SOCIALISM AND COMMUNISM
Socialism is not a simple but a complex movement. It contains a
powerful strain both of Communism and of Anarchism. In fact one might
almost divide all Socialists into two classes: Communist Socialists
and Anarchist Socialists. A study of the history of Socialism,
Communism, and Anarchism shows that all three movements have much in
common. It shows instances of Socialistic parties branching out and
having Communist and Anarchist offshoots, and shows instances of
Anarchist and Communist groups combining under the red banner of
Socialism.
Owing to its intimate historical and sentimental connection with
Communism and Anarchism, Socialism is hostile to the State, and many
Socialists desire its downfall: "The expropriation of all the private
proprietors of the means of production being effected, society starts
on a new basis. The conditions of existence and of human life are
changed. The State Organisation gradually loses its foundation. The
State expires with the expiration of a ruling class, just as religion
expires when the belief in supernatural beings or supernatural
reasoning powers ceases to exist."[1034] "The first act wherein the
State appears as the real representative of the whole body social--the
seizure of the means of production in the name of society--is also its
last independent act as State. The interference of the State in social
relations becomes superfluous in one domain after another and falls of
itself into desuetude. The place of a government over persons is taken
by the administration of things and the conduct of the processes of
production. The State is not 'abolished,' it dies out."[1035] "The
representatives of the State will have disappeared along with the State
itself--ministers, parliaments, standing armies, police and
_gens-d'armes_, law courts, lawyers and public prosecutors, prisons,
rates, taxes and excises--the entire political apparatus. The great and
yet so petty parliamentary struggles have given place to administrative
colleges and administrative delegations, whose function it is to settle
the best methods of production and distribution."[1036] "The
Co-operative Commonwealth will incorporate the whole people into
society. The whole people does not want, or need, any government at
all. It simply wants administration--good administration,"[1037]
The arguments contained in the foregoing extracts are exceedingly
shallow. The various authorities quoted tell us in more or less
involved language that the State disappears because "governments" will
be replaced by "administrations." Unconvincing verbiage apart, the
only change which would take place would be a change of name.
Countries would be ruled by Socialist governments instead of by
non-Socialist ones. The State could disappear only with the
disappearance of nations and of frontiers, with the advent of the
"Brotherhood of Man." The first Socialist State might of course
proclaim the Brotherhood of Man in accordance with the precedent set
by the French Revolution, but other nations might feel as little
inclined to join it as during the time when bloodthirsty demagogues
ruled France in the name of Liberty, Fraternity, and Equality, with
the liberal assistance of the rifle and the guillotine.
What is Communism? John Stuart Mill tells us: "The assailants of the
principle of individual property may be divided into two
classes--those whose scheme implies absolute equality in the
distribution of the physical means of life and enjoyment, and those
who admit inequality, but grounded on some principle, or supposed
principle, of justice or general expediency, and not, like so many of
the existing social inequalities, dependent on accident alone. The
characteristic name for the former economical system is
Communism."[1038] "Palgrave's Dictionary of Political Economy" says:
"Communism is the theory which teaches that the labour and the income
of society should be distributed equally among all its members by some
constituted authority."[1039]
Let us now take note of some Socialist views on Communism. "Laurence
Gronlund, whose 'Co-operative Commonwealth' has been styled the New
Testament of Socialism (as the 'Capital' is its Old Testament), has
tried to distinguish between Socialism and Communism by describing
Communism as meaning 'each according to his needs,' and Socialism 'each
according to his deeds.'"[1040] "As soon as the principle of equality
is applied to Socialism, Socialism becomes 'Communism.'"[1041]
"Socialism and Communism are very generally confounded, but they are
quite distinct economic systems. Socialists seek only to control the
instruments of production--Land and Capital; Communists leave nothing
to the individual which he can call his own. St. Paul was a Socialist,
Christ a Communist."[1042]
Many so-called Socialists are in reality avowed Communists who look
forward to the introduction of Communism more than to the advent of
Socialism. They see in Socialism merely an intermediate stage towards
their final goal. "If the millennial haven of Communism is to be
reached by mankind generally, it must be through the disciplinary
portal of Socialism."[1043] "Communism, the final goal of Socialism,
is a form of Social Economy very closely akin to the principles set
forth in the Sermon on the Mount."[1044] "Socialism and freedom 'gang
thegither.' Socialism implies the inherent equality of all human
beings. It does not assume that all are alike, but only that all are
equal."[1045] "Between complete Socialism and Communism there is no
difference whatever in my mind. Communism is, in fact, the completion
of Socialism; when that ceases to be militant and becomes triumphant
it will be Communism."[1046] "The vision of freedom is an
ever-expanding conception of life and its possibilities. The slave
dreams of emancipation, the emancipated workman of citizenship; the
enfranchised citizen of Socialism; the Socialist of Communism."[1047]
Some Socialists champion Communism because Communism, the equality of
all, is "natural," whilst individualism is "unnatural": "Capitalistic
individualism has no prototype in Nature and is therefore unnatural.
But some opponent will say, 'It is here, and therefore it must be a
natural product.' The answer is simple. It is here, but it is one of
Nature's failures. We have seen how, low down in the organic scale,
Nature makes many failures in order to achieve one success. Sometimes
even millions perish in order that one of high type may survive.
Nature always accomplishes her purposes in the end. We know that her
aim is Communism, for some of the higher species have already reached
it, and all are tending towards it."[1048] The assertion, "We know"
(who are we?) "that Nature's aim is Communism," can hardly be called a
sufficient scientific proof of the foregoing proposition. Other
Socialists assert that Communism is in accordance with the Bible:
"Christ's teaching is often said to be Socialistic. It is not
Socialistic, but it is Communistic, and Communism is the most advanced
form of the policy generally known as Socialism."[1049]
A Socialist Bible student and very prolific writer says: "Can anything
be conceived more diametrically opposed to the principle laid down by
Christ than the present system, based as it is on the principle of
competition? 'You are all brothers,' says Christ, and if all are
brothers, then it needs no philosopher to tell us that all should work
together for the common good."[1050] In support of this doctrine that
Communism is in accordance with the Bible, the said writer quotes Acts
iv. 32-35, "And the multitude of them that believed were of one heart
and of one soul: neither said any of them that ought of the things
which he possessed was his own; but they had all things common.
Neither was there any among them that lacked: for as many as were
possessors of lands or houses sold them, and brought the prices of the
things that were sold, and laid them down at the apostles' feet: and
distribution was made unto every man according as he had need."[1051]
The Socialist can quote Scripture for his purpose--and misquote it
too. Therefore the pious Socialist writer leaves out the lines which
follow: "But a certain man named Ananias, with Sapphira his wife, sold
a possession, and kept back part of the price."[1052] Will there be no
Ananiases in the Socialist Commonwealth? Besides, the early Christian
Communism was voluntary and dictated only by charity. It certainly was
not enjoined as a religious duty.[1053] Lastly, the first Christian
experiment in Communism proved immediately a failure, probably because
there were many Ananiases, and because Communism is opposed to human
nature and leads to poverty and strife, not to prosperity and peace.
Hence, St. Paul founded no more Communist settlements, but collected
everywhere for the "poor saints at Jerusalem" in order to relieve them
in their "deep poverty," as may be seen in Romans xv. 26-27, 1
Corinthians xvi. 1-3, 2 Corinthians viii. and ix. To misquote
Scripture in support of Socialist Communism with an attitude of deep
piety is not only in bad taste, but also dishonest. It is cant and
hypocrisy.
Another prolific Socialist writer, under the title "Was Jesus a
Socialist?" tells us that Socialism "claims complete equality of
rewards for all members of society, not on any theologico-metaphysical
ground, such as the Christian abstract principle of brotherhood, but
because it sees men to have on the whole the same natural endowments,
and the same natural needs."[1054] Have they? Considered merely as
two-legged animals requiring only food, warmth, and shelter, men have
not even the same physical needs.
It is very difficult to make out a good case in favour of Communism,
an equal reward for all, a doctrine which will be attractive only to
the lowest rank of workers, the lazy, and the inefficient. Therefore
Socialist Communists endeavour to make Communism appear more palatable
to the active and the efficient by the lavish use of poetry and
hyperbole. For instance, we learn: "He who makes the canvas is as
useful as he that paints the picture. He who cleanses the sewer and
prevents disease is as useful as the physician who cures the malady
after it has been contracted."[1055] To learn painting or medicine
requires at least ten years' study; sewer-cleaning requires no study.
The offer of equal rewards for an hour's work at painting, at
amputating in a hospital, and at cleaning sewers must be very
attractive to sewermen. Will it prove equally attractive to surgeons
and painters? Socialism is to be world-wide. Will the highly skilled
British trade unionist agree to work side by side with unskilled
Chinamen and for equal wages?
In youth, as I lay dreaming,
I saw a country fair.
Where Plenty sheds its blessing down,
And all have equal share.
There Poverty's sad features
Are never, never, seen;
And each soul in the Brotherhood
Scorns cunning arts or mean.[1056]
I think skilled workers will hardly hail with enthusiasm the day of
liberty and equality and of sewermen's wages all round, poetry
notwithstanding.
Other Socialists try to recommend Communism by a ridiculous and
dishonest play upon words: "He who declares himself an enemy of
Communism declares himself an enemy of common interest, an enemy of
society and mankind. Whoever wishes to annihilate Communism will have
to destroy the common roads, the schools, he will have to destroy the
public gardens and parks, he will have to abolish the public baths,
the theatres, the waterworks, all the public buildings; he will have
to destroy the railroads, the telegraphs, the post-office. For all
these belong to Communism."[1057] It would be as logical to say, "He
who opposes Socialism will have to destroy the Royal Society, and all
clubs, for all these are social institutions." The Social-Democratic
Federation says about Communism: "Has there not always been the
aggregation of wealth in the hands of a few in all stages of human
society?--Certainly there has been a tendency to such concentration
throughout history. In what did tribal society differ from civilised
society?--Briefly, it differed in that its underlying principle was
that of social solidarity and Communism. We may instance such examples
as survived in the village communities of India before the
establishment of British institutions; in the Russian Mir, in its
older form; in the Arab tribal organisation and the Javan village
communities."[1058] That "primitive Communism" of "tribal society,"
the organisation of savages and semi-savages, of the decadent and of
the unfit, Socialists wish to foist upon a highly cultured nation. The
above arguments, penned by the philosopher of British Socialism and
the editor of "Justice" in recommendation of Communism, suffice to
condemn it.
We have a survival of ancient Communism in the Russian Mir, and to the
Mir is the great backwardness of Russian agriculture chiefly to be
attributed.[1059] The Russian peasants, recognising the disadvantages
of the Communist Mir, are gradually abandoning it and converting
common into individual properties. Nevertheless some Socialists have
the hardihood to ascribe the universal disappearance of ancient
Communism to the tyranny of man, not to the logic of facts and the
action of Nature which replaces inefficient by efficient
organisations. "There have been attempts in all ages to introduce some
system of holding things in common in order to alleviate and soften
the hard struggle with Nature for food, clothing, and shelter. This
voluntary Communism rendered the workers too independent for the
governing classes, and the jealousy of Church and State invariably
destroyed it as the Russian village communes are now being destroyed
by the Government."[1060]
Another Socialist quotes with approval the pronouncement of Gregory
the Great "Let them know that the earth from which they spring, and of
which they are formed, belongs to all men in common, and that
therefore the fruits which the earth brings forth must belong, without
distinction, to all."[1061] China suffers from over-population and is
very poor. Would the writer give to the Chinese a share of Great
Britain's wealth since "the earth and its fruits belong without
distinction to all?"
Mr. Keir Hardie, M.P., who has apparently a somewhat elementary
knowledge of ancient history, and who seems to rely for information on
a primer such as "Little Willie's First History Book," recommends
Communism because "In Sparta there were not only common lands, but
also a common table, whilst dogs and horses were practically common
property also. Sparta, which kept its Communism almost to the end, was
also the Republic from which came the immortal heroes who made the
pass of Thermopylae one of the great inspirations of the world."[1062]
The Spartans were barbarians among the Greeks. Spartan Communism was
founded on slavery and on the virtual community of women.
Slave-murder, child-murder, rape, and theft were legally enjoined, and
that is the community which Mr. Keir Hardie bids us consider as our
model. Mr. Keir Hardie concludes: "We have seen how mankind when left
free has always, and in all parts of the world, naturally turned to
Communism. [Has it? When, and where?] That it will do so again is the
most likely forecast of the future which can be made, and the great
industrial organisations, the Trade Unions, the Co-operative Movement,
the Friendly Orders, the Socialist organisations and the Labour party
are each and all developing the feeling of solidarity and of mutual
aid which will make the inauguration of Communism a comparatively easy
task as the natural successor to State Socialism."[1063]
The ideas of Socialists with regard to Communism are incredibly
confused. For instance, we find in the same book the following
contradictory statements describing Socialism: "Socialism is the
common holding of the means of production and exchange, and _the
holding of them for the equal benefit of all_"[1064] (the italics are
in the original), and "To distribute the gifts of Nature justly
according to the labour done by each in the collective search for
them. This desire is Socialism."[1065] These absolutely contradictory
statements, telling us that Socialism is both individualistic and that
it is also Communistic, are taken from the fundamental book of the
Fabian Society, the most scientific body of Socialists, and they have
been reprinted again and again down to the edition bearing the imprint
"43rd Thousand."
Socialism is eternally between the horns of a dilemma. It promises to
make all men happy. If it rewards men by results, the inefficient and
the lazy will be dissatisfied. If it rewards all men alike
(Communism), the efficient, able, and energetic will be dissatisfied.
Reward by result will, in the absence of self-regulating commercial
demand and supply, require an autocratic and absolute authority which
arbitrarily apportions the unequal rewards of labour. It would be the
tyranny of the few over the many, and would mean the abolition of
democracy. Communism, equal rewards for all, would lead to the tyranny
of the many over the few, and would stifle all motives to excel. Well
might the Fabians ask: "Since we are too dishonest for Communism
without taxation or compulsory labour, and too insubordinate to
tolerate task work under personal compulsion, how can we order the
transition so as to introduce just distribution without Communism and
maintain the incentive to labour without mastership?"[1066]
Unfortunately for the Socialists, that question is unanswerable. It is
likely always to remain so, and the impossibility of answering it
makes Socialism impossible. However, since Socialists wish to array
the masses against the classes, the poor against the rich, they
naturally incline, for tactical reasons rather than from honest
conviction, to Communism, the worst of all tyrannies, and the most
retrograde and inefficient of economic organisations.
"Communism in proposing the appropriation of the results of the
unequally productive labour for a uniformly equal distribution
according to needs, seeks to establish a universal and monstrous
appropriation by one set of persons of the surplus value belonging to
others. Socialism would, in short, do to a far greater degree the very
thing with which to-day it so indignantly and bitterly reproaches
capitalism."[1067] Whilst Mr. Keir Hardie and his numerous followers
enthusiastically support a free Communism in which "the rule of life
will be--From each according to his ability, to each according to his
needs,"[1068] "the Fabian Society resolutely opposes all pretensions
to hamper the Socialisation of industry with equal wages, equal hours
of labour, equal official status, or equal authority for everyone.
Such conditions are not only impracticable, but incompatible with the
equality of subordination to the common interest which is fundamental
in modern Socialism."[1069]
The Communistic idea is not yet dead. The short-sightedness and folly
of mankind is such that Communism, in spite of a record of more than
2,000 years of universal failure, is still a power to be reckoned
with. Visionaries like Saint-Simon and Owen, and madmen like Fourier,
are still able to lead the people astray.
Fourier taught that Communism would alter not only man but the
physical world as well. The duration of the human race on earth would
be 80,000 years, divided into two periods of ascending and two of
descending vibrations. Lions would be taught to draw waggons, as a
symbol of the victory of man over Nature. Human life would on an
average last 144 years. The aurora borealis, which now rarely appears
in northern regions, would become permanently visible and be fixed at
the Pole. It would give out, not only light, as at present, but also
heat. It would decompose the sea water by the creation of citric
boreal acid and convert it into a kind of lemonade which would
dispense with the necessity of provisioning ships with fresh water.
Oranges would grow in Siberia and tame whales would pull becalmed
sailing-ships. The full indulgence of human nature in all its passions
would produce happiness and virtue. Society would harmoniously be
organised in groups (phalanxes) of 1,600 persons to inhabit a large
palace called a phalanstery. If England would introduce these
phalanxes, her labour would become so productive that she could pay
off her national debt in six months by the sale of hens' eggs. Labour
would be organised and occupation be changed every two hours. Workers
would be taken in carriages to and from their work, and agricultural
labourers would work under tents so as to be protected against the
rain. The relations between the sexes would be of the freest. All
should freely satisfy all their passions, and all passions would
naturally combine in one grand harmony. The world would become a huge
Republic which would be governed from Constantinople, and French would
be the universal language.[1070]
Notwithstanding the evident insanity of Fourier's proposals, and the
almost equally extravagant proposals of Owen, more than a hundred
phalansteries and other Communistic settlements were founded in Great
Britain and elsewhere, especially in the United States. Their failure
was universal and their immorality was very great.[1071] "The trouble
with all the Fourierite communities was that they were fanciful and
theoretical schemes, not simple and natural growths. They had little
definite religious spirit to hold them together. They had little
business headship. At the least discouragement and misfortune they
melted away. Only religious communism, the facts seem to prove, can be
successful."[1072] Only the communism of the convent and of the
monastery, the equality of all based on a fervent religious belief, on
a firm discipline, on an equal and absolute poverty, and on the almost
insurmountable difficulty of re-entering the world, has hitherto
proved practicable from the time of the Essenes to the present day.
FOOTNOTES:
[1034] Bebel, _Woman_, p. 178.
[1035] Engels, _Socialism: Utopian and Scientific_, pp. 76, 77.
[1036] Bebel, _Woman_, p. 212.
[1037] Gronlund, _Co-operative Commonwealth_, p. 123
[1038] Mill, _Political Economy_, Book iii. ch. i. par. 2.
[1039] _Palgrave's Dictionary of Political Economy_, vol. i. p. 297.
[1040] Leatham, _Socialism and Character_, p. 89.
[1041] Menger, _L'Etat Socialiste_, p. 35.
[1042] Davidson, _The Old Order and the New_, p. 93.
[1043] Davidson, _The Old Order and the New_, p. 94.
[1044] Keir Hardie, _From Serfdom to Socialism_, p. 36.
[1045] _Ibid._ p. 9.
[1046] Morris, _Communism_, pp. 11, 12.
[1047] Keir Hardie, _From Serfdom to Socialism_, p. 77.
[1048] Connell, _Socialism and the Survival of the Fittest_, p. 19.
[1049] Blatchford, _Real Socialism_, p. 5.
[1050] Ward, _Are All Men Brothers?_ p. 19.
[1051] Ward, _All Things in Common_, p. 5.
[1052] Acts v. 1, 2.
[1053] Acts v. 4.
[1054] Leatham, _Was Jesus a Socialist?_ p. 5.
[1055] Davidson, _The Old Order and the New_, p. 159.
[1056] _Clarion Song Book_, p. 27.
[1057] Sorge, _Socialism and the Workers_, p. 8
[1058] Bax and Quelch, _A New Catechism of Socialism_, pp. 20, 21.
[1059] See Simkhowitsch, _Die Feldgemeinschaft_, 1898; Haxthausen,
_Studien_, &c.
[1060] Benson, _Socialism_, p. 4.
[1061] Ward, _All Things in Common_, p. 1.
[1062] Keir Hardie, _From Serfdom to Socialism_, p. 17.
[1063] Keir Hardie, _From Serfdom to Socialism_, pp. 96, 97.
[1064] _Fabian Essays in Socialism_, p. 212.
[1065] _Ibid._ p. 4.
[1066] B. Shaw, _The Impossibilities of Anarchism_, p. 17.
[1067] Schaeffle, _The Impossibility of Social Democracy_, p. 60.
[1068] Keir Hardie, _From Serfdom to Socialism_, p. 89.
[1069] _Report on Fabian Policy and Resolutions_, p. 7.
[1070] See Fourier, _Oeuvres_; Pellarin, _Fourier_; Sargant, _Social
Innovators_.
[1071] See Noyes, _History of American Socialism_; Nordhoff,
_Communistic Societies of the United States_.
[1072] Bliss, _Encyclopedia of Social Reform_, p. 319.