to the normal
condition.
DIAGNOSIS.--The main point in the diagnosis consists in the occurrence
of an evident local inflammation, followed by the signs of suppuration
in the hepatic region coming on subsequent to ulceration and
suppuration at some point in the peripheral expansion of the portal
system. Thus, when a proctitis with ulceration of the rectum has been
in existence for some time, there occur pain and tenderness in the
hepatic region, accompanied by an irregularly intermittent fever and by
profuse sweating, it can be assumed with considerable certainty that
emboli have been deposited in some one or more of the terminal branches
of the portal. The evidences of hepatic trouble--swelling of the organ,
jaundice, etc.--and of portal obstruction, which then supervene,
indicate with some precision the nature of the case.
TREATMENT.--Although pylephlebitis wears a most unfavorable aspect, the
possibility of a favorable result should always be entertained by the
therapeutist.
As absorption of medicaments must be slow--indeed, uncertain--by the
gastro-intestinal mucous membrane when there is portal occlusion, it is
well to attempt treatment by the skin and subcutaneous connective
tissue. Gastro-intestinal disturbance--nausea, vomiting, and
diarrhoea--should be treated by a combination of bismuth, creasote, and
glycerin--remedies acting locally chiefly. Ammonia--the carbonate and
solution of the acetate--is indicated, and should be given for the
purpose of dissolving thrombi and emboli. Corrosive sublimate, carbolic
acid, and quinine can be administered by the subcutaneous areolar
tissue. Quinine may also be introduced by friction with lard, and in
considerable quantity.
V. PARASITES OF THE LIVER.
Echinococcus of the Liver; Hydatids of the Liver.
DEFINITION.--The echinococcus is the intermediate or larval stage in
the development of the Tænia echinococcus--the completed
parasite--whose chief habitat is the intestine of the dog. As the
natural and clinical history of parasites is elsewhere treated of, the
subject is here confined to the development of echinococci cysts in the
liver, its ducts, and vessels.
CAUSES.--The presence of echinococcus vesicles in the liver is due to
{1102} the migration of the embryo from the intestinal canal. As
Davaine[212] has ascertained by analysis of all the recorded examples
previous to the publication of his treatise, echinococci are found in
as large a proportion in the liver as in all the other organs combined.
This statement is repeated with approval by Cobbold[213] and by
Heller.[214] The embryo, set free in the intestine from the food or
drink containing the ova, starts on its migration. There are several
reasons why the liver is selected for its habitat: it is the largest
accessible organ; the common duct and the portal vein offer the most
convenient roadway for reaching and penetrating its substance. The
exact route or routes of which the parasite avails itself in migrating
have not been definitely settled, although Friedreich has shown that
the portal vein is the medium of transmission of the Echinococcus
multilocularis. The comparative frequency with which the liver is
entered indicates that the portal vein is the favorite route of
migration.
[Footnote 212: _Traité des Entozoaires et des Maladies vermineuses,
etc._, par C. Davaine, Paris, 1877, p. 383.]
[Footnote 213: _Entozoa_, by T. Spencer Cobbold, M.D., F.R.S., London,
1874, p. 275.]
[Footnote 214: In vol. iii of _Ziemssen's Cyclopædia_, p. 561.]
PATHOLOGY AND SYMPTOMS.--The number of echinococci reaching the liver
varies from one to ten or twelve or more. They increase in size from
the time of their deposit in the organ, and ultimately attain to large
proportions. The rapidity of growth depends somewhat on the character
of the tissue in which imbedded, and the amount of disturbance of
function is determined by the position of the parasite in the organ.
Echinococci may be deposited in any part of the liver--in the substance
of the organ, in the ducts, or in the vessels--but the most usual site
is near the capsule, and, developing outwardly in the direction of
least resistance, impart to the outline of the organ an irregular
contour. As the echinococci develop, the adjacent parts of the liver
pressed upon undergo atrophy, but the connective tissue of the organ
contributes to the formation of the dense capsule which envelops them.
But as the increase in size is not rapid, although continuous, if the
cysts are situated at the periphery and adjacent to the capsule, they
may be present for many months without causing any distinct symptoms.
In a case occurring under my own observation last year the only symptom
which attracted attention was an enlargement of the hepatic region, and
on examination a characteristic elastic, irregular, and painless tumor
could be readily detected by sight and touch occupying the right
hypochondrium and extending into the epigastric and umbilical regions.
When the echinococci cysts impinge on the portal vein or on the hepatic
duct, there will be caused the usual results of such pressure--ascites
or jaundice, or both conditions may occur simultaneously, with
obstruction of both vein and duct. When the cysts develop downwardly,
the stomach and intestines will be displaced, and nausea and vomiting,
diarrhoea or constipation, and, it may be, considerable pain of a
colic-like character, will be caused. An upward development of the
cysts gives rise to more pronounced disturbances. The diaphragm is
pushed upward, the heart displaced, and the lungs, especially the
right, compressed. Occasionally the diaphragm is softened and
perforated by the pressure of the enlarging cysts, and the lungs are
ultimately tunnelled, the parasites being discharged by the bronchi.
{1103} The growth of an echinococcus tumor may spontaneously cease, and
then retrograde changes take place, leading to its final disappearance.
This arrest of development may occur without any obvious cause, but now
and then such a change from the ordinary course of tumors may be
effected by an external injury, as a blow on the abdomen, but more
frequently the death of the parasite is caused by ulceration into a
bile-duct, and the entrance of bile, which is a poison to these
hydatids. It sometimes happens that, opening into a duct of large size,
the daughter and granddaughter vesicles are slowly discharged through
it into the intestine, and thus a cure is effected. Inflammatory action
occurring in the cysts, adhesions may form and rupture into a
neighboring cavity take place. Direct communication may be established
with the intestine, or the cavity of the pleura or peritoneum be
entered, with results entirely disastrous.
A necessarily fatal termination must also ensue when the hydatids
penetrate the ascending vena cava, but this accident is, fortunately,
very rare.
The passage outward through the abdominal wall is an exceedingly
uncommon but fortunate issue of echinococcus of the liver, for in this
mode the hydatids may be discharged without much difficulty.
The echinococcus vesicle is enveloped in a dense, resisting, and
elastic capsule, constructed out of the connective tissue of the part
in which it is deposited. The innermost layer of the vesicle is the
germinative (endocyst), and from its granular surface are developed the
brood-capsules and their scolices--_i.e._ the head with its suckers and
crown of hooklets.[215] Each vesicle may contain not only daughter, but
also granddaughter, progeny, numbering from a dozen up to many
thousands, and they will vary in size from the head of a pin to a
pullet's egg. It follows that the mother vesicles must also greatly
vary in size: they range from a large pin's head to a child's head. The
vesicles or sacs contain a clear, faintly yellowish, or opalescent
fluid, neutral or slightly alkaline in reaction, and holding in
solution a large per cent. of sodium chloride, but free from albumen.
The specific gravity of the fluid ranges from 1007 to 1015, according
to the quantity of sodium chloride present. Succinic acid and also
hæmatoidin are usual constituents, besides the ingredients already
mentioned.
[Footnote 215: _Entozoa_, Cobbold, p. 273 _et seq._, chapter viii.]
Although the form of hydatid or echinococcus cyst above described is
the usual one, there is occasionally produced an anomalous development
of the parasite, which from its resemblance to colloid cancer was
supposed to have this character until Virchow[216] unravelled the
mystery by demonstrating its true structure. This form of the parasite
is designated Echinococcus multilocularis. Its resemblance to colloid
cancer is the more striking because of the tendency of the interior of
the mass to undergo degeneration, to disintegrate, and to break up into
pus-sacs with greenish, cheesy, and bilious contents. An Echinococcus
multilocularis tumor is of almost stony hardness; it has a very dense
fibrous structure, intersected by cavities with thick gelatinous
contents. These minor cavities[217] are sacs of echinococci, but they
depart widely from the typical form, well-defined scolices being seldom
encountered.
[Footnote 216: _Archiv für Anat._, Virchow, vol. xi. p. 80.]
[Footnote 217: Carrière, quoted by Davaine, _op. cit._, p. 961.]
{1104} Echinococci of the liver develop very slowly, and it is
characteristic of them to attain to very large proportions in most
cases without causing any very pronounced symptoms. There are certain
signs common to hydatids in any situation; there are others which are
due to particular circumstances.
A hydatid tumor of the liver is smooth but somewhat irregular in
outline, and elastic, when it develops downward, extending below the
margin of the ribs. If, however, it grows upward, the area of hepatic
dulness extends in that direction beyond the usual limits; the
diaphragm is pushed up, the lungs forced upward to the left and
compressed, and the heart also displaced upward toward the left. The
extension of the tumor downward, in the direction of least resistance,
is more usual. If the walls of the abdomen are sufficiently thin, the
tumor large enough, and if made up of many daughter vesicles, there may
be evoked by palpation the very characteristic sign known as hydatid
purring. To produce this effect an oscillation must be caused by a
sudden impulse communicated to the tumor on one side, the hand resting
against the other side. This sensation is likened to the impression on
the eye of the vibration of a bowl of jelly. Even when there is a
well-defined tumor this symptom is comparatively infrequent, but if
present it is pathognomonic, since no other kind of tumor possesses the
property of oscillation and elastic collision of its several
constituents.
When the tumor is so situated as to occlude the hepatic or common duct,
jaundice will be a symptom, and when the stomach is pressed upon there
will be epigastric oppression and nausea. If the vena cava is impinged
on or the portal vein, the usual results--ascites and oedema of the
lower extremities and of the scrotum--will be manifest. There is, of
course, nothing distinctive in these results.
The Echinococcus multilocularis, situated in the substance of the
liver, causes the usual disturbances of a new formation in such a
position. Much of the hepatic tissue is destroyed by its growth, and
many of the minor ducts closed. Jaundice is an early symptom--the
first, indeed, in many cases--and is also one of the most persistent.
It is present, according to Griesinger, in 10 out of 13 cases. The
usual gastro-intestinal disorders belonging to jaundice occur under
these circumstances; also the nervous disturbances of cholæmia.[218]
[Footnote 218: Davaine, _op. cit._, p. 962.]
Enlargement of the spleen is a very frequent symptom, being present,
according to Davaine, in 11 out of 13 cases, and, according to Heller,
in 25 out of 29 cases, in which this fact was made the subject of
direct inquiry.
Pressure on the vena cava causes oedema of the inferior extremities in
a small number of cases; and on the vena porta, ascites. There may
occur thrombosis of the portal, in which event the ascites will form
very quickly, and return as quickly after tapping.
The usually placid course pursued by echinococcus of the liver may be
much modified by inflammation and suppuration. Some external injury may
develop the inflammation. Having occurred, the clinical history
corresponds to other cases of hepatic abscess, and the reader is
therefore referred to the section on that topic for fuller information.
DIAGNOSIS.--At the outset of echinococcus of the liver the {1105}
differentiation of the tumor from other tumors, and of the disturbances
produced by it as contrasted with the effects of other morbid growths,
becomes exceedingly difficult, if not impossible. The size,
painlessness, elasticity, the purring tremor of the echinococcus tumor,
afford a sure basis for constructing a diagnosis, and as ultimately
developed they become the means of accurate differentiation from other
morbid growths of that locality. All doubt as to the nature of a given
hydatid tumor of the liver may be set at rest by the use of the
aspirator. The discovery of the characteristic hooklets of the scolex
in the fluid withdrawn from the tumor will be conclusive as to the
presence of echinococci. The hooklets may be absent, as in the case of
acephalocysts, but the fluid is characteristic in other respects: it
contains a large quantity of chloride of sodium and is free from
albumen.
Very great difficulty is experienced in diagnosticating an echinococcus
tumor developing from the upper surface of the liver, pushing the
diaphragm and lungs upward and displacing the heart to the left. Whilst
the physical signs may be, and are, usually alike when the condition
calling for diagnosis has existed for some time, there are means of
differentiating in the history of the cases and in the initial
symptoms.
The origin and growth of the echinococcus tumor are obscure and free
from constitutional disturbance; the onset of a pleuritic exudation is
marked by pain, fever, and hurried respiration and by physical signs of
a characteristic kind. It is true there are cases of so-called latent
pleurisy in which a hydrothorax forms without any well-marked
indications, but it will usually be found that some local pain, hurried
breathing, or other symptoms existed from the beginning. Those cases of
hydrothorax accompanying renal and cardiac diseases are readily enough
associated with their original cause.
Echinococcus of the liver may be confounded with abscess of the liver,
but a differentiation can be readily made by attention to a few
considerations, except in the rare condition of the Echinococcus
multilocularis which has proceeded to suppuration. In this latter
condition there are no means of differentiation, since an
abscess-formation has already occurred, nor is there any need to
attempt a distinction without the occasion of a difference.
Echinococcus differs from abscess in history, in the character of the
swelling, and in progress. Abscess of the liver is preceded by
paroxysms of hepatic colic, by inflammatory ulceration of some part of
the intestinal tract, or by local injury--traumatism. The onset of a
hydatid tumor is silent and painless. The swelling of the liver when an
abscess forms is not considerable at any time, and appears to be a
uniform enlargement of the organ, except when the pus tends to make its
way through the walls of the abdomen externally. An enlarging
echinococcus tumor is an obvious projection from the surface of the
liver at some point, and it does not have the characteristic
tenderness, the fluctuation of an abscess matured and ready to
discharge, and the constitutional disturbance; but it does have a
peculiar elasticity, and now and then may present that eminently
characteristic sign, the purring tremor. The use of the
exploring-trocar will usually suffice to clear up all doubts by the
withdrawal of the characteristic fluid of the hydatid cyst or of pus.
DURATION AND TERMINATION.--The progress of an echinococcus {1106} tumor
is exceedingly slow, and the development of symptoms produced by its
extension is early or late according to its position and to the nature
of the parts impinged on. A spontaneous cure may take place under the
rather rare circumstances of an opening into the hepatic duct or one of
its principal divisions, and the gradual discharge of the cysts by this
outlet into the intestine. Next to this mode of termination, the most
fortunate direction taken by the enlarging cysts is through the walls
of the abdomen externally. When the growth is upward through the lungs,
the symptoms belonging to empyema or hydrothorax, with pulmonary
abscess, ensue, and the termination is fatal after a protracted course.
Rupture into the peritoneal cavity is a fatal event. Ulceration into
the intestine, and the discharge of the cysts through the route thus
made, may effect a cure, but more frequently the fistulous
communication becomes a means of forming a fecal abscess.
The result in any case of hydatids of the liver is much influenced by
the mode of treatment adopted and the period at which it is undertaken.
As these parasites can be readily reached and destroyed by safe means,
obviously the more early the diagnosis is made and the treatment
carried out, the less the injury done to the hepatic structures and
neighboring parts.
TREATMENT.--Prophylactic.--As the intestine of the dog is the natural
habitat of the Tænia echinococcus, and as the hydatid is the first
stage in the development of the ovum and the second in the life-history
of the parasite, the means of prophylaxis consist in preventing
contamination of human food and water with the dog's excrement, which
contains the ova of the parasite. In Iceland, where hydatid disease is
very prevalent, dogs and human beings living in the same huts and
obtaining their water-supply by melting the snow just about them,
contamination of food and drink must readily occur. In this country
such conditions cannot exist; nevertheless, cases of hydatids are not
infrequent. The chief, if not the only, source of contamination is
through the consumption of such uncooked vegetables as lettuce, celery,
cabbage, etc., in the folds of which the ova may be retained, and from
which an ordinary washing does not suffice to detach them. It follows
that such articles of food should be minutely inspected and cleansed
before being placed on the table.
Boiling and filtration are the means of removing impurities of this
kind from potable waters.
Therapeutical.--The remedial management of cases of Tænia echinococcus
is necessarily restricted to that stage in their development when by
increasing size the functions of organs begin to be affected. Internal
medicines given with the view to arrest the growth of the parasite are
useless. Formerly, such attempts were made and successes were claimed,
but it is now known that no medicine can act on organisms enclosed as
these are in a dense capsule. It is needless to occupy space with
therapeutical details of this kind, but mention may be made of the
agents that were supposed to be effective. Laennec held that baths of a
solution of common salt had a distinct curative effect. The internal
use of iodide of potassium and the local application of iodine paint
were believed to cure a case in St. George's Hospital, London, in the
practice of Mr. Cæsar Hawkins. Kameela was, in Iceland, supposed to
have a curative effect, but notwithstanding this the physicians of that
island resort to very heroical surgical methods in the treatment of
this affection.