“are still in existence to-day (1866), although somewhat altered in
appearance. They stand at the angle formed by the Rue de la Bûcherie and
the Rue de l’Hôtel Colbert. These buildings, however, masquerade under
singular forms. Since the day when our fathers in medicine abandoned the
Temple of Aesculapius (1775) it has been put to a great variety of uses,
such as a public _lavoir_, a tap room, a _cabaret_ where thieves meet,
rooms equipped each with a number of beds, and a _lupanar_, where the
fee charged was twenty sous a sitting; the room in which Riolan taught
anatomy converted into a low-down billiard saloon; the ground over which
Femel walked, soaked with all sorts of nasty fluids; the office in which
sat the employés of the school—those vigilant guardians of the rights
and dignity of the Faculty—plastered with police ordinances; the chapel,
in which the doctors were wont piously to attend mass, now occupied as a
miserable lodging-house; etc.”
[Illustration:
Eighteenth-century plan showing the relations of the Paris _École de
Médecine_ to _Hôtel-Dieu_, the Cathedral of Nôtre Dame and the River
Seine.
(Reduced copy of the cut printed in Franklin’s “_La Vie Privée
d’Autrefois_,” 1892.)
]
In 1808 the _Faculté de Médecine_ was given the splendid quarters of the
_Collège de l’Académie de Chirurgie_, where it is still to-day located.
Clinical instruction was carried on at Hôtel-Dieu, La Charité and
certain other hospitals. The school itself is no longer called “_l’École
de Médecine_,” but “_la Faculté de Médecine_,” and the old building,
suitably modified, has been preserved—not as a part of the present
school, but as a sort of clubroom or social hall for the use of all the
university students. (See accompanying illustrations facing page 260.)
* * * * *
ÉCOLES DE SANTÉ.—When the statement was made before the Convention that
the Army of the Republic had lost about 600 medical officers, and that
the troops in the eastern Pyrenees were almost entirely without
physicians and surgeons, a law was passed (December 4, 1794) authorizing
the organization at Paris, Montpellier and Strassburg, of three medical
institutes or secondary medical schools (designated as “_Écoles de
Santé_”). They were originally intended to be simply temporary
organizations where “_officiers de santé_” might be trained for service
in the hospitals,—more particularly the military and naval hospitals.
Each of the _Départements_ of France was entitled to send one pupil to
be educated at one of these military medical schools, at the expense of
the nation, for a period of three years. In accordance with this scheme
Paris received 300 pupils, Montpellier 150, and Strassburg 100. Owing to
the lack of places or schools where young men might, at their own
expense, be trained as physicians, it soon became necessary to permit
men of this class to attend these schools. And so in 1796 the Medical
School at Paris was reorganized and provision made for the following
twelve professorships:—
Anatomy and Physiology.
Medical Chemistry and Pharmacy.
Medical Physics and Hygiene.
Surgical Pathology.
Pathology of Internal Diseases.
Medical Natural History.
Operative Surgery.
Surgical Clinic.
Clinic of Internal Diseases.
Clinic for Final Stage of Students’ Training.
Obstetrics.
History of Medicine and Medico-Legal Science.
In 1798 a chair for pathological anatomy was added, and there were also
organized several special clinics—one, for example, for sexual diseases;
and among the names of the professors who taught at this period are to
be found those of Sabatier, Chopart, Pinel, Corvisart, Baudelocque,
Lassus, and P. A. O. Mahon. The last-named lectured on the history of
medicine. No fees were charged for tuition. Under this new régime the
Paris Medical School rapidly rose in favor, until in 1799 the attendance
had reached the extraordinary total of 1500. In addition to the regular
students who expected to receive a medical diploma if they passed a
satisfactory examination at the end of the course, there was a large
attendance of quacks, at all three of these schools (Paris, Montpellier
and Strassburg). Neither a diploma nor any special permit, however, was
required of those who wished to engage in the practice of medicine. This
state of affairs soon led to frightful abuses, and the Convention
accordingly passed a new law (March 10, 1803), which stated that, for
the future, only those who had passed a satisfactory examination in the
fundamental branches (anatomy, physiology, pathology, materia medica,
pharmacy, chemistry, hygiene, obstetrics, surgery and internal medicine)
would be permitted to engage in practice. The duration of this course of
training was four years, and the candidate was further required to
furnish satisfactory evidence that he had completed the regular Lyceum
course of studies (equivalent to the undergraduate course at one of our
American Colleges) before he entered upon the medical course.
[Illustration:
1. The side of the Paris _Faculté de Médecine_ which fronts on the
_Rue de l’École de Médecine_.
(From “_La Vie Universitaire_.”)
]
[Illustration:
2. View of the former _École de Médecine_ since it has been
incorporated with the new structures of the _Faculté de Médecine_.
(From “_La Vie Universitaire_.”)
]
[Illustration:
3. Musée Dupuytren. Formerly the refectory of the Convent of the
Cordeliers (Franciscans), built in the fifteenth century.
(From “_La Vie Universitaire_.”)
]
On the plea that the people who dwelt in the country districts live
simpler lives, etc., and consequently are subject to illnesses of a less
complicated nature, there was passed by the National Convention another
law in accordance with which a lower grade of doctors was
created—_i.e._, practitioners who were called _Officiers de Santé_. At
first these men were given permission to practice after they had
completed the third year of the regular course of studies, but later
they were absolved from the necessity of taking any part of the regular
course, provided they could show that they had spent five years in work
connected with a hospital or had been in the service of a regular
physician during a period of six years. Gradually, as the number of the
regular physicians increased and as the country became more prosperous,
the _Officiers de Santé_ diminished in number. In 1847 there were 7456
such practitioners, but already in 1872 the number had fallen to 4653.
On the other hand, the regular doctors of medicine had increased during
the same period from 10,643 to 10,766.
In 1864 an attempt was made in the French Parliament to abolish the
institution of _Officiers de Santé_, but one of the members, Bonjean,
opposed the motion and it fell through. The argument which he brought
forward and which is quoted by Puschmann, is essentially the following:—
When simple people belonging to the poorer class of the
community are taken ill they want a physician who is himself
simple and poor like themselves, a man who is able to comprehend
the language and the needs of his modest patients, and who,
because of his low birth, because of the fact that he has been
habituated from early childhood to the plain and simple living
of the peasant’s cottage, and also because he has been put to
comparatively small expense to secure the grade which permits
him to practice the profession of medicine, is quite contented
to accept a modest fee for his services. The _Officier de Santé_
is, for all these reasons, admirably fitted to fulfil his
mission of modest devotion; for him, under these circumstances
it will be comparatively easy to act as the confidant, the
counsellor, and the sympathetic friend of the patient.
It is not possible for me to state (1919) how far the recent war has
upset all the arrangements mentioned above.
* * * * *
PARISIAN HOSPITALS.—Of the three large hospitals which existed in Paris
at the beginning of the nineteenth century—the _Hôtel-Dieu_, _la
Charité_ and _la Salpétrière_—I am not able to furnish more than a few
scanty details. According to an editorial which I find in the _London
Lancet_ for November 25, 1837, the management of the English hospitals
destined for the relief of the sick poor during the period now under
consideration was inferior to that of the similar institutions in
France. There are good reasons for believing, however, that, after the
lapse of a few years, the English hospitals became in every respect the
equals of those in France. In Tenon’s elaborate report on the Parisian
hospitals examined by him in 1816 I find it stated that _la Salpétrière_
was used in part as a prison and in part as an asylum for the insane;
but, in another part of this report, he states that at one time this
hospital sheltered as many as 8000 persons, the great majority of whom
were legitimate hospital patients.
Of _Hôtel-Dieu_ John Cross, in his memoir concerning medical education
in Paris, makes the following remarks:—
The patients at _l’Hôtel-Dieu_ vary in number from 1500 to 2000,
and generally approach near to the latter number. Beside the
wards for medical and surgical patients, there is a ward for the
reception of women actually in labor or suffering abortion. The
medical patients are far the most numerous, and eight or nine
physicians are attached to _Hôtel-Dieu_.... The number of
dressers is not limited; when I was at _l’Hôtel-Dieu_, above
one-hundred were attached to it.... _Les élèves internes_ of the
Parisian hospitals correspond to our house-surgeons; the number
of them to each hospital is limited, and at _l’Hôtel-Dieu_ there
are nearly twenty. They have their separate apartments in the
hospital, are boarded in it, and have, beside board and lodging,
an annual salary of about twenty guineas each. They may retain
their situation for two years.
[Illustration:
Device of the _École de Médecine de Paris_. (Adopted by the Faculty in
1597.) (Three storks, each holding a twig of origanum in its beak;
and at the top of the design the motto “_Urbi et Orbi Salus_”
[Health to the City and to all the World].)
]
Paris possesses a fourth large hospital, which as regards architectural
beauty and the great consideration shown by the architect for a wise and
convenient disposition of the different available spaces, certainly
stands first among the hospitals of the French capital. I have
introduced here a reduced copy of the plan of this hospital (_Hôpital
Saint-Louis_), which dates back to the seventeenth century, but, much as
I should like to do so, I am not able to furnish a description of the
details relating to the precise purposes and the management of the
institution at the present time. It is said to be largely devoted to the
treatment of affections of the skin.
* * * * *
TENON’S CRITICISMS ON HÔTEL-DIEU AND HÔPITAL SAINT-LOUIS.—Speaking of
the wards in the Hôpital Saint-Louis Tenon, who wrote his treatise in
1786, says that it was a mistake to make the ceilings only eleven feet
high; they should have been sixteen feet high. He commends strongly the
complete separation of the hospital from the adjacent city by high
surrounding walls. Only one _kind_ of contagion, he says, should be
admitted into any single ward. This precaution had not previously been
observed. In the Hôpital Saint-Louis the water-closet arrangements were
about as bad as they could possibly be. The same remark applies to
Hôtel-Dieu, where overcrowding was at times scandalously bad. In the
latter hospital there are, in the wards destined for men, 600 beds—of
which number 378 are beds of the larger size, and 222 of the smaller. In
the wards for women, he adds, the same predominance of large beds
exists—viz., 355 larger beds, 264 of the smaller size.
Tenon says emphatically: “Beds for two or more persons should not be
permitted in any hospital. These beds, on certain occasions, are
occupied by four—yes, even by six persons—and as a result they are
infested by vermin. Sleep is practically unattainable under such
circumstances.”[27]
GROUND PLAN OF THE HÔPITAL SAINT-LOUIS
Planned by the architect Claude Chastillon, of Paris, in 1608.
A. Wall surrounding hospital grounds.
B. Main entrance.
C, D. Court separating the first and second enclosed spaces.
C. Entrance to second enclosure, through the porter’s lodge.
D. One of the four buildings placed at the corners of the principal
square; the members of the Religious Sisterhood occupy the
building as their convent.
E. Gallery of communication between the convent and the wards of the
hospital.
F. Another of the four corner buildings; it is destined for the use of
the priests and the surgeons, and communicates with the hospital
wards by means of a covered gallery like that shown at E.
G. Entrance to men’s promenade, to the reservoir, and to the cemetery.
H, I. Buildings in which may be lodged, during the prevalence of an
epidemic, such citizens as may be affected with some contagious
disease.
K, L, M, and N. Gardens belonging respectively to pavilions L, H, F,
and D.
O. Lodge occupied by four gardeners.
P. Royal pavilion, not used after the Revolution.
Q. Open space planted with trees.
S. Church.
T. Kitchen, etc.
U. Bakery, wine cellars, etc.
V, X. Lodging rooms for cooks and bakers.
[Illustration:
Hôpital Saint-Louis, Paris. Planned and drawn by Claude Chatillon,
architect, in 1608.
(Copied from Tenon’s “_Mémoires sur les Hôpitaux de Paris_,” Paris,
1816; reduced about one-half.)
]
------------------------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTER XXVII.
ARMAND TROUSSEAU, ONE OF THE LAST OF FRANCE’S GREAT CLINICAL TEACHERS
In the preface to his “_Bibliothèque de Thérapeutique_,” which was
published first in 1828, A. L. J. Bayle says that the art of treating
diseases has been greatly neglected, in comparison with the enthusiastic
efforts made to promote some of the other branches of the science of
medicine, especially that of pathological anatomy; and, as a result,
this art has in reality actually retrograded. Indeed, he goes on to say,
quite a large number of agents which, up to a recent date, had been
considered efficient remedies, have been entirely forgotten or even, in
some instances, proscribed. This unfortunate tendency, he adds, may be
attributed to many different causes. One of the most important of these,
he believes, is to be found in the fact that certain physicians have
allowed the idea to take root in their minds that the lesions which have
been discovered in the different organs of the body at post-mortem
examinations were the cause of the symptoms that, taken in the
aggregate, constitute the particular disease under consideration; and,
acting under the influence of this idea, they have assumed that their
therapeutic efforts should be directed solely to these lesions.
“Experience has not confirmed the correctness of this theory; on the
contrary, it has shown that, if pathological anatomy is useful to the
practitioner, it is chiefly so because it throws light upon the course
and prognosis of certain diseases, and not because it has furnished a
basis upon which the treatment may be built up.”
There is still another equally strong reason, says Bayle, why the art of
therapeutics has been prevented from making a satisfactory advance,
viz., the propagation of the physiological doctrine (Broussaism), a
doctrine which admits the existence of practically only one
disease—_irritation_, in its varying degrees of intensity, together with
a single class of remedies—_anti-irritants_. Modern therapeutists reject
most of these ideas, and experience also shows that, in the matter of
therapeutics, these anti-irritants often produce harmful results. “A
treatise on therapeutics,” he goes on to say, “should contain the
substance of all the good memoirs that have been published on the
treatment of the different diseases and on the remedies employed; it
should also mention all the circumstances which indicate or
contra-indicate the employment of remedial agents, the best forms in
which the latter may be administered, all the cases in which they have
succeeded in affording relief as well as all those in which they have
failed to accomplish this result; all the authors who have written on
the subject under consideration; and, finally whatever additional facts
may give the practitioner confidence in the reality of the results
proclaimed.”
There came under public notice, at about this period of time, a French
physician who evidently held very much the same beliefs as were put
forward by A. L. J. Bayle and which I have very briefly stated in the
preceding paragraph. I refer to ARMAND TROUSSEAU, who was born (1801) in
Western France, and who received his early medical training under that
prince of physicians, Bretonneau, of Tours. In association with his
friend, Hermann Pidoux, he published (in two volumes, Paris, 1836–1839)
an excellent treatise on materia medica and therapeutics. The spirit
which guided him in the preparation of this treatise is well expressed
in his own words as follows:—
Medicine is both a science and an art.... It is an art when it
becomes necessary to apply it to a human being who is ill, and
this is especially true when the manner of treatment is under
consideration. It is in this art that the physician reveals how
much talent he possesses; he reveals himself as a true artist by
the particular form of remedial preparation which he decides to
administer to his patient, by the felicitous choice which he
makes between remedies, and by the favorable manner in which he
combines them.
[Illustration:
TROUSSEAU
]
Dujardin-Beaumetz then adds the important statement that in his belief
Trousseau was—at the time when he gave utterance to these words—the
living personification of the truth of what he said, for nobody had
carried the therapeutic art to a higher state of perfection than he had.
To this statement may be added, with perfect truth, the opinion held by
many of his contemporaries to the effect that the publication of the
Trousseau-Pidoux treatise promoted effectively the growth of a sound and
trustworthy therapeutic code. The mere fact that in 1875 this treatise
had already reached its ninth edition furnishes strongly corroborative
proof of the correctness of this opinion.
The scantiness of the space which I consider it proper to devote to this
single memoir appears to me to justify the omission, from this point
onward, of everything that does not add to the description of
Trousseau’s career as one of the greatest clinical teachers in the
domain of internal medicine in France. I am the more strongly impelled
to adopt this course because so many of my personal friends among the
physicians who returned to New York, during the years 1860–1864, spoke
in such terms of praise of the success attained by Trousseau in this
particular branch of medical education.
His profound earnestness as a clinical teacher and his incessant
watchfulness over the interests and rights of the patients who served as
material for his bedside lectures are brought out so clearly in one of
his addresses to the class at the beginning of one of his regular
courses that I shall be pardoned, I am sure, for reproducing it here in
considerable fulness of detail:—
Gentlemen:—Before making any remarks to you about my service at
the hospital I feel impelled to tell you what I understand by
the expression ‘clinical instruction’ and to put before you what
I consider to be the respective duties of the professor and of
those who regularly follow his lessons.—It is for me a very
pleasant thing, as you may readily imagine, to see, crowding
around the beds in the ward and seated on the benches of the
amphitheatre, a large number of pupils; but the consciousness
that I am fulfilling a useful mission and am sowing in the minds
of these young men ideas that will later be fertilized, affords
me a much greater pleasure. However, both as regards the
professor and also as regards the pupils who listen to his
teaching, there are needed certain conditions in the absence of
which the clinical instruction must necessarily prove sterile.
Although clinical instruction represents the crowning stage of
your medical studies, I would not have you believe that this
particular part of your medical training should not be begun
until you reach the last period of your student career. From the
very day when a young man decides that he wants to be a
physician he should lose no opportunity of visiting hospitals.
It is desirable that he should see sick people—not occasionally,
but as frequently as possible. The materials which are thus at
first stored in one’s memory in a confused and disorderly
condition are nevertheless excellent materials. While they may
not to-day appear to possess a useful character, you will find
them at a later period stored away among the genuine treasures
lodged in your memory. To-day I have reached the period of old
age, and yet I remember distinctly the patients whom I saw
forty-three years ago when I took the very first steps in my
career of physician; I recall the most important symptoms, the
pathological lesions, even in some cases the patient’s name or
the number of the bed which he occupied. The recollections are
at times of service to me, they even afford me instruction, and
occasionally you may hear me refer to them at our bedside
conferences. I therefore urge upon even the youngest among you,
the practice of visiting regularly every day the hospital. On
the whole I believe that you will find it more profitable to
give the preference at first to the medical rather than to the
surgical wards.... You will not derive real profit from
frequenting the latter until after you have acquired some
knowledge in anatomy, whereas the possession of a few
superficial conceptions regarding physiology will be found
sufficient for the student who is beginning his first medical
studies.
Little by little you will find that you are becoming more and
more able to judge, from a mere inspection of the patient’s face
and expression, how serious is the malady with which he is
affected; you will learn how to feel his pulse and to appreciate
correctly its different qualities; and you will begin to acquire
some knowledge of auscultation and percussion; etc....
I cannot too often repeat to you the fact that a knowledge of
anatomy is not to be acquired by listening to lectures upon the
subject; in order to gain such knowledge you should have before
you, a human cadaver—a cadaver around which sit two or three
other students besides yourself, all busily engaged in the work
of dissecting, and near you there should be an older and more
experienced pupil upon whom you can depend for guidance.
Similarly, knowledge of actual disease is to be learned by the
student only at the hospital, and with the aid of one of the
resident physicians or of a chief of staff, who is competent to
teach you how a patient should be questioned and how a
systematic examination of the case should be conducted.... And
here let me remind you that the patients who are to be found in
our wards are poor people, people who are compelled by their
suffering and by their lack of money to take refuge in a
hospital. A knowledge of this situation of affairs should lead
us to show them some consideration and respect. So far as the
men are concerned I admit that it is permissible for us to treat
them with less delicacy. From the viewpoint of modesty there is
very little indelicacy in removing the clothes from a man in
order to make an examination of the surface of his body; on the
other hand, it is not right to do this if the examination is at
all likely to affect his health unfavorably. And now that we are
discussing this subject, I am obliged to confess that young men
are only too apt to forget that, after the clothing has been
removed from a man whose skin is wet with perspiration, it is
very dangerous to expose him even for a short time to the
contact of a chilly air. It is also not permissible, even in the
interest of science, to prolong a physical examination or to
carry out the manipulations required in auscultation and
percussion if you find that it is exhausting the poor patient’s
strength. In the latter case it is better to leave the
examination incomplete than to increase the feebleness of a
patient who is already in such a state of weakness....
[Illustration:
VELPEAU
A contemporary of Trousseau and one of France’s most distinguished
surgeons.
(Copied from a print in the possession of Transylvania College,
Lexington, Kentucky.)
]
It was my intention to introduce at this point a citation from
Trousseau’s “_Clinique de l’Hôtel-Dieu_” of sufficient length to reveal
fairly well his manner of conducting clinical instruction at the bedside
of a patient. My decision to do this was based upon the assumption that
I should find among the printed accounts of these supposedly impromptu
lectures one or more which would serve the required purpose. I soon
discovered, however, that not a trace of the off-hand character of such
instruction remained in these reports. As they appeared in print they
were elaborate and quite exhaustive memoirs, suited for the edification
of men who had already long since passed the undergraduate stage of
medical training, and I was therefore obliged to abandon the plan which
I had so much desired to carry out. If I had, from the very first, given
more serious thought to the scheme which I had in mind I would have
quickly realized the fact that no teacher of wide experience and
universally recognized as an authority in the diagnosis and treatment of
disease would be likely to commit to print lessons which were meant to
be useful to medical students who had only just reached the threshold of
their professional career.
Trousseau died on June 23, 1867, in his seventy-second year. The only
important treatises which he published are the two which I have already
mentioned.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
LIST OF THE MORE IMPORTANT AUTHORITIES CONSULTED
ALIBERT, J. L.: ÉLOGES HISTORIQUES, ETC., Paris, 1806.
BAGLIVI: THE PRACTICE OF PHYSIC REDUCED TO THE ANCIENT WAY OF
OBSERVATIONS, translated from the Latin, London, 1704.
BARON, JOHN: THE LIFE OF EDWARD JENNER, 2 vols., London, 1838.
BARTHEZ, P. J.: NOUVEAUX ELÉMENS DE LA SCIENCE DE L’HOMME, Montpellier,
1778; Paris, 1806.
—— CONSULTATIONS DE MÉDECINE (ouvrage posthume), Paris, 1820.
BAUDELOCQUE, JEAN-LOUIS: L’ART DES ACCOUCHEMENS, 2 vols., Paris, 1807.
BAYLE, A. L. J.: BIBLIOTHÈQUE DE THÉRAPEUTIQUE, 4 vols., Paris,
1828–1837.
BAYLE, G. L.: TRAITÉ DES MALADIES CANCÉREUSES; OUVRAGE POSTHUME, Vol.
I., Paris, 1833.
BÉCLARD, P. A.: ADDITIONS TO THE GENERAL ANATOMY OF XAVIER BICHAT,
Translated from the French by George Hayward, M.D., Boston, 1823.
BELL, SIR CHARLES: INSTITUTES OF SURGERY, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1838.
BERNARD, CLAUDE: LEÇONS SUR LES PHÉNOMÈNES DE LA VIE COMMUNS AUX ANIMAUX
ET AUX VÉGÉTAUX, Paris, 1878.
BONNET, THÉOPHILE: SEPULCHRETUM, 3 vols., Lyons, 1700.—A still earlier
edition (1675) exists.
BORDEU: (See under RICHERAND.)
BOUILLAUD, J.: CLINIQUE MÉDICALE DE L’HÔPITAL DE LA CHARITÉ, 2 vols.,
Paris, 1837.
BOUILLET, J.: PRÉCIS D’HISTOIRE DE LA MÉDECINE, Paris, 1883.
BRETONNEAU ET SES CORRESPONDANTS, 2 vols., Paris, 1891. (Review in the
_Revue Scientifique_ of July 23, 1892.)
BROUSSAIS, F. J. V.: EXAMEN DES DOCTRINES MÉDICALES, troisième edition,
4 vols., Paris, 1829–1834.
BUDD: TYPHOID FEVER, ITS NATURE, MODE OF SPREADING, AND PREVENTION,
London, 1873.
BUISSON, F. R.: PRÉCIS HISTORIQUE SUR BICHAT, in Vol. I. of this
Author’s Anatomie Générale, Paris, 1801.
CABANIS, P. J. G.: DU DEGRÉ DE CERTITUDE DE LA MÉDECINE, 3d edition,
Paris, 1819. (Also contains Richerand’s eulogy of Cabanis.)
CARTER, H. W.: A SHORT ACCOUNT OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL HOSPITALS OF
FRANCE, ITALY, SWITZERLAND, AND THE NETHERLANDS, London, 1819.
CHEREAU, ACHILLE: NOTICE SUR LES ANCIENNES ÉCOLES DE MÉDECINE DE LA RUE
DE LA BÛCHERIE, Paris, 1866.
CHOMEL: LEÇONS SUR LA FIÈVRE TYPHOÏDE, 1834. At a still earlier date
(1821) Chomel published a general treatise on Fevers.
CORRY: LIFE OF JOSEPH PRIESTLEY, 1804.
CROSS, JOHN: SKETCHES OF THE MEDICAL SCHOOLS OF PARIS, London, 1815.
CUVIER: ÉLOGES HISTORIQUES LUS DANS LES SÉANCES PUBLIQUES DE L’INSTITUT
ROYAL DE FRANCE, 3 vols., Strassbourg, 1819.
DAREMBERG, CHARLES: HISTOIRE DES SCIENCES MÉDICALES, Vol. 2, Paris,
1870.
DEZEIMERIS, OLLIVIER ET RAIGE-DELORME: DICT. HISTORIQUE DE LA MÉD. ANC.
ET MOD., 3 vols., Paris, 1828–1837.
DUJARDIN-BEAUMETZ: “LEÇONS DE CLINIQUE THÉRAPEUTIQUE,” Paris, 1883.
DUPUYTREN, see under PAILLARD ET MARX.
EYNARD, THÉODORE: ESSAI SUR LA VIE DE TISSOT, Lausanne, 1839.
FRANK, JOHANN PETER: SYSTEM EINER VOLLSTÄNDIGEN MEDICINISCHEN POLIZEY, 6
vols., Mannheim, 1780–1788.
FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN: LIFE AND WRITINGS OF, Published by J. M. Dent &
Sons, London and New York, 1908.
GAZETTE MÉDICALE DE PARIS, Tome III., 1835.
GILLES DE LA TOURETTE: THÉOPHRASTE RENAUDOT, Plon et Cie., Paris, 1884.
Reviewed in _La Revue Scientifique_, April 9, 1892.
GRIBBLE, FRANCIS: LAKE GENEVA AND ITS LITERARY LANDMARKS, Westminster,
England, 1901.
GUARDIA, J. M.: LA MÉDECINE À TRAVERS LES SIÈCLES, Paris, 1865.
GUÉNEAU DE MUSSY: CLINIQUE MÉDICALE, Vol. III., Traité Théorique et
Pratique de la Fièvre Typhoïde ou Dothiénentérique, Paris, 1884.
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GENERAL INDEX
A
ABDOMINAL TYPHUS, one of the early names given to typhoid fever, 202
ABERNETHY, JOHN, celebrated English surgeon of the 18th and early 19th
centuries, 131
ABRAHAM, long life of, 31
“ADVERSARIA ANATOMICA,” the title of Morgagni’s first published
treatise, 92
ALBERTINI, HYPPOLYTE, 92
ALBINUS, 35
ALCOHOL, how death is produced by, 148
ALLGEMEINE KRANKENHAUS, the, at Vienna, reorganized by the Emperor,
Joseph II., 74
ALLOPATHS, the, 26
ALSTON, 130
AMBULANCE, field, invented by Baron Larrey, 244
AMPUTATION OF LIMBS, circular, credited by the English to Cheselden,
151
credited by the French to J. L. Petit, 151
AMPUTATIONS, primary, highly recommended by Baron Larrey in military
surgery, 248
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY, great stress laid by Sir Benjamin Brodie on the
importance, to surgeons, of an intimate knowledge of, 149
ANIMALCULES found in infusions, 93
ARCHIV FÜR PHYSIOLOGISCHE HEILKUNDE, founded in 1842, 54
ARSENIC, how death is produced by, 148
AUENBRUGGER, 189, 194
novum inventum of, 76
AURICLE, voluntary movements of, 87
AUSCULTATION, difficulties encountered by the physician in his efforts
to interpret correctly the significance of certain sounds heard
during, 198
modern method of, 195, 210
AUTENRIETH, associated with Reil in editing the Archives of Physiology,
20
AUTHORITIES quoted, list of, 271
“AVIS AU PEUPLE,” title of Tissot’s most popular medical treatise, 99
AYEN, DUKE OF, an enthusiastic botanist, 171
AZOTE, lifeless matter, 123
B
BAGLIVI, GIORGIO, celebrated Italian physician of the 17th century, 91
BALFOUR, a distinguished physician of Calcutta, attempted in 1818 to
establish the idea that gonorrhoea is a disease distinct from
syphilis, 153
BARON, DR., biographer of Sir Edward Jenner, 111
BARTHEZ, PAUL-JOSEPH, Chancellor of the University of Montpellier, 198
BARTLETT, ELISHA, of Boston, Mass., translator of J. L. H. P.’s
biography of Dupuytren, 227
BASSI LAURA, distinguished Italian scientist, 93
BAUDELOCQUE, Professor of Obstetrics at _La Maternité_ in Paris, 254,
260
chosen to take charge of the accouchement of the Empress, Marie
Louise, 256
BAYLE, A. L. J., author of a treatise entitled “_Bibliothèque de
Thérapeutique_,” 265
BAYLE, GASPARD LAURENT, distinguished French physician, 182
(Portrait 182)
BEER, GEORG JOSEF, celebrated ophthalmologist of Vienna, Austria, 77,
231
BELL, BENJAMIN, 153
BELL, SIR CHARLES, 153
becomes one of the most celebrated surgeons of London, 154
demonstrates an important law concerning the nature of the spinal
cord nerves, 154
first person to establish the law governing centrifugal and
centripetal nerve impulses, 79
(Portrait 154)
BELL, JOHN, distinguished English anatomist, 155
BENEDICT, T. W. G., 77
BERNARD, CLAUDE, on the nature of vital force, 21
(See also under Claude Bernard)
BICHAT, MARIE FRANÇOIS-XAVIER, 162, 164, 210
devotes much time to experimental physiology, 166
(Portrait, 162)
BILLROTH, 50
BLUMENBACH, 45
BOER, Professor of Obstetrics at Vienna, 75
BOERHAAVE, 18, 35, 60
“Aphorisms,” 61
“Institutions of Medicine,” 63
BONE FORMATION, as explained by Prochaska, 80
BONNET, THÉOPHILE, author of the famous treatise on pathological
anatomy, entitled “_Sepulchretum_,” 93
BORDEU, THÉOPHILE, one of the earliest French physicians to engage in
research work, 159, 160
on the position of the glands and their action, 160
suffered greatly from gout, 161
BORSIERI, Professor of the Theory and Practice of Medicine at Pavia,
102
BOTANY, reasons for the enthusiastic love for this branch of science
which some men appear to possess, 172
BRAIN, injuries of, Sir Benjamin Brodie’s observations on the treatment
of, 149
BRASQUET demonstrated the erroneous nature of Broussais’ statistics,
212
BRETONNEAU, proposed the name “_Dothiénentérite_” for typhoid fever,
203
BRODIE, SIR BENJAMIN COLLINS, Professor of Anatomy and Surgery in the
Royal College of Surgeons, London, 147
one of the leading English experimental physiologists, 148
(Portrait, 148)
BROUSSAIS, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH VICTOR, physician connected with the
Military Hospital at Val-de-Grâce, and, later, Professor of General
and Special Pathology and Therapeutics at the University of Paris,
55, 207
misstatements made by, hastened his downfall, 211
(Portrait, 208)
profound contempt of, for the _vis medicatrix naturae_, 211
propositions belonging to the domain of physiology, 208
propositions belonging to the domain of pathology, 209
BROUSSAISM, 208
according to A. L. J. Bayle, Broussaism greatly hindered the art of
therapeutics from making a satisfactory advance, 265
important part played by, in hindering the real advance of medical
science, 208
BRUNONIANISM, 23, 47
BUREAU D’ADRESSE OU DE RENCONTRE, 5
C
CABANIS, PIERRE-JEAN-GEORGES, 175
CAMERARIUS, ELIAS, 35
CARDIAC AND PULMONARY DISEASES, pathological anatomy of, 197
CAROTID ARTERY, first ligated by Sir Astley Cooper, 137
CATARACT operations by Prof. Beer at the _Allgemeine Krankenhaus_ in
Vienna, 77
CAVENDISH, the English chemist who confirmed Priestley’s discovery that
atmospheric air is composed of water and different acids, 120
CHARITÉ, LA, one of the larger Paris hospitals, 261
CHEREAU, 258
CHESELDEN credited by the English with having been the first to perform
the circular amputation of limbs, 151
CHEST, auscultation of, 196
CHESTERFIELD, EARL OF, 44
CHOMEL, 202
CHOPART, FRANÇOIS, widely known by his advocacy of the operation called
“Chopart’s amputation” of the foot, 220, 260
CINCHONA bark, remedial effects of, suggested to Hahnemann the doctrine
of _similia similibus_, 22
CIRCULAR amputation of limbs, 151
CISALPINE REPUBLIC, formation of, 104
CLAUDE BERNARD, 125
on the nature of vital force, 21
CLAUDE CHASTILLON, architect of the _Hôpital Saint-Louis_ at Paris, 263
CLAVICLE, fracture of, Desault’s bandage in the treatment of, 164, 223
CLINICAL teaching inaugurated in the Vienna Medical School, 66
CONDILLAC favors Locke’s philosophy, 53
COOPER, SIR ASTLEY, distinguished English surgeon of the 18th and early
19th century, 135
(Portrait 136)
CORVISART, JEAN-NICOLAS, 76, 186, 188, 191, 260
appointed “First Physician” to Napoleon Bonaparte, 191
refuses to wear a wig while on duty at the Necker Hospital, 188
translator of Auenbrugger’s treatise, 186
(Portrait 188)
COW-POX VIRUS, 114
CRANTZ, HEINRICH, 65
CROSS, DR. JOHN, personal observations of the service rendered at _La
Maternité_ hospital in Paris, 253, 262
testimony of, with regard to Dupuytren, 229
CRYSTALLINE LENS, method of extracting perfected by the French surgeon,
Daviel, 151
CURE, Law of, by Hahnemann, 23
CUVIER, the naturalist, x
explains why some men become so enamored with the science of botany,
172
D
DAUBENTON, celebrated French naturalist, 177
DAVIEL, 151
DE HAEN, ANTON, 53
his treatise, “_Ratio Medendi_,” 65
DELPECH, JACQUES, 233
assassinated by a former patient, 235
became famous as an authority in orthopedic surgery, 234
DEMOSTHENES, distinguished eye surgeon of Marseilles, France, 231
DEMOURS, famous French ophthalmologist, 231
DENMAN, THOMAS, English author of a treatise on obstetrics, 255
DENTAL SURGERY, distinguished French authorities in, 236
DEPHLOGISTICATED air (oxygen) discovered by Joseph Priestley, 120
DESAULT, PIERRE-JOSEPH, distinguished French surgeon, 163, 221
established a clinical school at Hôtel-Dieu of Paris, 225
introduced the practice of ligating the exposed ends of the larger
arteries immediately after an amputation, 224
inventor of Desault’s bandage, for use in the treatment of fractures
of the clavicle, 164, 223
DESCARTES, French philosopher, advocates _à priori_ reasoning in
preference to realistic philosophy, 52
DESCEMET, distinguished French botanist and anatomist, 231, 232
also successful as a practitioner in maladies of the eye, 233
“DESCEMET’S MEMBRANE,” according to Hyrtl, should be named “Duddel’s
membrane,” 87
“DE SEDIBUS ET CAUSIS MORBORUM,” the title of Morgagni’s famous work,
92
DESGENETTES, AIMÉ-NICOLAS DU-FRICHE, a distinguished French military
surgeon, 241
in the retreat of the French Army from Russia, he was taken prisoner,
but was immediately released by order of the Emperor Alexander,
242
(Portrait 242)
DESRUELLES, one of Broussais’ pupils, did not employ mercury in his
treatment of syphilis, but applied leeches locally, 211
DEVAUX, JEAN, a learned French surgeon of the 17th century, 237
DEZEIMERIS, 37, 42, 97
DIDEROT favors Locke’s philosophy, 53
DIEFFENBACH, JOHANN FRIEDRICH, 48
DIMSDALE and TRONCHIN, the two earliest European advocates of
inoculation in small-pox, 108
“DOCEO UT DISCAM,” Seneca’s motto, 159
“DOTHIÉNENTÉRITE” the name proposed by Bretonneau for typhoid fever,
203
DOUGLASS, JAMES, distinguished Scotch anatomist and surgeon of the 18th
century, 35, 132
DOUGLASS, JOHN, younger brother of James, revived the supra-pubic
operation for stone in the bladder, 132
DROWNING, case of recovery, 29
DUBLIN LYING-IN HOSPITAL, 255
DUDDEL, E., an Englishman, was the first to describe the membrane
commonly known as “Descemet’s membrane,” 87
DUMAS, CHARLES LOUIS, Dean of the Faculty of Medicine at Montpellier,
174
DUPUYTREN, GUILLAUME, one of the great surgeons at the Hôtel-Dieu of
Paris, 226
founder of the _Musée Dupuytren_, 229
(Photograph of the Museum, 260)
(Portrait 226)
very successful as a clinical teacher, 228
DUVERNEYS, father and son, 35
E
ÉCOLE DE MÉDECINE, the old, of Paris, has now been transformed into a
sort of social hall for the use of all the university students, 259
(Picture of device, 262)
(Views, 258, 260)
ÉCOLES DE SANTÉ, in France, 259
ELI, the High Priest, long life of, 31
ELISHA, long life of, 31
ENGEL, DR., of Vienna, 62
ENTERIC FEVER, one of the first names given to typhoid fever, 202
ESMARCH, 49, 50
F
FACE, articulations of the bones of the, 159
FACULTÉ DE MÉDECINE, the, of Paris, was housed in 1808 in the quarters
of the _Collège de l’Académie de Chirurgie_, 258
FAUCHARD, PIERRE, author of a treatise on the surgery of the mouth, 237
FEMUR, ununited fracture of, 149
Dr. Physick’s treatment of, 149
FERRAND, distinguished French surgeon of the 18th century, 224
FISTULA IN ANO, operation for, 151
FORLI, the Academy of, 92
FOTHERGILL, JOHN, one of the most distinguished English physicians of
the 18th century, 129
Benjamin Franklin’s estimate of the man, 130
bequeathed his entire fortune to the poor, 130
FOUR-YEAR course adopted by Vienna School of Medicine toward end of
18th century, 74
FRANCO, PIERRE, of Lausanne, Switzerland, and Orange, France, 151, 231
FRANK, JOHANN PETER, founder of the first treatise distinctly devoted
to hygiene and medico-legal science, 17, 44
FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN, remarks of, concerning inoculation, 109
FRENCH PHYSICIANS, types of, who flourished about the time of the
“Reign of Terror,” 171
FRENCH REVOLUTION, Medicine at the height of the, 170
FRÈRE CÔME, 151
FRÈRE JACQUES, 151
G
GALERIA COPIALA, long life of, 30
GALVANI, ALOYSIUS, lecturer on anatomy at the University of Bologna,
103
GALVANISM, 104
GANGRENE, hospital, 235
GARIOT, JEAN-BAPTISTE, dentist to the King of Spain during the 18th
century, 238
author of a treatise on diseases of the mouth, 238
GASSER, LORENZ, 65
GASSERIAN GANGLION, a term invented by A. R. B. Hirsch, 65
GASTRITIS, one of the first names given to the disease now commonly
called “typhoid fever,” 202
GASTRO-ENTERO-CEPHALITIS, one of the first names given to typhoid
fever, 202
GAZETTE DE FRANCE, founding of the, 6
GERMANS, cultured, obliged to think, speak and write in French at the
end of the 18th century, 53
GERMANY, low state of medical affairs in, at the beginning of the 18th
century, 15, 52
GIANT, the famous Irish, whose skeleton was secured by John Hunter for
his museum in London, 145
GILLES DE LA TOURETTE, 10
GIMBERNAT, a distinguished Spanish surgeon, 137
GLANDS, position of, and their action, 160
GOETTINGEN, University of, 37
GONORRHOEA, during the 18th century, commonly believed to be one of the
manifestations of syphilis, 153
GOUDAREAU, author of a French translation of J. P. Frank’s treatise, 45
GRAECO-LATIN terminology adopted by physicians in conversation with
their patients not approved by Kant, the metaphysician, 74
GRIESINGER, WILHELM, 55
GURLT, VON, 50
GUY PATIN, 9
H
HAEN, ANTON DE, 53, 64
HAHNEMANN, SAMUEL, 22
HALL, MARSHALL, 204
HALLÉ, JEAN-NOËL, distinguished French Physician, 178
very successful in overcoming the opposition in France and Italy to
vaccination, 180
HALLER, ALBRECHT VON, 19, 34
(Portrait 34)
treatises published by, 38
HEART AND LUNGS, diseases of, full discussion of, by Laënnec, 197
HEAT-PRODUCTION in living animals, Lavoisier’s theory of, 124
HERNIA, different kinds of, 137
HIRSCH, AUGUST, 15, 52, 74
exposed the perniciousness of Broussais’ treatment, 212
HIRSCH, A. R. B., invented the term “Gasserian ganglion,” 65
HOFFMANN, FRIEDRICH, of Halle, Prussia, 19, 53
HOFRATH, Aulic Councillor, 46
HOLY LAND, Prince Louis’ crusade to, in 1147, 98
HOMOEOPATHY, 22
in the city of New York in the years 1850–1870, 26
HÔPITAL SAINT-LOUIS, at Paris, 262
(Illustration, 264)
HOSPITAL work in Vienna reorganized toward end of 18th century, 74
HOSPITALS, Parisian, 261
HOSTEL DES CONSULTATIONS CHARITABLES, 8
HÔTEL-DIEU, the great hospital of Paris, 4, 261
(Illustration, 258)
HUETER, 50
HUFELAND, CHRISTOPH WILHELM, 16, 28
author of “The Art of Prolonging Life,” 16
(Portrait 28)
HUNTER, JOHN, the English anatomist and biologist, 40, 95
(Portrait 144)
younger brother of William, and a great anatomist, physiologist and
operating surgeon; also the founder of Hunter’s Museum in London,
141
HUNTER, WILLIAM, distinguished English surgeon and anatomist, 139
founder of the anatomical schools of Great Britain, 141
(Portrait 140)
HYGIENE, first journal devoted to, 17
HYPOTHESES, rather than facts, should not serve as the basis of
doctrines in either pathology or therapeutics, 33
HYRTL, JOSEPH, distinguished Professor of Anatomy at the Vienna Medical
School, 85
on the changes which take place in an artery after it has been
ligated or divided with the knife, 86
on voluntary movements of the auricle, 87
I
INFLAMMATION believed by Broussais to be at the bottom of most of the
pathological phenomena encountered in the practice of medicine, 210
INOCULATING for the small-pox, 108
INSOMNIA defined by A. von Haller, 39
IRRITABILITY AND SENSIBILITY, distinction between these terms, 38
ISAAC, long life of, 31
ISHMAEL, long life of, 31
ITALY, Medicine in, 89
J
JACQUIN, NICOLAUS JOSEPH, 65
JAEGER, F., one of the distinguished Vienna ophthalmologists, 77
JAHR’S Manual of Homoeopathic Medicine, 26
JENNER, SIR EDWARD, discoverer of vaccination as a means of protection
against small-pox, 110
(Portrait 110)
receives a grant of £10,000 from the English Parliament, 115
JESUIT ORDER gradually excluded from the control of affairs in the
Vienna University, 66
J. L. H. P., sketches of French medical men by, 207
JOINTS, diseases of, researches of Sir Benjamin Brodie respecting, 148,
149
JONET, MARIE, _Sage-Femme Jurée_ at the Chatelet Hospital in Paris, 256
JOSEPH, FATHER—Leclerc du Tremblay, 8
JOSEPH, son of Jacob, long life of, 31
JOSEPH II., EMPEROR, successor of his mother, Maria Theresa, 71
JOSHUA, long life of, 31
JOURDAIN, ANSELME-LOUIS-BERNARD-BRECHILLET, distinguished French dental
surgeon of the 18th century, 238
K
KANT, IMMANUEL, the famous Prussian metaphysician, 74
KATZENJAMMER, 35
KAUNITZ, PRINCE, Imperial Austrian Chancellor, 62
KORN, GEORG, 48, 52
L
LACHAPELLE, VEUVE, Associate Midwife-in-Chief of Hôtel-Dieu, 256
LAËNNEC, RENÉ THÉOPHILE HYACINTHE, inventor of the modern method of
auscultation, 195
on the pathological anatomy of diseases of the chest, 83
treatise of, on auscultation, 197
(Portrait 196)
LANGENBECK, VON, 48, 49
LARREY, BARON JEAN-DOMINIQUE, distinguished French military surgeon,
and inventor of an improved type of field ambulance, 243, 244
advocated strongly primary amputations in military surgery, 248
great resourcefulness of, under difficulties, 247
highly commended by the Emperor Napoleon, 247
(Portrait 244)
showed his high character when the French troops retreated during the
Russian campaign, 245
LASSUS, 260
LATIN, barbaric, employed by the Germans in their university lectures
at the end of the 18th century, 53
LAUGIER, ROBERT, 65
LAUSANNE, in 1765, still recognized the Bernese Government as its
overlord, 100
LAVOISIER, ANTOINE LAURENT, invented the term “oxygen” and described
its full significance, 120, 122.
(For portrait see Frontispiece.)
discovered the important fact that all organic bodies are composed of
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, 123
credited with having formulated the chemical theory of respiration,
125
discovered also that all the acids contain oxygen, 120
formulates the theory of heat-production in living animals, 124
Government collector of taxes in the early part of his career, 122
guillotined on May 8, 1794, 124
maintains that combustion represents simply the combination of the
two elements, carbon and oxygen, 123
one of the first to cultivate experimental physiology, 168
proves that the act of respiration in animals is a species of
combustion, in the course of which oxygen combines with certain
elements of the body to form water and carbonic acid, 123
proves also that Stahl’s doctrine of animism, as well as the
phlogiston theory, is untenable, 123
LE CLERC, biographer of Dupuytren, 226
LECLERC DU TREMBLAY, Capucin monk, known as “His Gray Eminence,” 4
LE DRAN, distinguished French surgeon, 36
LEIPZIG, battle of, 21
LEMONNIER, LOUIS GUILLAUME, a French physician who ardently cultivated
the science of botany, 171
life saved from the violence of the mob in 1782, 173
LIARD, value of the, 6
“LIFE, THE ART OF PROLONGING,” title of famous treatise written by
Hufeland, 28
LITHOTOMIA DOUGLASSIANA, 133
LIVIA, long life of, 30
LIVRE, value of the, 8
LOANING money to the poor at a low rate of interest (Renaudot’s
saggestion), 5
LOCHER, MAXIMILIAN, 68
LOCKE, JOHN, the English philosopher, 52
LONGEVITY, instances of exceptional, 30
LOUDON, Western France, birthplace of Renaudot, 3
(Views of city and vicinity, 4)
LOUIS, ANTOINE, celebrated Parisian surgeon, 203
LOUIS, CHARLES A. P., Chief of Clinic at the Paris _École de Médecine_,
187, 203, 210
(Portrait 204)
LOUIS PHILIPPE, Duke of Orleans, 109
LOUIS XIII, 4, 6
LOUVAIN, High School of, 59
LUCEIA, long life of, 30
LUECKE, 50
M
MACKENZIE, the distinguished ophthalmologist, 77
MAGENDIE, one of the first French scientists to cultivate experimental
physiology, 168
on the difficulties of interpreting correctly the significance of
certain sounds heard during auscultation, 198
MAHON, P. A. O., 260
MAKROBIOTIK, the Art of Prolonging Life, Hufeland’s famous treatise,
16, 28
MARIA THERESA, Empress of Germany, 61
beneficent interference on the part of, in behalf of a higher
standard of medical education, 66, 68, 94
MARIANNE, ARCHDUCHESS, 61
MARSHALL, HALL], 204
MATERNITÉ, LA, the great French midwifery school at Paris, 253
MEDICAL literature, German, low state of, at the beginning of the 18th
century, 15
MEDICAL periodical, the first French, 7
MEDICI, MARIE DE’, 4
MEMBRANA DESCEMETII erroneously so named, 87
MERCURIAL SALIVATION, frequency of, before Van Swieten’s time, 68
MERCURY, red oxide of, when heated, produces oxygen (Priestley), 120
MIDWIFERY as taught at _La Maternité_, the great French midwifery
school, 253
MILITARY SURGERY, 241
MONRO, 130
MONTPELLIER, views of, 198, 200, 202
MONTS-DE-PIÉTÉ, when first established at Paris, 5
MONUMENT erected in Hôtel-Dieu in honor of Desault and Bichat, 167, 192
MORGAGNI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA, one of the greatest anatomists of the 18th
century, 91
teachings of, 210
MOSES, long life of, 31
MOUSE, alive, case of swallowing of, 32
MOUTH, surgery of the, 237
MUELLER, JOHANNES, 154
MUELLER, WILLIBALD, author of Van Swieten’s biography, 63
N
NAPOLEON at the University of Pavia in 1805, 96
“NATURE cures disease” (Hufeland), 33
NECKER, MADAME, founder of a hospital in Paris, 188
NEWSPAPER, the, first founded in Paris, France, 5
NORTON, MRS. CHARLES F., Librarian, Transylvania College, Lexington,
Kentucky, ix
“NOSOGRAPHIE PHILOSOPHIQUE,” Pinel’s celebrated treatise, 202
“NOVUM INVENTUM,” the, of Auenbrugger, 76
O
O’BRIEN, the celebrated Irish giant, 145
OFFICIERS DE SANTÉ, 259
OPHTHALMOLOGY, one of the first specialties to take root in Vienna, 77
“ORGANON of the Rational Art of Healing,” Hahnemann’s great work, 22,
23, 25
ORTHOPEDIC SURGERY, 234
OS UNGUIS, perforation of, by Woolhouse, 151
OXYGEN, the full significance of which term was made known to the world
by Lavoisier some time after Priestley’s discovery, 120
P
PAGEL, statement of, with regard to Broussais, 207
PALATE, the art of remedying defects of the, 237
PANNUS, first correct description of, by Beer, of Vienna, 78
PARÉ, AMBROISE, 224
PATHOGENIC fever, one of the early names given to typhoid fever, 202
PATHOLOGICAL propositions advanced by Broussais, 209
PAVIA, University of, 45
Maria Theresa, Empress of Germany, takes a strong interest in its
prosperity, 94
PERCUSSION method of Auenbrugger, 193
PÈRE POTENTINE, 188
PETERSEN, 55
PETIT, J. L., famous surgeon of Paris, 162, 215
credited by the French with having been the first to perform the
circular amputation of limbs, 151
(Portrait 216)
successful treatment of a case of hemicrania, 217
trephining of skull for subdural abscess resulting from middle-ear
inflammation, 217
PETIT, MARC-ANTOINE, celebrated French surgeon, 162
PETIT-RADEL, 183
PHLOGISTON theory of Stahl, 120
PHYSICK, DR., of Philadelphia, treatment of ununited fracture of the
femur by, 149
PHYSIOLOGICAL propositions advanced by Broussais, 208
PHYSIOLOGY, animal and vegetable, 95
experimental, cultivated largely by Bichat, 166
experimental, first cultivated by Albrecht von Haller, 168
PIARROU DE CHAMOUSSET, who built a hospital in which every patient had
a bed to himself or herself, 263
PINEL, PHILIPPE, author of the work entitled “_Nosogrophie
Philosophique_,” 202, 260
POLICE, Medical, 44
POPE’S description of travelling among the Alps, 121
POTT, PERCIVAL, famous English surgeon, the first to publish a complete
memoir of the disease now commonly known as “Pott’s disease of the
spine,” 133
PRIESTLEY, JOSEPH, discoverer of “dephlogisticated air” (oxygen), 120
also discovered that respiration takes place more easily, and that
combustion progresses more actively, in the presence of this gas,
120
house at Birmingham, England, burned by rioters, 122
in 1794 emigrates to Pennsylvania, 122
PRIMAE LINEAE PHYSIOLOGIAE, the title of the first systematic treatise
on physiology, 38
PROCHASKA, GEORG, 79
his explanation of bone formation, 80
ideas of, with regard to the nature of vital force, 79
PULMONARY and cardiac diseases, pathological anatomy of, 177
PUSCHMANN, 3, 45, 75, 85
PUTRIDITY alone, according to Peter Frank, not the cause of typhoid
fever, but rather the vehicle of a special _contagium vivum_, 203
PYTHAGORAS, views of, with regard to eating, physical exercise, etc.,
31
R
RASORI’S THERAPEUTIC METHOD resembles that of Broussais, 212
“RECHERCHES PHYSIOLOGIQUES SUR LA VIE ET LA MORT” (Bichat), 167
REIL, JOHANN CHRISTIAN, 17, 19
on the diagnosis and treatment of fevers, 20
on “vital force,” 20
RELIGIOUS BELIEFS, tolerance of, increased by the French Revolution, 53
RENAUDOT, THÉOPHRASTE, founder of the first French newspaper, 3
his sons, Isaac and Eusebius, 8, 10
(Statue, 8)
RESPIRATION, Lavoisier’s chemical theory of, 125
RICHELIEU, CARDINAL, 4
(Portrait, 6)
RICHET, A., opinion of, with regard to J. L. Petit’s qualifications as
a surgeon, 215
ROKITANSKY, CARL, Professor of Pathological Anatomy in the Vienna
Medical School, 81, 92, 93
called by Rudolf Virchow “the Linnaeus of pathological anatomy,” 84
contributions of, to medical literature, 82
ROSAS, ANTON, the distinguished Vienna ophthalmologist, 77, 231
ROUX, well-known French surgeon, report of, regarding the condition of
English surgery in the early part of the 19th century, 151
ROUX, PROFESSOR, member of the Paris _Faculté de Médecine_, visits
London in 1814 for the purpose of ascertaining by personal
observation how the English surgeons are dealing with the more
important problems in surgery, 150
S
SABATIER, RAPHAËL-BIENVENU, distinguished French surgeon of the 18th
century, 218, 260
SACOMBE, DR., charges Baudelocque with criminal practice in performing
the operation of Caesarian section, 255
both the courts and public opinion promptly judged this charge to be
an infamous calumny, 255
SAINT-LOUIS, HÔPITAL, at Paris, 262
SALIVATION, mercurial, frequency of, before van Swieten’s time, 68
SALPÉTRIÈRE, LA, one of the larger hospitals at Paris, 261
SANITATION, house and municipal, first treatise upon, published in
Germany toward the end of the 18th century, 44
SANTÉ, ÉCOLES DE, 259
SANTÉ, OFFICIERS DE, 259
SARAH, Abraham’s wife, long life of, 31
SCARPA, ANTONIO, the Italian anatomist, 46, 96
refusal of, to take the oath of allegiance to the newly established
Cisalpine Republic, 96
SCHEELE, WILLIAM, also mentioned as a discoverer of oxygen, 120
SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN CAMPAIGN, 48
SCOPOLI, 46
SENEBIER, JEAN, of Geneva, Switzerland, 95
SENECA’S MOTTO, “_Doceo ut discam_,” 159
SENSIBILITY AND IRRITABILITY, the distinction between these terms, 38
“SEPULCHRETUM,” title of Bonnet’s famous treatise, 93
SIMILIA SIMILIBUS, believed by Hahnemann to be a general law of
healing, 22
SIMPSON, JAMES J., Professor of Midwifery in the University of
Edinburgh, 25
SINGLE BEDS, the establishment of, as the only desirable ones in
hospitals, 263
SLEEP, von Haller’s definition of the term, 39
SLOW NERVOUS FEVER, one of the first names given to typhoid fever, 202
SMALL-POX, earliest mention of, by Rhazes, in A. D. 922, 107
measures adopted for the control of, 107
SOMNAMBULISM DEFINED by von Haller, 40
“SORE-THROAT, PUTRID,” epidemic of, in 1746, 130
SPALLANZANI, LAZARUS, distinguished Italian biologist, 93
letter of, concerning Dr. Tissot, 102
SPINA BIFIDA first successfully treated by Sir Astley Cooper, 138
SPRENGEL, 42, 155, 255
STAGNANT WATER, minute organisms found in, 95
STAHL, GEORG ERNST, 53
phlogiston theory of, 120
STAHLISM, 23
STANISLAS AUGUSTUS, King of Poland, a great admirer of Dr. Tissot, 99
STENO, DUCT OF, operation for perforating, 151
STETHOSCOPE, as perfected by Laënnec, 196
STOERCK, ANTON, 65, 71
STOLL’S “APHORISMS,” 190
STONES, shape of, affected by running water, 94
STROMEYER, 48
SUDHOFF, on character of Johann Christian Reil, 21
SUPERSTITION diminished by the French Revolution, 53
SUPRAPUBIC OPERATION for stone in the bladder revived by John Douglass,
132
SURGEONS, ENGLISH, pleasant relations among, 152
SURGERY, the golden age of, in France, 213
SURGICAL ANATOMY taught with great success by Desault, 223
SWISS PHYSICIANS of prominence during the 18th century, 34
SYLVIUS, attempt of, to inaugurate clinical teaching at the University
of Leyden, 67
SYNOVIAL MEMBRANES, 166
SYPHILIS affecting an entire family, 200
T
TENON’S CRITICISMS on _Hôtel-Dieu_ and _Hôpital Saint-Louis_ at Paris,
263
TERENTIA, long life of, 30
THÉOPHRASTE RENAUDOT, founder of the first French newspaper, 3
THORACENTESIS very frequently performed by Auenbrugger of Vienna, 76
TISSONI, original name of Tissot, 97
TISSOT, SAMUEL-AUGUSTE-ANDRÉ-DAVID, Swiss physician of Italian origin,
41, 97, 135
amusing incident at Lausanne relating to, 101
visit to Paris, 101
TRANSYLVANIA UNIVERSITY at Lexington, Kentucky, IX
TRAUBE, LUDWIG, 54
TRAUTSON, ARCHBISHOP, 66
TRENDELENBURG, 50
TRONCHIN, THÉODORE, of Geneva, Switzerland, 98, 108
TROUSSEAU, ARMAND, author of the treatise entitled “Clinique de
l’Hôtel-Dieu,” 269;
and also (in association with Hermann Pidoux) of a treatise on
materia medica and therapeutics, 266
(Portrait 266)
TUBERCULOUS DEPOSITS in the lungs, diagnosed by auscultation, 210
TYPHOID FEVER, the term finally decided upon for this disease, 203
contagiousness of, 204
early studies of, 202
first names given to the disease, 202
V
VACCINATION, for the prevention of small-pox, introduced by Jenner in
1796, 110
picture of a medal commemorating the discovery of, 108
VALLISNIERI, ANTONIO, distinguished Italian naturalist, 93
VALSALVA, ANTONIUS, 92
VAN SWIETEN, GERHARD, 19, 59
as a medical reformer, 63
commentaries of, on Boerhaave’s teachings, 61
composition of, 69
contributions of, to medical literature, 68, 69
liquor, use of, in the treatment of syphilis, 68
(Portrait 60)
VARICOSE VEINS of the leg, Sir Benjamin Brodie’s treatment of, 149
VARIOLAE VACCINAE, an inquiry into the causes and effects of the, 114
VEGETABLE POISONS, experiments made by Sir Benjamin Brodie on the
different modes in which death is produced by, 148
VELPEAU (Portrait 268)
VENTES _à grâce troque ou rachapt_, 5
VESALIUS, 83
VICQ-D’AZYR, FELIX, distinguished French anatomist and physiologist,
130, 177
VIENNA, revival of medical science at, in early part of the 18th
century, 16
VIENNA SCHOOL OF MEDICINE, 57
reorganization of, 64
scheme of teaching adopted by, in 1780, 73
VITAL FORCE, memoir on, by Reil, 20
explained by Prochaska, 79
nature of, 21
VOLTA, 46
VOLTAIRE, 263
advocates the teachings of John Locke, 52
VON GRAEFE, C. F., the distinguished ophthalmologist, 77
VON GRAEFE, KARL, director of the Surgical Clinic of Berlin, 48
VON HALLER, ALBRECHT, 19, 34, 38, 95, 101
the first to cultivate experimental physiology, 168
VON LANGENBECK, 48, 49
VON WALTHER, PHILIP, 77
W
WAKEFULNESS DEFINED by von Haller, 39
WATER, INFECTED, drinking of, mentioned by Galen as the cause of
various epidemic fevers, 202
WHEELER, translator of Hahnemann’s “Organon,” 22
“WHITE INFLAMMATION,” Boerhaave’s, 183
WILLIAMS MEMORIAL PUBLICATION FUND, VII
WINSLOW, distinguished anatomist, 36
WOOLHOUSE, the first surgeon to perform the operation of perforating
the _os unguis_, 151
WUNDERLICH, KARL AUGUST, 54
Z
ZIMMERMANN, JOHANN GEORG, 41
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Footnotes
-----
Footnote 1:
The _liard_ was a small copper coin worth at that time one-quarter of
a _sou_. The latter coin was about as large as a silver quarter of a
dollar or a one-shilling piece (English money).
Footnote 2:
The view of the small town of Loudun (see opposite page 4), which has
been copied from a photograph of quite recent date, shows that Gilles
de la Tourette’s hope has already been realized.
Footnote 3:
See Haller’s comments on Boerhaave’s personality, at bottom of page
445 of “The Growth of Medicine.”
Footnote 4:
In the city of Leipzig alone there were no fewer than 30,000 wounded
and sick soldiers belonging to all the different nations engaged in
the war.
Footnote 5:
The following quotations are from Wheeler’s English Translation of the
Organon.
Footnote 6:
Several weeks after I had sent my completed manuscript to New Haven I
received, from a London dealer in second-hand books, a catalogue in
which the following item appears:—
Haller (Albrecht von) First Lines of Physiology. Translated
from the Third Latin Edition. To which is added a Translation
of the Index composed for the Edinburgh Edition printed under
the Inspection of Dr. William Cullen. Edinburgh, 1801.
It is evident, therefore, that I was in error when, after a very
limited search, I was led to believe that no English version of the
“_Primae Lineae_” exists, and accordingly I ventured to translate a
few brief selections of the text.—A. H. B.
Footnote 7:
To make sure that any errors rightly chargeable to me as translator
shall not be imputed to von Haller I will add here the original Latin
text.—A. H. B.
CHAPTER XX. SOMNUS.
SECTION 564.—Aptitudo ad sensus et motus voluntarios libere exercendos
in sanis organis, VIGILIA vocatur: ineptitudo ad eosdem et quies
omnium cum sanis organis SOMNI nomen fert.
SECTION 565.—In somno anima vel omnino nihil cogitat, quod memoria
retineatur, quodque notum fit, vel unice occupatur in speciebus,
sensorio communi receptis, quarum vividae repraesentationes in mente
eo tempore omnino similes perceptiones producunt, quales objectorum
externorum impressiones insensuum organa faciunt. Hae
repraesentationes INSOMNIA vocantur, et efficiunt, ut reliquo toto
emporio sensuum et voluntariorum motuum quiescente, aliqua tamen
particula aperta sit, spiritibus perfluatur, et vigilet. Aliquando cum
his perceptionibus animae aliqui motus voluntarii conjunguntur, ut
loquelae organa, ut artus multi, omnesve, ad nutum illarum
preceptionum regantur. Huc SOMNAMBULI.
SECTION 566.—Sed in somno pergit omnium humorum in corpore humano
distributio, circulatio, vis peristaltica ventriculi, intestinorum,
sphincterum, respiratio denique ipsa simili modo exercetur. Haec
compositio in quiete certarum partium, aliarum motu, cognitionem
causae mechanicae somni difficilem reddidit.
Footnote 8:
A French physician by the name of Goudareau has published a
translation of the work under the title: “TRAITé DE MéDECINE
PRATIQUE,” 2 vols., Paris, 1820–1822.
Footnote 9:
At this point one of Wunderlich’s critics makes the comment that
Ludwig Traube may more justly be considered the real founder of
experimental pathology in Germany.
Footnote 10:
“COMMENTARIA IN HERM. BOERHAAVE APHORISMOS DE COGNOSCENDIS ET CURANDIS
MORBIS,” Paris, 1755–1773, 5 vols. in quarto. There exist also English
and French translations of these commentaries.
Footnote 11:
It has often been stated that Lorenz Gasser was the discoverer of the
nodal swelling of the trigeminal nerve which bears the name of
“Gasserian ganglion.” Hyrtl, however, declares that the credit for
this discovery belongs to A. R. B. Hirsch, a Viennese anatomist, who
named it in honor of his teacher, Lorenz Gasser, Professor of Anatomy
in the University of Vienna.—A. H. B.
Footnote 12:
A solution of bichloride of mercury, 4; chloride of sodium and
chloride of ammonium, each 1; water 500.
Footnote 13:
“Illustrissimo viro Lazaro Spallanzani summo naturae in minimis et
difficilimis, indagatori, ob ejus in veri finibus extendendis, merita,
D. D. D. Hallerus.”
[The letters D. D. D. are an abbreviation for “dat, donat, dedicat,”
commonly employed in inscriptions.]
Footnote 14:
Those of 1775 and later years, printed by Grasset, of Lausanne, are
considered the best.
Footnote 15:
At the period which is now under consideration Geneva belonged
strictly to France. It was not until the year 1815 that it was
incorporated with the Confederation of Swiss Cantons.
Footnote 16:
Some authorities state that William Scheele made the same discovery
independently in 1775.
Footnote 17:
Published, in 1908, by John Lane, New York and London; and, for the
reader’s further enlightenment, it should be stated that “Thomas
William Coke of Holkam, Norfolk, England, was a famous country
gentleman who lived from 1754 to 1842, becoming, late in life, the
Earl of Leicester. He was known throughout the world of his time as a
scientific and accomplished agriculturist. Owning great country
estates he was a skillful sportsman, and as an influential member of
Parliament sided with the Americans and against George III and his
ministers in our Revolution.”
Footnote 18:
The title of this memoir is: “_TRAITÉ DES MEMBRANES EN GÉNÉRAL ET DES
DIVERSES MEMBRANES EN PARTICULIER_,” Paris, 1800.
Footnote 19:
Free Translation into English.—“This monument has been erected in
honor of citizens Desault and Bichat by their contemporaries, who wish
in this manner to show their appreciation of the valuable services
which these two men have rendered to medicine: Desault by the
important part which he played in renewing the life and vigor of
French Surgery, and Bichat by his untiring efforts, both by teaching
and by research work, to extend the limits of the domain of Medicine.
Successful as were these efforts the results would certainly have been
much greater if death had not put an end to his work before Bichat had
completed his 31st year.”
Footnote 20:
Bonaparte was not made Emperor until 1804.
Footnote 21:
This—says the author of the biographical sketch from which I derive my
information—is a bit of sarcasm suggested to Bayle’s mind by the fact
that Petit-Radel was well-known at that period to be particularly fond
of favoring systems in his contributions to medical literature.
Footnote 22:
See foot-note on page 180.
Footnote 23:
For additional information concerning Montpellier’s famous _Faculté de
Médecine_, see farther on under the heading “Jacques Delpech” (page
233).—A. H. B.
Footnote 24:
To prevent confusion I beg to remind the reader that there were two
men living in Paris at this period who both bore the name of Louis and
who were almost equally celebrated, viz., Antoine Louis, the surgeon,
and Charles A. P. Louis, the subject of the present remarks.
Footnote 25:
As stated on page 87 the Vienna anatomist, Hyrtl, claims that Duddal,
an English physician, was the first person who described this
membrane.
Footnote 26:
By the word “schools” Chereau evidently means the buildings in which
the different classrooms were located.—A. H. B.
Footnote 27:
Voltaire says (p. 328 of “_Pages Choisies des Grands Écrivains_,”
Paris, Librairie Armand Colin, 1910): “That Piarrou de Chamousset
(1717–1773), a wealthy philanthropist, built a model hospital in which
every patient had a bed to himself or herself. Since that time the
practice of putting two patients in one bed has been abandoned.”
------------------------------------------------------------------------
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
------------------------------------------------------------------------
● Transcriber’s Notes:
○ The footnotes were gathered and placed at the end of the book. An
entry was added to the Table of Contents for the footnotes.
○ Missing or obscured punctuation was silently corrected.
○ Typographical errors were silently corrected.
○ Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation were made consistent only
when a predominant form was found in this book.
○ Text that was in italics is enclosed by underscores (_italics_).
End of Project Gutenberg's The Dawn of Modern Medicine, by Albert Henry Buck