35. Clusius or Lecluse, born at Arras, and a traveller, like many other

botanists, over Europe, till he settled at Leyden as professor of botany

in 1593, is generally reckoned the greatest master of his science whom

the age produced. His descriptions are remarkable for their exactness,

precision, elegance, and method, though he seems to have had little

regard to natural classification. He has added a long list to the

plants, already known. Clusius began by a translation of Dodoens into

Latin; he published several other works within the century.[1399]

[1399] Sprengel, 407. Biogr. Univ. Pulteney.

|Cæsalpin.|

36. Cæsalpin was not only a botanist, but greater in this than in any

other of the sciences he embraced. He was the first (the writings of

Gesner, if they go so far, being in his time unpublished) who

endeavoured to establish a natural order of classification on

philosophical principles. He founded it on the number, figure, and

position of the fructifying parts, observing the situation of the calix

and flower relatively to the germen, the divisions of the former, and in

general what has been regarded in later systems as the basis of

arrangement. He treats of trees and of herbs separately, as two grand

divisions, but under each follows his own natural system. The

distinction of sexes he thought needless in plants, on account of their

greater simplicity; though he admits it to exist in some, as in the hemp

and the juniper. His treatise on Plants, in 1583, is divided into

sixteen books; in the first of which he lays down the principles

of vegetable anatomy and physiology. Many ideas, says Du Petit Thouars,

are found there of which the truth was long afterwards recognised. He

analysed the structure of seeds, which he compares to the eggs of

animals; an analogy, however, which had occurred to Empedocles among the

ancients. “One page alone,” the same writer observes, “in the dedication

of Cæsalpin to the Duke of Tuscany, concentrates the principles of a

good botanical system so well that notwithstanding all the labours of

later botanists, nothing material could be added to his sketch, and if

this one page out of all the writings of Cæsalpin remained, it would be

enough to secure him an immortal reputation.”[1400] Cæsalpin

unfortunately gave no figures of plants, which may have been among the

causes that his system was so long overlooked.

[1400] Biogr. Univ. Sprengel, after giving an analysis of the system

of Cæsalpin, concludes: En primi systematis carpologici specimen,

quod licet imperfectum sit, ingenii tamen summi monumentum et

aliorum omnium ad Gærtnerium usque exemplar est, p. 430.

|Dalechamps; Bauhin.|

37. The Historia Generalis Plantarum by Dalechamps, in 1587, contains

2731 figures, many of which, however, appear to be repetitions. These

are divided into eighteen classes according to their form and size, but

with no natural method. His work is imperfect and faulty; most of the

descriptions are borrowed from his predecessors.[1401] Tabernæmontanus,

in a book in the German language, has described 5800 species, and given

2480 figures.[1402] The Phytopinax of Gerard Bauhin (Basle, 1596) is the

first important work of one who, in conjunction with his brother John,

laboured for forty years in the advancement of botanical knowledge. It

is a catalogue of 2460 plants, including, among about 250 others that

were new, the first accurate description of the potato, which, as he

informs us, was already cultivated in Italy.[1403]

[1401] Sprengel, 432.

[1402] Id. 496.

[1403] Id. 451.

|Gerard’s Herbal.|

38. Gerard’s Herbal, published in 1597, was formed on the basis of

Dodoens, taking in much from Lobel and Clusius; the figures are from the

blocks used by Tabernæmontanus. It is not now esteemed at all by

botanists, at least in this first edition; “but,” says Pulteney, “from

its being well timed, from its comprehending almost the whole of the

subjects then known, by being written in English, and ornamented with a

more numerous set of figures than had ever accompanied any work of the

kind in this kingdom, it obtained great repute.”[1404]

[1404] Hist. Sketch, p. 122.

SECT. III.--ON ANATOMY AND MEDICINE.

_Fallopius, Eustachius, and other Anatomists--State of Medicine._

|Anatomy; Fallopius.|

39. Few sciences were so successfully pursued in this period as that of

anatomy. If it was impossible to snatch from Vesalius the pre-eminent

glory that belongs to him as almost its creator, it might still be said

that two men now appeared who, had they lived earlier, would probably

have gone as far, and who, by coming later, were enabled to go beyond

him. These were Fallopius and Eustachius, both Italians. The former is

indeed placed by Sprengel even above Vesalius, and reckoned the first

anatomist of the sixteenth century. No one had understood that delicate

part of the human structure, the organ of hearing, so well as Fallopius,

though even he left much for others. He added several to the list of

muscles, and made some discoveries in the intestinal and generative

organs.[1405]

[1405] Portal. Sprengel, Hist. de la Médecine.

|Eustachius.|

|Coiter.|

40. Eustachius, though on the whole inferior to Fallopius, went beyond

him in the anatomy of the ear, in which a canal, as is well known, bears

his name. One of his biographers has gone so far as to place him above

every anatomist for the number of his discoveries. He has treated very

well of the teeth, a subject little understood before, and was the first

to trace the vena azygos through all its ramifications. No one before

had exhibited the structure of the human kidneys, Vesalius having

examined them only in dogs.[1406] The scarcity of human subjects was in

fact an irresistible temptation to take upon trust the identity between

quadrupeds and man, which misled the great anatomists of the sixteenth

century.[1407] Comparative anatomy was therefore not yet promoted to its

real dignity, both as an indispensable part of natural history, and as

opening the most conclusive and magnificent views of teleology. Coiter,

an anatomist born in Holland, but who passed his life in Italy, Germany,

and France, was perhaps the first to describe the skeletons of several

animals; though Belon, as we have seen, had views far beyond his age in

what is strictly comparative anatomy. Coiter’s work bears the date of

1575; in 1566 he had published one on human osteology, where that of the

fœtus is said to be first described, though some attribute this merit to

Fallopius. Coiter is called in the Biographie Universelle one of the

creators of pathological anatomy.

[1406] Portal.

[1407] The church had a repugnance to permit the dissection of dead

bodies, but Fallopius tells us that the Duke of Tuscany was

sometimes obliging enough to send a living criminal to the

anatomists, _quem interficimus nostro modo et anatomisamus_.

Sprengel suggests that “nostro modo” meant by opium; but this seems

to be merely a conjecture. Hist. de la Médecine, iv. 11.

|Columbus.|

|Circulation of the blood.|

41. Columbus (De Re Anatomica, Venice, 1559), the successor of Vesalius

at Padua, and afterwards professor at Pisa and Rome, has announced the

discovery of several muscles, and given the name of vomer to the small

bone which sustains the cartilage of the nose, and which Vesalius had

taken for a mere process of the sphenoid. Columbus, though too arrogant

in censuring his great predecessor, generally follows him.[1408]

Arrantius, in 1571, is among the first who made known the anatomy of the

gravid uterus, and the structure of the fœtus.[1409] He was also

conversant, as Vidius, a professor at Paris of Italian birth, as early

as 1542, had already been, with the anatomy of the brain. But this was

much improved by Varoli in his Anatomia, published in 1573, who traced

the origin of the optic nerves, and gave a better account than any one

before him of the eye and of the voice. Piccolomini (Anatomiæ

Prælectiones, 1586) is one of the first who described the cellular

tissue, and in other respects has made valuable observations. Ambrose

Paré, a French surgeon, is deemed the founder of chirurgic science, at

least in that country. His works were first collected in 1561; but his

treatise on gunshot wounds is as old as 1545. Several other names are

mentioned with respect by the historians of medicine and anatomy; such

as those of Alberti, Benivieni, Donatus, and Schank. Never, says Portal,

were anatomy and surgery better cultivated, with more emulation or more

encouragement, than about the end of the sixteenth century. A long list

of minor discoveries in the human frame are recorded by this writer and

by Sprengel. It will be readily understood that we give these names,

which of itself it is rather an irksome labour to enumerate, with no

other object than that none of those who by their ability and diligence

carried forward the landmarks of human knowledge, should miss, in a

history of general literature, of their meed of remembrance. We reserve

to a later chapter those passages in the anatomists of this age, which

have seemed to anticipate the great discovery that immortalizes the name

of Harvey.

[1408] Portal, i. 541.

[1409] Portal, vol. ii. p. 3.

|Medicinal science.|

42. These continual discoveries in the anatomical structure of man

tended to guide and correct the theory of medicine. The observations of

this period became more acute and accurate. Those of Plater and Foresti,

especially the latter, are still reputed classical in medical

literature. Prosper Alpinus may be deemed the father in modern times of

diagnostic science.[1410] Plater, in his Praxis Medica, made the first,

though an imperfect attempt, at a classification of diseases. Yet the

observations made in this age, and the whole practical system, are not

exempt from considerable faults; the remedies were too topical, the

symptoms of disease were more regarded than its cause; the theory was

too simple and general; above all, a great deal of credulity and

superstition prevailed in the art.[1411] Many among the first in science

believed in demoniacal possessions and sorcery, or in astrology. This

was most common in Germany, where the school of Paracelsus,

discreditably to the national understanding, exerted much influence. The

best physicians of the century were either Italian or French.

[1410] Sprengel, iii. 173.

[1411] Id. 156.

43. Notwithstanding the bigoted veneration for Hippocrates that most

avowed, several physicians, not at all adhering to Paracelsus,

endeavoured to set up a rational experience against the Greek school,

when they thought them at variance. Joubert of Montpelier, in his

Paradoxes (1566), was a bold innovator of this class; but many of his

paradoxes are now established truths. Botal of Asti, a pupil of

Fallopius, introduced the practice of venesection on a scale before

unknown, but prudently aimed to show that Hippocrates was on his side.

The faculty of medicine, however, at Paris condemned it as erroneous and

very dangerous. His method, nevertheless, had great success, especially

in Spain.[1412]

[1412] Sprengel, iii. p. 215.

SECT. IV.--ON ORIENTAL LITERATURE.

|Syriac version of New Testament.|

44. This is a subject over which, on account of my total ignorance of

eastern languages, I am glad to hasten. The first work that appears

after the middle of the century is a grammar of the Syriac, Chaldee and

Rabbinical, compared with the Arabic and Ethiopic languages, which

Angelo Canini, a man as great in oriental as in Grecian learning,

published at Paris in 1554. In the next year Widmanstadt gave, from the

press of Vienna, the first edition of the Syriac version of the New

Testament.[1413] Several lexicons and grammars of this tongue, which is

in fact only a dialect not far removed from the Chaldee, though in a

different alphabetical character, will be found in the bibliographical

writers. The Syriac may be said to have been now fairly added to the

literary domain. The Antwerp Polyglot of Arias Montanus, besides a

complete Chaldee paraphrase of the Old Testament, the Complutensian

having only contained the Pentateuch, gives the New Testament in Syriac,

as well as Pagnini’s Latin translation of the Old.[1414]

[1413] Schelhorn, Amœnitates Literariæ, xiii. 234. Biogr. Universelle.

Andrès, xix. 45. Eichhorn, v. 435. In this edition the Syriac text

alone appeared; Henry Stephens reprinted it with the Greek and with

two Latin translations.

[1414] Andrès, xix. 49. The whole edition is richer in materials than

that of Ximenes.

|Hebrew critics.|

45. The Hebrew language was studied, especially among the German

protestants, to a considerable extent, if we may judge from the number

of grammatical works published within this period. Among these Morhof

selects the Erotemata Linguæ Hebrææ by Neander, printed at Basle in

1567. Tremellius, Chevalier, and Drusius among protestants, Masius and

Clarius in the church of Rome, are the most conspicuous names. The

first, an Italian refugee, is chiefly known by his translation of the

Bible into Latin, in which he was assisted by Francis Junius. The

second, a native of France, taught Hebrew at Cambridge, and was there

the instructor of Drusius, whose father had emigrated from Flanders on

the ground of religion. Drusius himself, afterwards professor of Hebrew

at the university of Franeker, has left writings of more permanent

reputation than most other Hebraists of the sixteenth century; they

relate chiefly to biblical criticism and Jewish antiquity, and several

of them have a place in the Critici Sacri and in the collection of

Ugolini.[1415] Clarius is supposed to have had some influence on the

decree of the council of Trent, asserting the authenticity of the

Vulgate.[1416] Calasio was superior probably to them all, but his

principal writings do not belong to this period. No large proportion of

the treatises published by Ugolini ought, so far as I know their

authors, to be referred to the sixteenth century.

[1415] Drusius is extolled by all critics except Scaliger (Scaligerana

Secunda), who seems to have conceived one of his personal

prejudices against the Franeker professor, and depreciates his

moral character. Simon thinks Drusius the most learned and

judicious writer we find in the Critici Sacri. Hist. Critique du V.

T., p. 498. Biogr. Univ. Blount.

[1416] Clarius, according to Simon, knew Hebrew but indifferently,

and does little more than copy Munster, whose observations are too

full of Judaism, as he consulted no interpreters but the rabbinical

writers. Masius, the same author says, is very learned, but has the

like fault of dealing in rabbinical expositions, p. 499.

|Its study in England.|

46. The Hebrew language had been early studied in England, though there

has been some controversy as to the extent of the knowledge which the

first translators of the Bible possessed. We know that both Chevalier

read lectures on Hebrew at Cambridge not long after the queen’s

accession, and his disciple Drusius at Oxford, from 1572 to 1576.[1417]

Hugh Broughton was a deeply learned rabbinical scholar. I do not know

that we could produce any other name of marked reputation; and we find

that the first Hebrew types, employed in any considerable number, appear

in 1592. These are in a book not relating directly to Hebrew, Rheses

Institutiones Linguæ Cambro-Britannicæ. But a few Hebrew characters,

very rudely cut in wood, are found in Wakefield’s Oration, printed as

early as 1524.[1418]

[1417] Wood’s Hist. and Antiquities. In 1574, he was appointed to read

publicly in Syriac.

[1418] Preface to Herbert’s Typographical Antiquities.

|Arabic begins to be studied.|

47. The Syriac and Chaldee were so closely related to Hebrew, both as

languages, and in the theological purposes for which they were studied,

that they did not much enlarge the field of oriental literature. The

most copious language, and by far the most fertile of books, was the

Arabic. A few slight attempts at introducing a knowledge of this had

been made before the middle of the century. An Arabic as well as Syriac

press at Vienna was first due to the patronage of Ferdinand I. in 1554,

but for a considerable time no fruit issued from it. But the increasing

zeal of Rome for the propagation of its faith, both among infidels and

schismatics, gave a larger sweep to the cultivation of oriental

languages. Gregory XIII. founded a Maronite College at Rome in 1584, for

those Syrian Christians of Libanus who had united themselves to the

catholic church; the cardinal Medici, afterwards grand Duke of Florence,

established an oriental press in the city about 1580 under the

superintendence of John Baptista Raimondi; and Sixtus V. in 1588 that of

the Vatican, which, though principally designed for early Christian

literature, was possessed of types for the chief eastern languages.

Hence the Arabic, hitherto almost neglected, began to attract more

attention; the gospels in that language were published at Rome in 1590

or 1591; some works of Euclid and Avicenna had preceded; one or two

elementary books on grammar appeared in Germany; and several other

publications belong to the last years of the century.[1419] Scaliger now

entered upon the study of Arabic with all his indefatigable activity.

Yet, at the end of the century, few had penetrated far into a region so

novel and extensive, and in which the subsidiary means of knowledge were

so imperfect. The early grammars are represented by Eichhorn as being

very indifferent, and in fact very few Arabic books had been printed.

The edition of the Koran by Pagninus in 1529 was unfortunately

suppressed, as we have before mentioned, by the zeal of the court of

Rome. Casaubon, writing to Scaliger in 1597, declares that no one within

his recollection had even touched with the tips of his fingers that

language, except Postel in a few rhapsodies; and that neither he nor any

one else had written anything on the Persic.[1420] Gesner however in his

Mithridates, 1558, had given the Lord’s Prayer in twenty-two languages;

to which Rocca at Rome, in 1591, added three more; and Megiser increased

the number, in a book published next year at Frankfort, to forty.[1421]

[1419] Eichhorn, v. 641, et alibi. Tiraboschi, viii. 195. Ginguéné,

vol. vii. p. 258.

[1420] Nostra autem memoria, qui eas linguas vel ακρῳ [akrô], quod

aiunt, δακτυλῳ [daktulô], attigerit, novi neminem, nisi quod

Postellum nescio quid muginatum esse de lingua Arabica memini. Sed

illa quam tenuia, quam exilia! de Persicâ, quod equidem memini,

neque ille, neque alius quisquam vel γρὺ το λεγομενον [grhu to

legomenon]. Epist. ciii.

[1421] Biogr. Univ. arts. Megiser and Rocca.

SECT. V.--ON GEOGRAPHY.

_Voyages in the Indies--Those of the English--Of Ortelius and others._

|Collection of Voyages by Ramusio.|

48. A more important accession to the knowledge of Europe as to the rest

of the world, than had hitherto been made through the press, is due to

Ramusio, a Venetian who had filled respectable offices under the

republic. He published in 1550 the first volume of his well-known

collection of Travels; the second appeared in 1559, and the third in

1565. They have been reprinted several times, and all the editions are

not equally complete. No general collection of travels had hitherto been

published, except the Novus Orbis of Grynæus, and though the greater

part perhaps of those included in Ramusio’s three volumes had appeared

separately, others came forth for the first time. The Africa of Leo

Africanus, a baptized Moor, with which Ramusio begins, is among these;

and it is upon this work that such knowledge as we possessed, till very

recent times, as to the interior of that continent, was almost entirely

founded. Ramusio in the remainder of this volume gives many voyages in

Africa, the East Indies, and Indian Archipelago, including two accounts

of Magellan’s circumnavigation of the world, and one of Japan, which had

very lately been discovered. The second volume is dedicated to travels

through northern Europe and Asia, beginning with that of Marco Polo,

including also the curious, though very questionable voyage of the Zeni

brothers, about 1400, to some unknown region north of Scotland. In the

third volume we find the conquests of Cortes and Pizarro, with all that

had already been printed of the excellent work of Hernando d’Oviedo on

the western world. Few subsequent collections of voyages are more

esteemed for the new matter they contain than that of Ramusio.[1422]

[1422] Biog. Univ.

|Curiosity they awakened.|

49. The importance of such publications as that of Ramusio was soon

perceived, not only in the stimulus they gave to curiosity or cupidity

towards following up the paths of discovery, but in calling the

attention of reflecting minds, such as Bodin and Montaigne, to so

copious a harvest of new facts, illustrating the physical and social

character of the human species. But from the want of a rigid

investigation, or more culpable reasons, these early narratives are

mingled with much falsehood, and misled some of the more credulous

philosophers almost as often as they enlarged their knowledge.

|Other Voyages.|

50. The story of the Portuguese conquests in the east, more

varied and almost as wonderful as romance, was recounted in the Asia of

Joam de Barros (1552), and in that of Castanheda in the same and two

ensuing years; these have never been translated. The great voyage of

Magellan had been written by one of his companions, Pigafetta. This was

first published in Italian in 1556. The History of the Indies by Acosta,

1590, may perhaps belong more strictly to other departments of

literature than to geography.

|Accounts of China.|

|India and Russia.|

51. The Romish missionaries, especially the Jesuits, spread themselves

with intrepid zeal during this period over infidel nations. Things

strange to European prejudice, the books, the laws, the rites, the

manners, the dresses of those remote people, were related by them on

their return, for the most part orally, but sometimes through the press.

The vast empire of China, the Cathay of Marco Polo, over which an air of

fabulous mystery had hung, and which is delineated in the old maps with

much ignorance of its position and extent, now first was brought within

the sphere of European knowledge. The Portuguese had some traffic to

Canton, but the relations they gave were uncertain, till, in 1577, two

Augustin friars persuaded a Chinese officer to take them into the

country. After a residence of four months they returned to Manilla, and

in consequence of their reports, Phillip II. sent, in 1580, an embassy

to the court of Pekin. The History of China by Mendoza, as it is called,

contains all the knowledge that the Spaniards were able to collect by

these means; and it may be said, on comparison with later books on the

same subject, to be as full and ample an account of China as could have

been given in such circumstances. This book was published in 1585, and

from that time, but no earlier, do we date our acquaintance with that

empire.[1423] Maffei, in his History of India, threw all the graces of a

pure Latin style over his description of the east. The first part of a

scarce and curious collection of voyages to the two Indies, with the

names of De Bry and Merian as its editors, appeared at Frankfort in

1590. Six other volumes were published at intervals down to 1634.

Possevin, meantime, told us more of a much nearer state, Muscovy, than

was before familiar to western Europe, though the first information had

been due to England.

[1423] Biogr. Univ. This was translated into English by R. Parke in

1588; at least I believe it to be the same work, but have never

seen the original.

|English discoveries in the Northern Seas.|

52. The spirit of lucre vied with that of religion in penetrating

unknown regions. In this the English have most to boast: they were the

first to pass the Icy Cape and anchor their ships in the White Sea. This

was in the famous voyage of Chancellor in 1553. Anthony Jenkinson soon

afterwards, through the heart of Russia, found his way to Bokhara and

Persia. They followed up the discoveries of Cabot in North America; and,

before the end of the century, had ascertained much of the coasts about

Labrador and Hudson’s Bay, as well as those of Virginia, the first

colony. These English voyages were recorded in the three parts of the

Collection of Voyages, by Hakluyt, published in 1598, 1599, and 1600.

Drake, second to Magellan in that bold enterprise, traversed the

circumference of the world; and the reign of Elizabeth, quite as much as

any later age, bears witness to the intrepidity and skill, if not

strictly to the science, of our sailors. For these undaunted navigators

traversing the unexplored wilderness of ocean in small ill-built

vessels, had neither any effectual assistance from charts, nor the means

of making observations themselves, or of profiting by those of others.

Hence, when we come to geographical knowledge, in the proper sense of

the word, we find it surprisingly scanty, even at the close of the

sixteenth century.

|Geographical Books; Ortelius.|

53. It had not, however, been neglected, so far as a multiplicity of

books could prove a regard to it. Ortelius, in his Theatrum Orbis

Terrarum (the first edition of which was in 1570, augmented afterwards

by several maps of later dates), gives a list of about 150 geographical

treatises, most of them subsequent to 1560. His own work is the first

general atlas since the revival of letters, and has been justly reckoned

to make an epoch in geography, being the basis of all collections of

maps since formed, and deserving, it is said, even yet to be consulted,

notwithstanding the vast progress of our knowledge of the earth.[1424]

The maps in the later editions of the sixteenth century bear various

dates. That of Africa is of 1590; and though the outline is tolerably

given, we do not find the Mauritius Isles, while the Nile is carried

almost to the Cape of Good Hope, and made to issue from a great lake. In

the map of America, dated 1587, the outline on the N. E. side contains

New France, with the _city_ of Canada; the St. Lawrence traverses the

country, but without lakes; Florida is sufficiently distinguished, but

the intervening coast is loosely laid down. Estotiland, the supposed

discovery of the Zeni, appears to the north, and Greenland beyond. The

outline of South America is worse, the southern parts covering nearly as

much longitude as the northern, an error which was in some measure

diminished in a map of 1603. An immense solid land, as in all the older

maps, connects Terra del Fuego with New Guinea. The delineation of the

southern coasts of Asia is not very bad, even in the earlier maps of

Ortelius, but some improvement is perceived in his knowledge of China

and the adjacent seas in that of the world, given in the edition of

1588. The maps of Europe in Ortelius are chiefly defective as to the

countries on the Baltic Sea and Russia; but there is a general

incorrectness of delineation which must strike the eye at once of any

person slightly experienced in geography.

[1424] Biog. Univ.

54. Gerard Mercator, a native of the duchy of Juliers, where he passed

the greater part of his life, was perhaps superior to Ortelius. His fame

is most diffused by the invention of a well-known mode of delineating

hydrographical charts, in which the parallels and meridians intersect

each other at right angles. The first of these was published in 1569;

but the principle of the method was not understood till Edward Wright,

in 1599, explained it in his Correction of Errors in Navigation.[1425]

The Atlas of Mercator, in an edition of 1598, which contains only part

of Europe, is superior to that of Ortelius; and as to England, of which

there had been maps published by Lluyd in 1569, and by Saxton in 1580,

it may be reckoned very tolerably correct. Lluyd’s map indeed is

published in the Atlas of Ortelius. But, in the northern regions of

Europe we still find a mass of arbitrary erroneous conjecture.

[1425] Montucla, ii. 651. Biogr. Univ. art. Mercator.

55. Botero, the Piedmontese Jesuit, mentioned in another place, has

given us a cosmography, or general description of as much of the world

as was then known, entitled Relazioni Universali; the edition I have

seen is undated, but he mentions the discovery of Nova Zembla in 1594.

His knowledge of Asia is very limited, and chiefly derived from Marco

Polo. China, he says, extends from 17° to 52° of latitude, and has 22°

of longitude. Japan is sixty leagues from China and 150 from America.

The coasts, Botero observes, from Bengal to China are so dangerous, that

two or three are lost out of every four ships, but the master who

succeeds in escaping these perils is sure to make his fortune.

56. But the best map of the sixteenth century is one of uncommon rarity,

which is found in a very few copies of the first edition of Hakluyt’s

Voyages. This contains Davis’s Straits (Fretum Davis), Virginia by name,

and the lake Ontario. The coasts of Chili is placed more correctly than

the prior maps of Ortelius; and it is noticed in the margin that this

trending of the coast less westerly than had been supposed was

discovered by Drake in 1577, and confirmed by Sarmiento and Cavendish.

The huge Terra Australis of the old geography is left out. Corea is

represented near its place, and China with some degree of correctness;

even the north coast of New Holland is partially traced. The Strait of

Anian, which had been presumed to divide Asia from America, has

disappeared, while a marginal note states that the distance between

those two continents in latitude 38° is not less than 1200 leagues. The

Ultra-Indian region is inaccurate; the sea of Aral is still unknown, and

little pains have been taken with central and northern Asia. But upon

the whole it represents the utmost limit of geographical knowledge at

the close of the sixteenth century, and far excels the maps in the

edition of Ortelius at Antwerp in 1588.

SECT. VI.--ON HISTORY.

|Guicciardini.|

57. The history of Italy by Guicciardini, though it is more properly a

work of the first part of the century, was not published till 1564. It

is well known for the solidity of the reflections, the gravity and

impartiality with which it is written, and the prolixity of the

narration; a fault, however, frequent and not unpardonable in historians

contemporary and familiar with the events they relate. If the siege of

Pisa in 1508 appeared so uninteresting a hundred years afterwards, as to

be the theme of ridicule with Boccalini, it was far otherwise as to the

citizens of Florence soon after the time. Guicciardini has generally

held the first place among Italian historians, though he is by no means

equal in literary merit to Machiavel. Adriani, whose continuation of

Guicciardini extends to 1574, is little read, nor does he seem

to be much recommended by style. No other historian of that country need

be mentioned as having been published within the sixteenth century.

|French Memoirs.|

58. The French have ever been distinguished for those personal memoirs

of men more or less conversant with public life, to which Philip de

Comines led the way. Several that fell within this period are deserving

of being read, nor only for their relation of events, with which we do

not here much concern ourselves, but for a lively style, and

occasionally for good sense and acute thinking. Those of Montluc may be

praised for the former. Spain had a considerable historian in Mariana,

twenty books of whose history were published in Latin in 1592, and five

more in 1595; the concluding five books do not fall within the century.

The style is vigorous and classical, the thoughts judicious. Buchanan’s

history of Scotland has already been praised for the purity of its

language. Few modern histories are more redolent of an antique air. We

have nothing to boast in England; our historical works of the

Elizabethan age are mere chronicles, and hardly good even as such. Nor

do I know any Latin historians of Germany or the Low Countries who, as

writers, deserve our attention.

SECT. VII.--GENERAL STATE OF LITERATURE.

|Universities in Italy.|

59. The great Italian universities of Bologna, Padua, Pisa, and Pavia,

seem to have lost nothing of their lustre throughout the century. New

colleges, new buildings in that stately and sumptuous architecture which

distinguishes this period, bore witness to a continual patronage, and a

public demand for knowledge. It is true that the best days of classical

literature had passed away in Italy. But the revival of theological

zeal, and of those particular studies which it fostered, might perhaps

more than compensate in keeping up a learned class for this decline of

philology. The sciences also of medicine and mathematics attracted many

more students than before. The Jesuit colleges, and those founded by

Gregory XIII., have been mentioned in a former part of this volume. They

were endowed at a large expense in that palmy state of the Roman see.

|In other countries.|

60. Universities were founded at Altdorf and Leyden in 1575, at

Helmstadt in 1576. Others of less importance began to exist in the same

age. The University of Edinburgh derives its origin from the charter of

James in 1582. Those of Oxford and Cambridge, reviving as we have seen

after a severe shock at the accession of Elizabeth, continued through

her reign to be the seats of a progressive and solid erudition. A few

colleges were founded in this age. I should have wished to give some

sketch of the mode of instruction pursued in these two universities. But

sufficient materials have not fallen in my way; what I have been able to

glean, has already been given to the reader in former pages of this

volume. It was the common practice at Oxford, observed in form down to

this century, that every candidate for the degree of bachelor of arts,

independently of other exercises, should undergo an examination (become

absolutely nominal), in the five sciences of grammar, logic, rhetoric,

ethics, and geometry; every one for that of master of arts, in the

additional sciences of physics, metaphysics, Hebrew, and some more.

These were probably the ancient trivium and quadrivium; enlarged,

perhaps after the sixteenth century, according to the increase of

learning, and the apparent necessity of higher qualifications. But it

would be, I conceive, a great mistake to imagine that the requisitions

for academical degrees were ever much insisted upon. The universities

sent forth abundance of illiterate graduates in every age. And as they

had little influence, at least of a favourable sort, either on

philosophy or polite literature, we are not to overrate their importance

in the history of the intellectual progress of mankind.[1426]

[1426] Lord Bacon animadverts (De Cogitatis et Visis) on the fetters

which the universities imposed on the investigation of truth; and

Morhof ascribes the establishment of the academies in Italy to the

narrow and pedantic spirit of the universities, l. i. c. 14.

|Libraries.|

61. Public libraries were considerably enlarged during this period.

Those of Rome, Ferrara, and Florence in Italy, of Vienna and Heidelberg

in Germany, stood much above any others. Sixtus V. erected the splendid

repository of the Vatican. Philip II. founded that of the Escurial,

perhaps after 1580, and collected books with great labour and expense;

all who courted the favour of Spain contributing also by presents of

rarities.[1427] Ximenes had established the library of Alcala;

and that of Salamanca is likewise more ancient than this of the

Escurial. Every king of France took a pride in adding to the royal

library of Paris. By an ordinance of 1556, a copy of every book printed

with privilege was to be deposited in this library. It was kept at

Fontainebleau, but transferred to Paris in 1595. During the civil wars

its progress was slow.[1428] The first prince of Orange founded the

public library of Leyden, which shortly became one of the best in

Europe. The catalogue was published in 1597. That bequeathed by

Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, to the university of Oxford, was dispersed

in the general havoc made under Edward VI. At the close of the century,

the university had no public library. But Sir Thomas Bodley had already,

in 1597, made the generous offer of presenting his own, which was

carried into effect in the first years of the ensuing age.[1429] In the

colleges there were generally libraries. If we could believe Scaliger

these were good; but he had never been in England, and there is no

reason, I believe, to estimate them highly.[1430] Archbishop Parker had

founded, or at least greatly enlarged, the public library of Cambridge.

Many private persons of learning and opulence had formed libraries in

England under Elizabeth; some of which still subsist in the mansions of

ancient families. I incline to believe that there was at least as

competent a stock of what is generally called learning among our gentry

as in any continental kingdom; their education was more literary, their

habits more peaceable, their religion more argumentative. Perhaps we

should make an exception for Italy, in which the spirit of collecting

libraries was more prevalent.

[1427] Mariana, in a long passage wherein he describes the Escurial

palace, gives this account of the library; Vestibulo bibliotheca

imposita, majori longitudine omnino pedum centum octoginta quinque,

lata pedes triginta duos, libros servat præsertim Græcos

manuscriptos, præcipuæ plerosque vetustatis; qui ex omnibus Europæ

partibus ad famam novi operis magno numero confluxerunt: auro

pretiosiores thesauri, _digni quorum evolvendorum major eruditis

hominibus facultas contingeret_. _Quod enim ex captivis et

majestate revinctis literis emolumentum?_ De rege et regis

institutione, l. iii. c. 10. The noble freedom of Mariana breaks

out, we see, in the midst of his praise of royal magnificence. Few,

if any, libraries, except those of the universities, were

accessible to men of studious habits; a reproach that has been very

slowly effaced. I have often been astonished, in considering this,

that so much learning was really acquired.

[1428] Jugler’s Hist. Literaria, c. iii. s. 5. This very laborious work

of the middle of the last century, contains the most ample account

of public libraries throughout Europe that I have been able to

find. The German libraries, with the two exceptions of Vienna and

Heidelberg, do not seem to have become of much importance in the

sixteenth century.

[1429] Wood’s Hist. and Ant. p. 922.

[1430] Scalig. Secunda, p. 236. De mon temps, he says in the same place,

il y avoit à Londres douze bibliothèques _complètes_, et à Paris

quatre-vingt. I do not profess to understand this epithet.

|Collections of Antiquities in Italy.|

62. The last forty years of the sixteenth century, were a period of

uninterrupted peace in Italy. Notwithstanding the pressure of

governments always jealous, and sometimes tyrannical, it is manifest

that at least the states of Venice and Tuscany had grown in wealth, and

in the arts that attend it. Those who had been accustomed to endure the

license of armies, found a security in the rule of law which compensated

for many abuses. Hence that sort of property, which is most exposed to

pillage, became again a favourite acquisition; and, among the costly

works of art, which adorned the houses of the wealthy, every relic of

antiquity found its place. Gems and medals, which the books of Vico and

Erizzo had taught the owners to arrange and to appreciate, were sought

so eagerly, that, according to Hubert Goltzius, as quoted by Pinkerton,

there were in Italy 380 of such collections. The marbles and bronzes,

the inscriptions of antiquity, were not less in request, and the well

known word, _virtuosi_, applied to these lovers of what was rare

and beautiful in art or nature, bespoke the honour in which their

pursuits were held. The luxury of literature displayed itself in scarce

books, elegant impressions, and sumptuous bindings.

|Pinelli.|

63. Among the refined gentlemen, who devoted to these graceful

occupations their leisure and their riches, none was more celebrated

than Gian Vincenzio Pinelli. He was born of a good family at Naples in

1538. A strong thirst for knowledge, and the consciousness that his

birth exposed him to difficulties and temptations at home which might

obstruct his progress, induced him to seek, at the age of twenty-four,

the university of Padua, at that time the renowned scene of learning and

of philosophy.[1431] In this city he spent forty-three years, the

remainder of his life. His father was desirous that he should practise

the law; but after a short study of this Pinelli resumed his favourite

pursuits. His fortune indeed was sufficiently large to render any

sacrifice of them unreasonable; and it may have been out of dislike of

his compulsory reading, that in forming his vast library he excluded

works of jurisprudence. This library was collected by the labour of many

years. The catalogues of the Frankfort fairs, and those of the principal

booksellers in Italy, were diligently perused by Pinelli; nor did any

work of value appear from the press on either side of the Alps which he

did not instantly add to his shelves. This great library was regularly

arranged, and though he did not willingly display its stores to the

curious and ignorant, they were always accessible to scholars. He had

also a considerable museum of globes, maps, mathematical instruments,

and fossils; but he only collected the scarcer coins. In his manners,

Pinelli was a finely polished gentleman, but of weak health, and for

this cause devoted to books, and seldom mingling with gay society, nor

even belonging to the literary academies of the city, but carrying on an

extensive correspondence, and continually employed in writing extracts

or annotations. Yet he has left nothing that has been published. His own

house was as it were a perpetual academy, frequented by the learned of

all nations. If Pinelli was not a man of great genius, nor born to be of

much service to any science, we may still respect him for a love of

learning, and a nobleness of spirit, which has preserved his

memory.[1432]

[1431] Animadverterat autem hic noster, domi, inter amplexus parentum

et familiarium obsequia, in urbe deliciarum plena, militaribus et

equestribus, quam musarum studiis aptiore, non perventurum sese ad

eam gloriæ metam quam sibi destinaverat, ideo gymnasii Patavini

fama permotus, &c. Gualdi, Vita Pinelli. This life by a

contemporary, or nearly such, is republished in the Vitæ Illustrium

Virorum by Bates.

[1432] Gualdi. Tiraboschi, vi. 214. The library of Pinelli was

dispersed, and in great part destroyed by pirates not long

afterwards. That long since formed by one of his family is well

known to book collectors.

|Italian academies.|

64. The literary academies of Italy continued to flourish even more than

before; many new societies of the same kind were founded. Several

existed at Florence, but all others have been eclipsed by the Della

Crusca, established in 1582. Those of another Tuscan city, which had

taken the lead in such literary associations, did not long survive its

political independence; the jealous spirit of Cosmo extinguished the

Rozzi of Siena in 1568. In governments as suspicious as those of Italy,

the sort of secrecy belonging to these meetings, and the encouragement

they gave to a sentiment of mutual union, were at least sufficient

reasons for watchfulness. We have seen how the academy of Modena was

broken up on the score of religion. That of Venice, perhaps for the same

reason, was dissolved by the senate in 1561, and did not revive till

1593. These, however, were exceptions to the rule; and it was the

general policy of governments to cherish in the nobility a love of

harmless amusements. All Lombardy and Romagna were full of academies;

they were frequent in the kingdom of Naples, and in the ecclesiastical

states.[1433] They are a remarkable feature in the social condition of

Italy, and could not have existed perhaps in any other country. They

were the encouragers of a numismatic and lapidary erudition, elegant in

itself, and throwing for ever its little sparks of light on the still

ocean of the past, but not very favourable to comprehensive observation,

and tending to bestow on an unprofitable pedantry the honours of real

learning. This, indeed, is the inherent vice of all literary societies,

accessible too frequently to those who, for amusement or fashion’s sake,

love as much knowledge as can be reached with facility, and from the

nature of their transactions, seldom capable of affording scope for any

extensive research.

[1433] Tiraboschi, viii. 125-179, is so full on this subject, that I

have not had recourse to other writers who have, sometimes with

great prolixity, investigated a subject more interesting in its

details to the Italians than to us. Ginguéné adds very little to

what he found in his predecessor.

|Society of Antiquaries in England.|

65. No academy or similar institution can be traced at this time, as far

as I know, in France or Germany. But it is deserving of remark, that one

sprung up in England, not indeed of the classical and polite character

that belonged to the Infiammati of Padua, or the Della Crusca of

Florence, yet useful in its objects, and honourable alike to its members

and to the country. This was the Society of Antiquaries, founded by

Archbishop Parker in 1572. Their object was the preservation of ancient

documents, illustrative of history, which the recent dissolution of

religious houses, and the shameful devastation attending it, had exposed

to great peril. They intended also, by the reading of papers at their

meetings, to keep alive the love and knowledge of English antiquity. In

the second of these objects this society was more successful than in the

first; several short dissertations, chiefly by Arthur Agard, their most

active member, have been afterwards published. The Society comprised

very reputable names, chiefly lawyers, and continued to meet till early

in the reign of James, who, from some jealousy, thought fit to dissolve

it.[1434]

[1434] See life of Agard, in Biogr. Brit. and in Chalmers. But the best

account is in the Introduction to the first volume of the

Archæologia. The present society of Antiquaries is the

representative, but after long intermission, of this Elizabethan

progenitor.

|New books and catalogues of them.|

66. The chief cities on this side of the Alps, whence new editions came

forth, were Paris, Basle, Lyons, Leyden, Antwerp, Brussels, Strasburg,

Cologne, Heidelberg, Frankfort, Ingolstadt, and Geneva. In all these,

and in all other populous towns, booksellers, who were generally also

printers, were a numerous body. In London at least forty or fifty were

contemporaneous publishers in the latter part of Elizabeth’s reign; but

the number elsewhere in England was very small. The new books on the

continent, and within the Alps and Pyrenees, found their principal mart

at the annual Frankfort fairs. Catalogues of such books began to be

published, according to Beckmann, in 1554.[1435] In a collective

catalogue of all books offered for sale at Frankfort, from 1564 to 1592,

I find the number, in Latin, Greek, and German, to be about 16,000. No

Italian or French appear in this catalogue, being probably reserved for

another. Of theology in Latin there are 3200, and in this department the

catholic publications rather exceed the protestant. But of the theology

in the German language the number is 3700, not one-fourth of which is

catholic. Scarcely any mere German poetry appears, but a good deal in

both languages with musical notes. Law furnishes about 1600 works. I

reckoned twenty-seven Greek and thirty-two Latin grammars, not counting

different editions of the same. There are at least seventy editions of

parts of Aristotle. The German books are rather more than one-third of

the whole. Among the Latin I did not observe one book by a writer of

this island. In a compilation by Clessius, in 1602, purporting to be a

conspectus of the publications of the sixteenth century, formed partly

from catalogues of fairs, partly from those of public libraries, we

find, at least in the copy I have examined, but which seems to want one

volume, a much smaller number of productions than in the former, but

probably with more selection. The books in modern languages are less

than 1000, half French, half Italian. In this catalogue also the

catholic theology rather outnumbers the protestant, which is perhaps not

what we should have expected to find.

[1435] Hist. of Inventions, iii. 120. “George Willer, whom some

improperly call Viller, and others Walter, a bookseller at

Augsburg, who kept a large shop, and frequented the Frankfort

fairs, first fell upon the plan of causing to be printed every fair

a catalogue of all the new books, in which the size and printers’

names were marked.” There seems to be some doubt whether the first

year of these catalogues was 1554 or 1564: the collection mentioned

in the text leads us rather to suspect the latter.

|Literary correspondence.|

67. These catalogues, in the total absence of literary journals, were

necessarily the great means of communicating to all the lovers of

learning in Cisalpine Europe (for Italy had resources of her own) some

knowledge of its progress. Another source of information was the

correspondence of scholars with each other. It was their constant usage,

far more than in modern times, to preserve an epistolary intercourse. If

their enmities were often bitter, their contentions almost always

violent, many beautiful instances of friendship and sympathy might be

adduced on the other side; they deemed themselves a distinct cast, a

priesthood of the same altar, not ashamed of poverty, nor disheartened

by the world’s neglect, but content with the praise of those whom

themselves thought worthy of praise, and hoping something more from

posterity than they obtained from their own age.

|Bibliographical works.|

68. We find several attempts at a literary or rather bibliographical

history of a higher character than these catalogues. The Bibliotheca

Universalis of Gesner was reprinted in 1574, with considerable

enlargements by Simler. Conrad Lycosthenes afterwards made additions to

it, and Verdier published a supplement. Verdier was also the author of a

Bibliothèque Française, of which the first edition appeared in 1584.

Another with the same title was published in the same year by La Croix

du Maine. Both these follow the strange alphabetical arrangement by

Christian instead of family names, so usual in the sixteenth century. La

Croix du Maine confines himself to French authors, but Verdier includes

all who had been translated. The former is valued for his accuracy and

for curious particulars in biography; the second for the extracts he has

given. Doni pretended to give a history of books in his Libreria, but it

has not obtained much reputation, and falls, according to the testimony

of those who are acquainted with it, below the compilations

above-mentioned.[1436]

[1436] Morhof. Goujet. Biogr. Univ.

|Restraints on the Press.|

69. The despotism of the state, and far more of the church, bore heavily

on the press in Italy. Spain, mistress of Milan and Naples, and Florence

under Cosmo I., were jealous governments. Venice, though we are apt to

impute a rigid tyranny to its senate, appears to have indulged rather

more liberty of writing on political topics to its subjects, on the

condition, no doubt, that they should eulogise the wisdom of the

republic; and, comparatively to the neighbouring regions of Italy, the

praise both of equitable and prudent government may be ascribed to that

aristocracy. It had at least the signal merit of keeping ecclesiastical

oppression at a distance; a Venetian might write with some freedom of

the papal court. One of the accusations against Venice, in her dispute

with Paul V., was for allowing the publication of books that had been

censured at Rome.[1437]

[1437] Ranke, ii. 330.

|Index Expurgatorius.|

70. But Rome struck a fatal blow, and perhaps more deadly than she

intended, at literature in the Index Expurgatorius of prohibited books.

It had long been the regulation that no book should be printed without a

previous license. This was of course a restraint on the freedom of

writing, but it was less injurious to the trade of the printer and

bookseller than the subsequent prohibition of what he had published or

purchased at his own cost and risk. The first list of books prohibited

by the church was set forth by Paul IV. in 1559. His Index includes all

Bibles in modern languages, enumerating forty-eight editions, chiefly

printed in countries still within the obedience of the church. Sixty-one

printers are put under a general ban; all works of every description

from their presses being forbidden. Stephens and Oporinus have the

honour of being among these.[1438] This system was pursued and

rigorously acted upon by the successors of the imperious Caraffa. The

council of Trent had its own list of condemned publications. Philip II.

has been said to have preceded the pope himself in a similar

proscription. Wherever the sway of Rome and Spain was felt, books were

unsparingly burned, and to this cause is imputed the scarcity of many

editions.

[1438] Schelhorn, Amœnit. Liter. vii. 98. viii. 342 and 485. The two

dissertations on prohibited books here quoted are full of curious

information.

|Its effects.|

71. In its principle, which was apparently that of preserving obedience,

the prohibitory system might seem to have untouched many great walks of

learning and science. It is of course manifest that it fell with but an

oblique blow upon common literature. Yet, as a few words or sentences

were sufficient to elicit a sentence of condemnation, often issued with

little reflection, it was difficult for any author to be fully secure;

and this inspired so much apprehension into printers, that they became

unwilling to incur the hazard of an obnoxious trade. These occupations,

says Galluzzi, which had begun to prosper at Florence, never recovered

the wound inflicted by the severe regulations of Paul IV. and Pius

V.[1439] The art retired to Switzerland and Germany. The booksellers

were at the mercy of an Inquisition, which every day contrived new

methods of harassing them. From an interdiction of the sale of certain

prohibited books, the church proceeded to forbid that of all which were

not expressly permitted. The Guinti, a firm not so eminent as it had

been in the early part of the century, but still the honour of Florence,

remonstrated in vain. It seems probable, however, that after the death

of Pius V., the most rigorous and bigoted pontiff that ever filled the

chair, some degree of relaxation took place.

[1439] Ist. del Gran Ducato, iii. 442.

|Restrictions in England.|

72. The restraints on the printing and sale of books in England, though

not so overpowering as in Italy, must have stood in the way of useful

knowledge under Elizabeth. The Stationers’ Company, founded in 1555,

obtained its monopoly at the price of severe restrictions. The Star

Chamber looked vigilantly at the dangerous engine it was compelled to

tolerate. By the regulations it issued in 1585, no press was allowed to

be used out of London, except one at Oxford, and another at Cambridge.

Nothing was to be printed without allowance of the council; extensive

powers both of seizing books and of breaking the presses were given to

the officers of the crown.[1440] Thus every check was imposed on

literature, and it seems unreasonable to dispute that they had some

efficacy in restraining its progress, though less, perhaps, than we

might in theory expect, because there was always a certain degree of

connivance and indulgence. Even the current prohibition of importing

popish books, except for the use of such as the council should permit to

use them, must have affected the trade in modern Latin authors beyond

the bounds of theology.

[1440] Herbert, iii. 1668.

|Latin more employed on this account.|

73. These restrictions do not seem to have had any material operation in

France, in Germany, or the Low Countries. And they certainly tended very

considerably to keep up the usage of writing in Latin; or rather,

perhaps, it may be said, they were less rigorously urged in those

countries, because Latin continued to be the customary tongue of

scholars. We have seen that great license was used in political writings

in that language. The power of reading Latin was certainly so diffused,

that no mystery could be affected by writing it; yet it seemed to be a

voluntary abstaining from an appeal to the passions of the multitude,

and passed better without censure than the same sense in a modern dress.

|Influence of literature.|

74. The influence of literature on the public mind was already very

considerable. All kinds of reading had become deeper and more diffused.

Pedantry is the usual, perhaps the inevitable, consequence of a genuine

devotion to learning, not surely in each individual, but in classes and

bodies of men. And this was an age of pedants. To quote profusely from

ancient writers, seemed to be a higher merit than to rival them; they

furnished both authority and ornament, they did honour to the modern,

who shone in these plumes of other birds with little expense of thought,

and sometimes the actual substance of a book is hardly discernible under

this exuberance of rich incrustations. Tacitus, Sallust, Cicero, and

Seneca (for the Greeks were in comparison but little read), and many of

the Latin poets, were the books that, directly, or by the secondary

means of quotation, had most influence over the public opinion. Nor was

it surprising that the reverence for antiquity should be still

undiminished; for, though the new literature was yielding abundant

crops, no comparison between the ancients and moderns could as yet

fairly arise. Montaigne, fearless and independent as he was, gave up

altogether the pretensions of the latter; yet no one was more destined

to lead the way to that renunciation of the authority of the former

which the seventeenth century was to witness. He and Machiavel were the

two writers who produced the greatest effect upon this age. Some others,

such as Guevara and Castiglione, might be full as much read, but they

did not possess enough of original thought to shape the opinions of

mankind. And these two, to whom we may add Rabelais, seem to be the only

writers of the sixteenth century, setting aside poets and historians,

who are now much read by the world.

INDEX.

Page

Aberlard, Poetry of, 17

Academies, Italian Literary, 229

Academy del Cimento, The, 831

---- French, Established, 630

---- Neapolitan, 112

Afra Behn, Plays of, 808

Agricola, The first Mineralogist, 227

---- Works of, 103

Agrippa, Cornelius, 192

Augustine, Antonio, 201

Alamanni, 202

Alciati, Andrew, 201

Aldine Editions, The, 109

Aldus, Press of, 125

Algebra, Descartes on, 650

---- Earliest Work on, 118

Alchemy, Study of, 58

Amadis de Gaul, The, 66, 152

Aminto, Passo’s, 351

Amyot, His Translations, 371

Ana, The, 820

Anatomy, Fallopius on, 397

---- Leaders in studying, 842

Andreæ, John Valentine, 532, _and note_

Anglo-Saxon, Change of, to English, 22

Antiquaries, Society of, founded, 405

Apianus, Cosmography of, 228

Apology, Jewell’s, 272

Arabic, Rise of Study of, 399

Arcadia, Sir Philip Sydney’s, 383

---- Character of, 383

---- Walpole on, 383

Aretin, Leonard, 44

---- Plays of, 211

Argensola, The Brothers, 570

Arianism in Italy, 181

Ariosto, Satires of, 203

Aristotle countenanced by Melancthon, 189

---- Veneration shown for, 189

Arithmetic of Sacro Bosco, 56

Arnauld on true and false ideas, 725

Art of Rhetoric, Cox’s, 219

Ascham, His Character of Cambridge, 168

---- Writings of, 372

Astronomy in Middle Ages, 58

Augsburg, Confession of, 173

---- Diet of, 259

Averroes on the Soul, 93

Avis aux Refugiéz, 772

Ayala, Balthazar, on War, 315

Bacon, Lord, 468

---- Conception of his Philosophy, 469

---- Essays of, 293, 529

---- his fame on the Continent, 489

---- his Instauratio Magna, 469

---- ---- ---- ---- Analysis of, 469

---- ignorant of Mathematics, 488

---- Nature of his Philosophy, 472

---- Novum Organum, 478

---- Plan of Philosophy, 469

Bacon, Roger, 57

Balbi, Catholicon of, 40

Baldi, Sonnets of, 319

Ballads, Early Spanish, 59

Balzac, Letters of, 628

Bandello, Novels of, 380

Barbarism, A relapse into, 38

Barbarus, Hermolaus, 111

Barclay, his works, 642

Barlæus, Gaspar, 589

Barrow, Sermons of, 703

Basson, Sebastian, 463

Bath, Adelard of, 56

Bayle on the Comet, 819

---- his Dictionary, 819

---- Philosophical Commentary of, 700

Beaumont, Fletcher and, 611

Bellarmin, Works of, 273

Bellenden, de Statu, 534

Bello Francesco, 113

Belon, Zoology of, 394

Belphegor, Machiavel’s, 215

Bembo, Care of, 159

---- Life of, 217

---- Works of, 159, 201

Berigard, Claude, 463

Benserade, Poems of, 781

Bentley, Richard, the Critic, 682

Berchonius, 59

Beza, Works of, 27

Bible, Cranmer’s, 187

---- First printed, 76

---- Latin Versions of the, 137

---- Mazarin, 77

---- The Authorised Version, 457

Bibles, Early English, 187

Block-books, 75

Blood, Circulation of the, discovered, 665

Boccalini, Trajan, 624

Bodin, compared with Aristotle and Machiavel, 310

Bodleian, Foundation of the, 674

Boehm, Jacob, 464

Boethius, his Consolation of Philosophy, 1

---- Poem on, 13

Boiardo, Works of, 112

Boileau, Works of, 780

Bookselling, Rise of, 121

---- The Universities and, 123

Books, Early, price and form of, 122

---- Number of, printed at close of the Fourteenth Century, 120

---- Price of in Middle Ages, 52

---- Sold by printers, 121

Bossu on Epic Poems, 816

Bossuet, Exposition of Faith, 688

---- other Works, 689

---- Sermons of, 702

Botany, Turner’s, 395

Botero, Giovanni, 301

Boucher, Treatise of, 299

Bouhours, Works by, 813

Bourdalone, Style of, 701

Boyle, Works of, 833

Brahé, Tycho, 387

---- System of, 387

Brandt, Sebastian, 117

Browne, Thomas, 531

---- his Religio Medici, 531

---- William, 581

Bruno, characteristics of his system, 285

Buchanan, de Jure Regni, 296

---- Poetry of, 349

Buda, Royal Library at, 81

Budæus, Budé on, 115

---- his Commentaries, 161

---- Style of, 162

Bunyan, John, 828

Burnet, his Theory of Earth, 841

Burton, The Anatomy of Melancholy, 637

Bury, Richard of, 39

Butler, Hudibras of, 783

Byzantine Literature, 48

Cabbala, The Jewishp, 100

Calderon, his Comedies, 593

----- his Tragedies, 595

Calendar, Gregorian, 390

Calisto and Melibœa, Drama of, 128

Calvin, John, 177

---- Institutes of, 177

Camoenss, The Lusiad of, 330

Cancionero General, The, 61

Cardan, Jerome, 193

---- Discoveries of, 221

Carew, Poetry of, 584

Cartesian Theory, The, 655

Casa, Poems of, 318

Casaubon, Isaac, 248, 410

---- Wavering of, 428, 430, _note_

Cassander, Consultation of, 265

Castalio, Sebastian, 270

Castelvetro, Ludovico, 377

Castile, Rhymes in Language of, 60

---- The Language of, 21

Castillejo, 329

Casuistry, Schemes of, 523

Casuists, English, 527

---- Literature of the, 521

Cathani, Labours of, 276

Catholicon, Balbi’s, 40

Cats, Father, 577

Caxton, First Works of, 79

Celio Magno, Odes of, 319

Celso Minop, 271

Cena de li Ceneri, The, 282

Century, Twelfth, Progress during, 6

Cervantes, his Don Quixote, 638

---- Minor Novels, 640

Cesalpin, System of, 280

Ceva, Poems of, 791

Chapman, his Translation of Homer, 341

Charlemagne, Few schools before, 4

---- Greeks under, 45

---- Work effected by, 4

Charron, Pierre, 529

---- on Wisdom, 529

Chaucer, Gower and, 24

Chaulieu, Poems of, 781

Cheke, Teaching of, 168

Chiabrera, Poems of, 569

---- Style of, 569

Chillingworth, his Religion of Protestants, 436

China, Jesuits in, 401

Chivalry, Effects of, on Poetry, 64

---- Romances of, 215

Christianismi Restitutio, The, 268, _note_

Christianity, Vindicators of, 699

Chronicle, The Saxon, 23

Chronology, Lydiat’s, 420

---- Scaliger’s, 258

Chrysoloras, Disciples of, 49

Chrysostom, Saville’s, 412

Church, Early Learning in the, 2

---- High, Rise of in England, 427, 435

Cicero, Editions of, 160

Ciceronianus, The, 159

---- Scaliger on the, 160

Cid, The, 597

Citizens, Privileges of, 303

Clarendon, History of, 636

Classics, First Editions of, 231

Clergy, Discipline of the, 261

---- Prejudices of, against profane learning, 2

---- Use of their prejudices, 3

Codex, Chartaceus, 30

Colleges at Alcala and Louvain, 134

---- not derived from Saracens, 9

Colonna, Vittoriap, 202

Columbus, the Anatomist, 398

Columns, Double, use of, 241

Comedies of the Restoration, 807

Comedy, First English, 214

Comenius, Popularity of, 409

Commès, Philip de, 118

Commentators, English, about 1600, 453

Commonwealths, Origin of, 303

Concord, Form of, 267

Congreve, Plays of, 807, 808

Conti, Account of the East by, 72

Controversy raised by Baius, 267

Copernican Theory, The, 386

Copernicus, Labours of, 222

Corneille, Pierre, Plays of, 597

---- Style of, 598

Corneille, Thomas, 799

Cortesius, Paulus, 89

Costanzo, Poems of, 319

Cowley, Johnson’s Character of, 580

Crashaw and Donne, 580

Crellius, Ruanus and, 440

Cremonini, 281

Criticism in the Sixteenth Century, 375

Critics about 1600, 414

Cruquius of Ypres, 236

Cudworth, Ralph, 707

Cumberland, Richard, 747

Daillé on the Fathers, 435

Dalgarno, George, 735

Daniel, his History of England, 635

Dante, Petrarch and, 22

De Bergerac, Novels of, 827

De Gongora, Luis, 572

---- Style of, 572

---- Works of, 572

De Leon, Luis, 328

De Lisle, Map of the World by, 845

De Retz, Memoirs of, 846

De Sevigné, Madame, 812

De Vega, Lope, 353

---- Fertility of, 353

---- Popularity of, 354

---- Style of, 354

---- Versification of, 354

De Villegas, Manuel Estevan, 571

Dead, Dialogues of the, 811

Decline of German Poetry, 20

Defensio Fidei Nicenæ, The, 695

Deistical Writers, 277

Delineation, Arts of, 93

Della Causa, The, 282

Delphin Editions, 680

Denham, Sir John, 579

Descartes, René, 491

---- Attacked by Gassendi, 497

---- Charged with Plagiarism, 505

---- Early Life, 491

---- his Meditations, 495

---- his Mental Labours, 492

---- his Paradoxes, 499

---- his Publications, 492

---- his Superiority, 497

---- Merits of his Writings, 503

---- on Free will, 503

---- on Intuitive Truth, 501

Desportes, Poems of, 335

Deventes, College at, 54

Devotional Works in 1600, 454

Dictionary, Della Crusca, 625

Dodorus, Clusius and, 396

D’Oliva, Perez, 195

Don Quixote, 638

Don Sancho Ortiz, Analysis of, 355

Donne, Crashaw and Cowley, 580

Dramatic Mysteries, Origin of, 105

Drayton, Michael, 581

---- His Polyolbion, 591

Dryden, Early Poems, 787

---- Fables, 789

---- Odes, 790

---- Style of, 821

---- Tragedies, 805

---- Translations, 790

Ductor Dubitantium, Taylor’s, 745

Dunbar, Poems of, 130

Dupin on Ancient Discipline, 686

Du Vair, Works of, 371

Earle, John, Works of, 637

Eastern Languages, Early Study of, 128

Ecclesiastical Polity, The, 289

Elizabeth, Learning under, 249

Encomium Moræ, The, 143

Encyclopædias of Middle Ages, 58

England, Reformed Tenets in, 178

England, Revival of Learning in, 3

English, Use of, 22

Equations, Cubic, Invention of, 220

Episcopius, Works of, 440

Erasmus, Adages of, 139

---- Character of, 139

---- Epistles of, 175

---- First Visit to England, 116

---- His Controversy with Luther, 174

---- Jealousy of, 139

---- Quotations from, 140

---- Testament of, 142

---- Zeal of, 114

Erastianism, Disputes on, 444

Ercilla, The Araucana of, 329

Erpenius, Works of, 671

Essays, Bacon’s, 293

---- Montaigne’s, 290

---- Sir W. Temple’s, 824

Essex, Earl of, 633

Etherege, Plays of, 808

Euclid, Early Translations of, 56

Europe, Language in, in 1400, 25

Eustachius on Anatomy, 397

Evelyn, Works of, 821

Faber of Savoy, 313

Fabricius on the Language of Brutes, 663

Faery Queen, The, 343

---- Style of, 344

---- Superiority of First Volume, 343

Fallopius on Anatomy, 397

Fanaticism, Growth of, 172

Farces, First Real, 107

Farquhar, Plays of, 809

Fenelon on Female Education, 761

---- Works of, 696

Fermat, the Geometer, 651

Fernel, Works of, 220

Ferreira, 331

Ficinus, Works of, 98

Fiction, Popular Moral, 66

Figures in MSS. of Boethius, 55

Filacaja, Vincenzo, 777

Filli di Sciro, The, 592

Fléchier, Style of, 703

Fletcher, Beaumont and, 611

---- Phineas and Giles, 577

Fleury, Ecclesiastical History, 687

Florence, Academy of, 229

---- History of, 199

Fontenelle, Character of, 810, 817

---- Poems of, 782

Ford, John, 621

France, Troubadours of, 21

Francesca of Rimini, 26

Franco-Gallia, The, 295

Free will, Molina on, 268

France, Classical Study in, 53

French, Diffusion of, 19

---- During Eleventh Century, 14

---- Early, 13

---- in England, Disuse of, 24

---- Whence it came, 13

Friars, Mendicant, The, 9

Fuchs, Leonard, 226

Fur Prædestinatus, Sancroft’s, 693

Galileo, compared with, Bacon, 486

---- Discoveries of, 653

Gallantry, Effects of on Poetry, 64

---- Probable Origin of, 64

Garnier, 357

Gascoyne, George, 337

Gasparin, Style of, 43

---- Works of, 42, 43

Gassendi, Syntagma Philosophicum of, 710

---- Bernier on, 713

---- Works of, 467, 468

Gemalis Dies, The, 160

Genius, Want of, in Dark Ages, 5

Gentilis, Albenius, 316

---- De Jure Belli, 377

Geology, Rise of the Science, 840

Gerard, Herbal of, 397

German Poetry, Decline of, 20

---- ---- of Swabian Period, 19

Germany, Schools in, 89

Gesner, Conrad, 241, 392

---- His Zoology, 392

---- Quadrupeds discovered by, 393

Gilbert, his Treatise on the Magnet, 392

Glanvil, his Scepsis Scientifica, 733

---- the Plus Ultra, 735

Glosa, Nature of the, 61

Glosses, Meaning of, 31

---- Use of, 31

Gloucester, Library of Duke of, 54

Godefroy, James, 775

Gomberville, 641

Gorboduc, Sackville’s, 359

Governor, Sir T. Elyot’s, 195

Gower, Chaucer and, 24

Grammars of the Sixteenth Century, 239 _note_.

---- Provençal, 14

Greek, better known after 1580, 251

---- Corruption of Language, 47

---- Dawn of in England, 115

---- Early Grammars and Lexicons, 112

---- Latin Translations of, 50

---- Learned by Petrarch, 48

---- Learning in Middle Ages, 45

---- Printing, Early, 84

---- Revival of Study of, 44

---- Study of at Paris, 91

---- Taught by Chrysoloras, 49

---- Taught to Boys, 167

Greeks, Emigration of, to Italy, 52

Grew, Discoveries of, 839

Grocyn, Linaire and, 135

Groot, Gerard, College of, 54

Grotius, De Imperio Circa Sacra, 444

---- De Jure Belli, 544 _et seq._

---- his Arrangement, 565

---- his Defects, 565

---- Objections to, 561

---- Religious Doubts of, 428

---- Vindicated against Rousseau, 565

---- Works of, 414

Gruchius, Works of, 255

Gruter, his Collection of Inscriptions, 419

---- his Suspicions, 413

Grymæus, Geography of, 228

Guevara, Treatise of, 194

Guiciardini, History of, 402

Guidi, Poems of, 777

Gymnasium, Roman, 131

Habington, 585

Hales on Schism, 438

Hardy, Plays of, 596

Harmonia Apostolica, Bull’s, 694

Harriott, Works of, 649

Harvey, his Anatomical Discoveries, 665

Havelok the Dane, 18

Hawes, Stephen, 153

Hebraists of the Fifteenth Century, 227

Hebrew, First Printed, 95

---- in the Sixteenth Century, 670

Heinsius, Daniel, 413

Herbert, Lord, of Cherbury, 456, 465

Herrera, Works of, 329

Herrick, Robert, 586

Heterodoxy, Italian, 179

Heywood, Plays of, 622

---- Thomas, 363

Hippocrates, Study of, 224

History, Natural, from 1600-1650, 662

Hobbes, Political Works of, 538

---- The Leviathan of, 506

---- Analysis of, 506 _et seq._

Hooft, Peter, 577

Hooke, Works of, 834

Hooker, Ecclesiastical Polity, 289

---- his Theory of Natural Law, 290

Horace, Lambinus’s, 235

Hottoman, Francis, 295

Hudibras, Butler’s, 783

Huet, The Censura of, 715

Hymns, German, 206

Icon Basilice, The, 636

Immutable Morality, Cudworth’s, 745

Index Expurgatorius, The, 407

Ingulfus, History of, 15

Instauratio Magna, The, 469

Irnerius, Works of, 31

Italian, Early, 22

---- Language, Origin of, 10

Italy, Printing in, 83

Jansenism, Rise of, 441

Jansenius, Tenets of, 691

Jesuits, Colleges of the, 262

---- Patronized by Popes, 263

---- Rise of the, 181

---- Rising Influence of the, 261

---- their Popularity, 181

Jewell, Apology of, 272

Joachim, Rhæticus, 388

Jodelle, Father of the French Theatre, 357

John II., Poetry under, 62

---- of Ravenna, 41

---- of Salisbury, 36

Jonson, Ben, 585

---- his Every Man in his Humour, 369

---- Plays of, 609

Journal des Sçavans, The, 817

Julian Period, Invention of the, 258

Jurisprudence, Golden Ages of, 311

---- in 1500, 200

Jurists, Decline of, after Accursius, 32

---- Early, 32

---- Scholastic, 33

Kempis, Thomas à, Works of, 68

Kepler, Discoveries of, 652

King’s Quair, The, 63

Knolles, his History of the Turks, 634

Knowledge, Limited by Sense, 481

La Bruyere, Characters of, 758

La Fayette, Madame, 826

La Fontaine, Fables of, 779

La Forge, Regis and, 714

La Motte le Vayer, 632

La Noue, Works of, 301

Labbe, Philip, 411

Lacteals, Discoveries of the, 668

Land, Views of, 427

Lanfrance and his Schools, 35

Language, A New, formed from Latin, 12

Language, Early Imperfections of, 6

---- Modern, Metres of, 15

Languet, Vindicæ of, 295

Latin becomes a New Language, 12

---- Colloquial Corruption of, 11

---- in the Lower Empire, 11

---- in the Seventh Century, 12

---- Origin of Rhyme in, 16

---- Poems, Mediæval, 210

Latinists, Apology for the, 217

---- in 1600, 415

Laws, Abridgments of, 31

Layamon, Works of, 23

Leaguers, Tenets of the, 298

Learned, Persecution of the, 81

Learning, Decline of in Sixth Century, 2

---- Encouraged by a Pope, 51

---- General, Rise of, 26

---- in England, Revival of, 3

---- in England under Edward VI., 249

Lebrixa, Character of, 86

Legal Study, Importance of, 30

Leibnitz on Roman Law, 775

---- The Protogæa of, 841

Leipsic Acts, The, 819

Leo X., a Patron of Letters, 131

Letters, The Paston, 82

Lexicon, Constantin’s, 237

---- Feirari’s, 672

---- Scapula’s, 238, _note_.

Libraries, New Public, 230

---- Public, Want of, 169

Library, Bodleian, Founded, 674

---- of Charles V., 39

---- Vatican, Founded, 230

Lilly, his Euphues, 373

---- Popularity of, 373

Lipsius, and other antiquaries, 256

Lister, Studies of, 836

Literature, Checks upon, 407

---- Theological, of Sixteenth Century, 183

Loci Communes, The, 275

Locke on Education, 759

---- on Government, 768

---- on Human Understanding, 736

---- on the Coin, 773

---- on Toleration, 700

Logarithms, Invention of, 645

Logic, Aconcio’s, 286

---- Campanella on, 460

---- Inductive, 481 _et seq._

---- Ramus’s, Success of, 288

Lombard, Peter, 7

London, First Theatre in, 360

Lotichius, 347

Love songs, Abelard’s, 17

---- Spanish, 61

Lucan, May’s supplement to, 591

Lully, Raymond, 155

---- his method, 155

Lusiad, The, 330

---- Defects of, 330

---- Excellencies of, 330

Luther, Character of, 182

---- Dangerous tenets of, 148

---- Differences from Zwingle, 172

---- Theses of, 146

Lutrin, The, 780

Lydgate, Works of, 63

Lyndsay, Poems of, 207

Lyrics, Portuguese, early, 117

Machiavel, Nicolas, 196, 211

---- Motives of, 197

---- some of his rules not immoral, 197

---- The Prince, of, 197

---- Works of, 198

Malebranche, Theory of, 717

Malherbe, Poems of, 573

---- Style of, 573

Malpighi, Discoveries of, 840

Manana, de Rege, 299

Mantuan, Works of, 111

Manuscripts, Copying of, 36

Manutius, de Civitate, 253

---- Epistles of, 245

Maps, Early, 94

Maranta on gardening, 395

Margarita, Antoniana, The, 287

Marlowe, Plays of, 360

Marot, Poems of, 206

Marsham, Sir John, 685

Massinger, Philip, 618

Matthiola, System of, 226

Medici, Lorenzo de, 80

Medicine, Early Study of, 58

---- Revival of Greek methods of, 223

Meigret, Orthography of, 219

Melancthon, Early Studies of, 127

---- Tenets of, 266

Melville, Andrew, 253

Memoirs, Political, 301

Mendicant Friars, The, 9

Mendoza, Works of, 208, 673

Mercator, Gerard, 402

Metre, Romances in, 18

Metres of Modern Languages, 15

---- Spanish, 60

Microscope, first used in Anatomy, 842

Milton, John, 586

---- Allegro, 587

---- Compared with Dante, 784

---- Comus, 586

---- Il Penseroso, 587

---- Lycidas, 587

---- Paradise Lost, 783

---- Paradise Regained, 787

---- Samson Agonistes, 787

---- Sonnets, 588

Minot, Lawrence, 24

Mirandola, Picus of, 101

---- Credulity of, 101

---- Literary Works of, 102

Miscellanies of Politian, 95

Moliére, Plays of, 799

Montaigne, Essays of, 290

---- Characteristics of, 291

Montesquieu, Bodin compared with, 310

Moralities, Early, 107

Morals, Italian writers on, 292

More, Henry, 709

More, Utopia of, 137

Morgante Maggiore, The, 97

Morison, Robert, 837

Motion, Laws of, 658

Mun, Thomas, on Foreign Trade, 773

Muretus, Marc Antony, 233

Mysteries, Desire to explore, 99

---- Early English, 105

Naudé, Gabriel, 534

Napier, Works of, 645

Nizolius, Marius, 286

Norris, Essay of, 725

Northern Seas, Discoveries in, 401

Nosce Teipsum, The, 340

Novum Organum, The, 478

Numencia, The, of Cervantes, 356

Numerals, Arabic, 55

Numismatics, Works on, 257

Oceana, Harrington’s, 766

Opinion, Religious, in Fifteenth Century, 67

Opitz, Martin, 575

---- Followers of, 576

Optics, Discoveries in, 660

Opus Magnus, Bacon’s, 57

Oracles, The History of, 811

Orientalists, Celebrated, 844

Orlando Furioso, The, 150

---- a continuation of Boiardo, 150

---- its popularity, 150

---- its want of seriousness, 150

---- Style of, 151

Orlando Innamorata, The, 112

Ortelius, Works of, 401

Otway, Plays of, 806

Oxford, University of, founded, 8

Paley, Compared with Puffendorf, 707

Pallavicino, Ferrante, 625

Pantheism, Bruno and, 283

Papal Power, Decline of, 425

Papal Power, Discussion of, 274

Paper, Cotton, First use of, 28

---- Invention of, 28

---- Linen, as old as 1100, 29

---- ---- First use of, 28

---- ---- Known to Peter of Clugni, 29

---- of mixed materials, 29

Papias, Vocabulary of, 36

Papyrus, Use of the, 28

Paracelsus, Theophrastus, 191, 463

---- his extravagances, 192

---- his impostures, 192

Paradise Lost, Milton’s, 783

Parchment, Use of, 28

Paris, University of, founded, 6

---- ---- increase of, 8

Paruta, Paolo, 302

Pascal, Malebranche and, 724

---- Provincial letters of, 744

---- Thoughts of, 697, 725

Pastor Fido, Guarini’s, 351

Pastourelles, Early, 18

Patrizzi, 281

Pearson on the Creed, 704

Peele, Greene and, 362

Pelletier, Algebra of, 385

Pellican, 227

Perkins, his Cases of Conscience, 527

Perrault, Charles, 816

Petavius, the Jesuit, 421

Peter Martyr, Epistles of, 156

Petrarch, Dante and, 22

---- Latin Poems of, 41

---- Restoration of Letters by, 40

---- Style of, 41

Philology, Stephens’s Works on, 243

Philosophy, Consolation of, 1

---- Scholastic, Defeat of, 188

---- Scholastic, Origin of, 7

---- Speculative, 188

---- Stanley’s History of, 707

Pibrac, 335

Pilgrim’s Progress, The, 828

Pinelli, Occupations of, 404

Platonists, Aristotelians and, 74

Poem, Early, on Boethius, 13

Poetry, Early English, 62

---- German, Decline of, 20

---- German, of Swabian Period, 19

---- Provençal, 16

Poets, Early Spanish, 203

---- Elizabethan, 342

---- Minor, from 1650-1700, 790

Poggio, Bracciolini, 42

---- on the Views of Rome, 72

Politian, Works of, 95, 105

Political Philosophy in the Sixteenth Century, 294

Polyglott, Walton’s, 843

Pontanus, Works of, 111

Popery, Taylor’s Dissuasive from, 690

Port-Royal Writers, 679

Poynet on Politique Power, 296

Prerogative Argument, 485, _note_.

Press, The, of Aldus, 125

Printing, Effects of, on Reformation, 124

---- Invention of, 75

---- Progress of, 79

---- Restraint of, 124

Progress in the Tenth Century, 4

Prophesying, Taylor’s Liberty of, 449

Prose-writers under Elizabeth, 373

Protestantism Extinguished in Italy, 260

---- ---- ---- ---- And Spain, 261

Protestants, use of the Term, 173

---- The Religion of, 426

Provençal Grammar, 14

Psalter, Early Printed, 77

Publications, Early European, 85

Puffendorf, his Theory of Politics, 762

---- The Law of Nature, 753

Pulci, Works of, 97

Purbach, Discoveries of, 78

Quevedo, Satires of, 571

---- Visions of, 825

Rabelais, 216

Racine, Plays of, 793, 802

---- Style of, 798

Raleigh, his History of the World, 635

Ramus, Peter, mentioned by Bacon, 191

---- Peter, New Logic of, 190

Ramusio, Voyages of, 400

Rapin, René, on Gardens, 792

---- Critical Works of, 815

Ray, Works of, 835, 838

Reading and Writing, Ignorance of, 25

Réflexions sur l’Eloquence, Les, 815

Reformation, Burnet’s History of the, 846

---- Origin of the, 146

Regiomontanus, 93

Regnard, Plays of, 802

Regnier, Statues of, 574

Religion, Differences of, Effects of, on Poetry, 66

Republic, Analysis of the, 302

Reuchlin,, 104

---- The Monks and, 145

Reviews, Early, 817

Rhetoric, Cox’s Art of, 219

Rhetorique, Wilson’s Art of, 379

Rhyme, Origin of in Latin, 16

Ribeyro, Works of, 205

Richard of Bury, 39

Richelieu, his Care for Liberty, 426

Rienzi, The Story of, 52

Rivinus, System of, 838

Rochefoucault, 757

Roger Bacon, Works of, 57

Roman Laws, never wholly unknown, 31

Romances, Metrical, 18

---- of Chivalry, The, 65

Rome, Loss of Learning on Fall of, 1

---- Conversions to, 263

---- Supremacy of, 422

Ronsard, Poems of, 333

Roscelin, Story of, 7

Rose, Bishop of Senlis, 298

Rosmunda, The, 132

Rota, Bernardino, 320

Rowley, Thomas, 83

Royal Society, Origin of the, 832

Ruanus, Crellius and, 440

Rueda, Lope de, 212

Ruel, Studies of, 226

Rymer on Tragedy, 823

Sachs, Hans, Dramas of, 213

Sackville, Works of, 336

St. Evremond, 812

Salmasius, Works of, 412, 415

Salvator, Rosa, Satires of, 778

Sanchez, Minerva of, 244

---- Sceptical Theory of, 285

Sansons, Maps of the, 844

Santeul, Latin Poems, 793

Sarpi, Fra Paolo, 423

Saville on Roman Militia, 257

Saxon Chronicle, The, 23

Scaliger, Joseph, 247

---- as a Critic, 375

Scaliger assists Gruter, 419

Scarron, Roman Comique of, 826

Schools, Early teaching in, 136

---- Greek Taught in, 251

Science in Sixteenth Century, 645

Sciences, Academy of, at Paris, 832

---- of Middle Ages, 55

Scioppius, Work of, 416

Scot, Reginald, 278

Scotland, Learning in about 1550, 253

Scotus, 91

---- Reasonings of, 92

Scripture, Early Translation of, 85

Sebonde, Raymond de, 69

---- Real Objects of, 70

Secchia Rapita, The, 568

Secular Variation, Law of, 176

Segrais, Novels of, 827

Seicentisti, Opinions on the, 566

Selden, De Jure Naturali, 528

Semi-Pelagian School, The, 439

Sermons, Donne’s and Taylor’s, 454

---- Latimer’s, 184

Serra, Antonio, 537

Servetus, Labours of, 180

---- Life of, 269

Servitude, Domestic, 303

Shadwell, Plays of, 808

Shakspeare, William, 364, 602

---- As You Like it, 369

---- Comedy of Errors, 365

---- First Writings, 364

---- Historical Plays, 368

---- Love’s Labours Lost, 365

---- Lear, 604

---- Lucrece, 340

---- Measure for Measure, 603

---- Merry Wives of Windsor, 603

---- Midsummer Night’s Dream, 365

---- Pericles, 605

---- Poems, 340

---- Roman Tragedies, 606

---- Romeo and Juliet, 366

---- Sonnets, 582

---- Twelfth Night, 602

---- Two Gentlemen of Verona, 365

---- Venus and Adonis, 340

Shirley, Plays of, 621

Skelton, Works of, 154

Smith, Teaching of, 167

Societies, German Literary, 575

Socinianism, Rise of, 181

Sonnets, Shakspeare’s, 583

Soto, Dominic, 289

South, Sermons of, 704

Southern, Plays of, 807

Spain, Pastoral Romances of, 117

Spanish Language, Origin of, 10

Spenser, his Sense of Beauty, 344

---- Resembles Ariosto, 344

---- Shepherd’s Kalendar of, 337

---- Style of, 345

Spregel, the Dutch Ennius, 576

Spinosa, Ethics of, 726, 746

---- Politics of, 764

Stampa, Gaspara, 321

---- her Love for Collalto, 321

---- her Second Love, 322

---- her Style, 322

Statics, Galileo’s, 657

Stephens, Thesaurus of, 163, 237

---- Works of, 236

Stevinus, Statics of, 391

Strada, his Prolusiones, 627

Sturm on German Schools, 165

Suarez, of Granada, 524

---- on Laws, 544

---- Works of, 525

Surrey, Wyatt and, 207

Surville, Clotilde de, 83

Swift, his Tale of a Tub, 831

Sydney, Algernon, on Government, 767

---- Sir Philip, his Defence of Poesie, 338

---- his Poetry, 339

Syriac, New Testament in, 399

Table Talk, Selden’s, 532

Tacitus of Lipsius, The, 235

Tale of a Tub, The, 831

Talent, Deficiency of Poetical, in Tenth Century, 5

Tasso, Bernardo, The Amadigi of, 323

---- Torquato, 324

---- compared with others, 326

---- his Jerusalem, 324

---- ---- ---- Characters of, 325

---- ---- ---- Faults in, 325

---- his Styles, 324

---- Virgil and, 326

Tassoni, Alessandro, 568

Taste, Prevalence of Bad, 5

Tauler, John, 25

Taylor, Bishop Jeromy, 447

Telemaque, Fenelon’s, 828

Telesio, System of, 281

Theatre, English, Revival of, 804

---- First French, 107

Theosophists, Paracelsists, and, 463

Thesauri of Grævius and Gronovius, 683

Thesaurus Criticus, Gruter’s, 234

Thomas À Kempis, School of, 55

Tillotson, Sermons of, 704

Toleration, Arguments for, 446

Tournebœuf, or Turnebus, 233

Tournefort, System of, 838

Tractate, Milton’s, 758

Tracts, Statistical, 775

Treatise de Imitatione Christi, 68

Trent, Council of, 182

---- ---- Efforts of, 264

Trinitarian Controversy, The, 268

Turkish Spy, The, 829

Tyndale, Bible of, 187

Tyrannicide, Poynet and, 297

Universities, Rise of, 8

Usher, Chronology of, 684

Usury, Noodt on, 776

Utopia, More’s, 137

Valla, Laurentius, 72

---- Defects of his Work, 73

---- Heeren’s Praise of it, 73

---- Testament, Annotations on New, 73

Valors, Henry, 681

Van Helmont, 669

Vanbrugh, Plays of, 809

Vanini, Writings of, 455

Vatican Library, The, 230

Vesalius, Works of, 224

Victa, Francis, 385

Victoria, Learning of, 44

Vincent of Beauvais, 59

Vinci, Leonardo de, 108

Vocabulary of Papias, 36

Voiture, Poems of, 574

Vondel, 577

Vossius, Gerard, 417

Vulgar Errors, Browne’s, 677

Vulgate, The, 187

---- Authenticity of, 278

Waller, Poetry of, 782

Walton, the Complete Angler, 824

Webster, Plays of, 622

White, Thomas, 706

Wilkins, Bishop, 736

Wit, Whetstone of, The, 385

Witchcraft, Scot on, 278

Writers, Romish, 183

Writing, Rise of Knowledge of, 27

Wyatt, Surrey and, 207

Wycherley, Plays of, 803

Ximenes, Cardinal, 134

Zerbi, Anatomy of, 130

Zwingle, Work of, 147

Transcriber’s Notes:

This volume contains the table of contents for both Volumes 1 and 2. The

index, contained at the end of Volume 2, was duplicated and added

to this book. Pages 1-408 pertain to this volume, 409-847 to

Volume 2.

Sidenotes were moved to the beginning of the paragraph to which they

pertain and are surrounded by pipes, |like this|.

Words in italics are surrounded by underscores, _like this_.

Transliterations of words and phrases in Greek were added within brackets.

Footnotes were renumbered sequentially, indented, and moved to follow the

numbered section in which the related anchor occurs.

The author/editor usually omitted quotation marks around cited text;

this was not changed. All other punctuation and accents marks were

standardized.

In a later edition of this book, footnote 1009 reads ‘... without name of

place ...’ instead of ‘... without date of place...’ No alteration was

made to this text.

Words with missing or partially printed letters were completed. Obvious

spelling errors were corrected. Capitalization of words was corrected,

where appropriate. Obsolete and archaic spellings were retained.

Variations of names that appear more than once were left unchanged (e.g.

Boccace vs. Boccaccio and Zwingle vs. Zuingle). Other corrections are

listed below.

Corrections:

For consistency within the text, one instance of ‘Shakspaere’ and two

instances of ‘Shakespeare’ were changed to ‘Shakspeare’ and ‘free-will’

was changed to ‘free will.’

Duplicate sidenote, |Vincent of Beauvais|, was removed from Chapter II,

Section 38.

Duplicate word ‘the’ was removed from Chapter IV., Section 11: ‘... much

beyond the the limits of representation...’

In Footnote 579, the Epistle number ‘MVXI’ was changed to ‘MXVI.’

In footnote 1312, ‘αἰ δέ’ was corrected from ‘οἱ δ ε’ in the original.

In the index, ‘Bengard’ was changed to ‘Berigard’; for the entry

‘Calendar, Gregorian,’ the page number was changed from 388 to 390;

and for the entry under Rome, ‘Perversions’ was changed to ‘Conversions.’