Psychological Elements of Organization
If even two persons are going to work together for a common purpose,
they will do better if they "organize" for it. The more clearly
they define their purpose, their policy and methods, and the
responsibilities and functions each is to assume;--the more they will
gain in efficiency by avoiding friction, lost motion, and the deadening
mental effect of misunderstandings and questionings. As the number
engaged increases, the advantages of organization increase, until when
many are engaged organization becomes a necessity. And no matter what
the purpose, from building a cathedral to robbing a bank--in conducting
a school, office, hospital, or factory--the success of the affair will
depend largely on the efficiency of its organization and the extent to
which all concerned understand its purpose, its policy and methods, and
the responsibilities and functions of all engaged.
Organization is of course the responsibility of the governing head.
The more attention and skill he shows here, the less he will need give
to all the varied requirements of his position. Our present interest in
organization lies in such a sketch as will show its framework, and thus
enable us to analyze such of its psychological elements as affect the
question of handling the men who compose it.
_The Framework._--No matter how large the number of men brought
together for any purpose, proper organization groups them into
divisions and subdivisions in accordance with the nature of their
work. This grouping is continued until in each case the smallest
subdivision contains no more individuals than one man can control in
that particular work through direct personal contact and supervision.
A chief, or leader, is put in charge of each division and subdivision.
He transmits instructions from higher authority, and is held personally
responsible for the control, work, discipline and efficiency of
everyone under him. Thus organization lines everyone up in his own
place, gives him a definite part to play under a prescribed chief, and
thus enables the whole body to function smoothly like a machine in
exact response to the policies and control of the governing head.
In military organization, no matter how large the army, the will of
its high command quickly passes from superior to subordinate until in
the end it has reached the squad leaders and they have transmitted it
to the men in ranks. The whole vast machine may thus move uniformly,
accurately responsive to the master mind. So in any large business;
department heads, superintendents, foremen and subforemen furnish the
line of control from the head to all his men no matter how numerous or
how far removed. These subordinates represent his policies, his will,
and his spirit. How important that they understand them clearly and
execute them fairly and efficiently.
It is impossible for one mind to encompass all the details of a large
undertaking, and furthermore too much attention to detail crowds out
the possibility of vision and future planning. Hence the necessity for
organization and for delegating to subordinate leaders the authority
and initiative of the chief. For this reason we say that the big man
as an executive is he who picks good subordinates, develops them
into his responsible and responsive agents, and then gives them wide
initiative. And as army officers must be trained for their positions
and particularly in the art of handling men, so these subordinate
leaders must be so schooled as to assure to the chief that policies
and instructions are being carried out properly, and that the men are
being handled to the best advantage.
_Psychological Elements._--The chief thus finds in the organization of
his undertaking a machine with which he is to work out his purpose. And
this machine, in all its component parts, is built up of live sentient
human beings, capable of splendid work if properly handled. Maximum
results depend therefore on the chief's understanding of human nature,
and on his applying this understanding to the practical management of
the undertaking. Thus the psychological elements assume importance.
The wise chief therefore clearly defines his purpose, and his policies
and methods for accomplishing it. He provides regulations which define
the responsibilities and functions of the various members of the
organization, and sees to it that all understand and observe them. As
the affair progresses he keeps the requirements of organization ever in
mind, makes frequent changes in personnel and methods as developments
require, and continually watches the working of the psychological
elements which make his organization a going concern. This means to
see that all are observing the requirements of _subordination_ and
_command_; that there is intelligent _teamwork_; and above all that
there exists throughout the whole organization a fine spirit of
_discipline_ and _morale_. All these important elements lie directly
in the hands of his subordinate leaders, who are responsible under him
for their existence and proper use throughout the organization. These
leaders must therefore know how to handle their positions so as to
develop and maintain these important elements in their subordinates.
This introduces the last and most important of the elements,
_leadership_, which must be understood by all subordinate leaders. The
importance of maintaining all these elements so vital to the success
of an organization explains why his qualifications for leadership are
so carefully considered in determining a subordinate's fitness for his
position, and why his training in leadership may be necessary.
_Subordination_ means that everyone shall continually recognize the
fact that each individual in his own office has his own particular
responsibilities and privileges, and that these must be observed by all
both above and below him. Particularly must each superior take pains
always to recognize the rights and responsibilities of his subordinates
and to give full play to their powers in the proper exercise of the
functions of their grades. If the superintendent saw a man going wrong
he would properly correct the foreman, not the man himself; if he
was so fortunate as to see something praiseworthy he would commend
the foreman, or at least be sure that the foreman was present and
shared the praise. This makes the men realize that the foreman is
held responsible for their work, good or bad, that he is really their
leader, thus strengthening his authority over them. It also shows the
foreman that superior authority recognized him as the boss and holds
him responsible for results, thus developing his initiative, his
legitimate pride of office, and his keen interest in the performance of
his men.
While for the sake of this psychological effect these minor corrections
and commendations are thus made in the presence of the men involved, if
the foreman needs serious correction for mistaken policy, slackness,
poor judgment, anything which corrected in the hearing of his men would
necessarily lower their respect for him, he should be corrected in
private and given the opportunity to win the added respect of his men
by appearing to make the correction on his own initiative. Where the
subordinate does not respond to these methods, he is lacking in the
essentials of teamwork and leadership and not up to his job.
To prevent friction, the function of each of these steps in
subordination from the chief down to his men in the ranks should be
well defined, and thoroughly understood by all members of the entire
force. And as these steps form the quick, sure means of transmitting
the will of the chief to his men, so in the ideal case they would be
the equally sure means of transmitting to the chief the sentiment,
opinions, and suggestions of his men. In any case these steps form the
rungs of the ladder by which any man may aspire to climb to advancement
in the organization, and there should be an ever present atmosphere of
encouragement for every man who will strive to fit himself to do the
work of the man next above him. Such an atmosphere frees in the man
the instincts of ambition and construction and thus promotes interest,
inventiveness and constructive criticism and suggestion.
_Teamwork._--The meaning of teamwork and its importance to the success
of an undertaking are easily understood, but its practical application
to our daily affairs is not always so easily brought about. Too often
selfish interests seem to stand in the way, and it is necessary in some
way to make the interests of the team appear of greater importance
to the individual than his own. It can generally be shown that the
greater success of each is dependent on the success of the whole, and
if the leader always gives merit where it is due, he should be able to
establish this understanding. It should help the leader, particularly
in getting this spirit of co-operation into his men, if he realizes
how this too is one of the great laws of nature. Bishop Brent says
"Bible history--and for that matter all history--begins with a garden
and closes with a city." This is because the developments of progress
necessarily depend on the co-operative efforts of mankind, and thus
force men to live and work together. It is true that progress results
from the development of the individual; but not in isolation. He
must work in close relations with his fellows. A man can do little
alone, but in combination men perform miracles of achievement. So they
have got to work together, have got to practice the give and take of
common membership in community living, and of common responsibility
for accomplishing the progress of the race. This means fellowship and
teamwork all along the line. It means that each man has a part to play
and is entitled to respect and consideration in accordance with how he
plays it rather than what it is; and it means that no man is entitled
to consider solely his own selfish interests, but must faithfully play
his part in the team with his fellows. Our ideals of fairness and
decency in work and play are built on this foundation.
Good teamwork assures two states of mind in the individual which
are most helpful for efficient work. No matter in what isolation or
obscurity the individual has to work he feels sure that his work is
a necessary and important part of the whole and that it will receive
due appreciation; and he is also borne up by feeling sure that each
of his fellows is doing his own part with equal faithfulness and
likewise counting on him to do his. In many phases of work as well as
in sport this latter feeling is a great incentive to doing one's best.
Teamwork is of course intimately connected with leadership; and will be
frequently mentioned in discussing the latter.
_Command._--It is very important to get a clear conception of the
modern theory of command, or way of directing what subordinates shall
do. It is important because rather new and not always understood, and
particularly because it is the one guiding principle for the leader
in all his conduct of office. Command no longer depends solely on
the implicit obedience of subordinates, but gets its best results
from developing in them the two essential qualities of _loyalty_ and
_intelligent initiative_, and then trusting them to play their part
in the proposed work. This is a development of the last half century,
an intelligent response to changed conditions. It is based on the
modern development of the individual as a responsible unit in the
social and political community, and more particularly on the fact
that the bigness of modern-time enterprises makes impracticable the
older-time dictatorial control by a single head. Implicit obedience
to exact orders can be successful only when the man who gives the
order is on the spot and fully acquainted with the existing conditions
at the time, and this is impossible for all the details of large
enterprises. The "I order, you obey" and the "you're not paid to think"
stuff is entirely inadequate for big affairs, where opportunities for
subordinates to do good work must constantly occur beyond the vision
of the big chief and go unimproved if the subordinate has to wait for
the chief's instructions before acting, and where circumstances will
often have arisen without the chief's knowledge which would make it
disadvantageous to carry out certain instructions which he had given.
So modern command recognizes that the man who is on the spot is in the
best position to judge what to do, and that if he has been properly
instructed, we will get better results from his acting on his own
judgment than from his blindly obeying orders. Sad as it is for
romance the man who to-day led a "Charge of the Light Brigade" would
be considered stupid, and probably relieved as unfit for command.
Subordinates are now required to know what is going on about them, and
to use intelligent judgment. Positive orders are of course as rigidly
obeyed as ever, but they are not given unless the superior is on the
spot in person and knows all the conditions. In the general case the
subordinate is instructed as to the plan of action and the part he is
to play in it, and then expected to carry on to the best advantage. For
this purpose army training is now designed, not only to cultivate the
man's exact obedience to positive orders, but even more _to develop
his powers of observation and analysis so he may sense conditions; his
powers of reason so he may arrive at a logical decision as to what
should be done; and his strength of character so he may willingly
accept and cheerfully bear the full responsibility of acting on his
own initiative._ Can anyone find a better formula for training to play
one's part in any of life's activities!
This system of command is thoroughly in keeping with the democratic
character, and is eminently adapted for use in civil undertakings. The
keynote for any successful management is the development and use of
loyalty and intelligent initiative in subordinates. Initiative without
loyalty would be dangerous, but from the combination flow the big
results.
_Discipline._--The discipline of any group is the direct responsibility
of its particular leader. Many men shrink from this responsibility
through distaste for administering discipline as they understand it.
And the old ideas of discipline based on fear and punishments are
indeed calculated to be repugnant to any democrat of sensibilities. But
let him once understand what discipline really is, and how the highest
type of discipline is brought about through employing the better
qualities of mankind, and his responsibility for it may then become a
matter of keen interest and satisfaction.
It will make an understanding of discipline much easier to realize how
common a thing it is in everyday life. It is perhaps the most common,
for it controls us in practically all our personal affairs. Even the
cave man has to observe the discipline imposed by the laws of nature;
while civilized man must bow more or less cheerfully to social and
community regulations ranging in seriousness from some convention as
to wearing his hat up to the Eighteenth Constitutional Amendment. We
are always the objects of some discipline; that of the home, of school,
church, office, the hotel or the street car. The decent man and the
happy one is he who accepts this discipline cheerfully--or else flees
from the strictures of community living. How absurd therefore is the
common conception that army discipline is such a unique affair, and
that to be a disciplinarian is necessarily so difficult. In fact the
most perfect example of real efficient discipline, and the example most
worthy our emulation, is the discipline which a wise father inspires
in his son. Here we see the unswerving loyalty, quick, cheerful
obedience, and readiness to fight for the honor of his chief that are
the characteristics of good discipline and the sure rewards of good
leadership.
Group discipline may be defined as the spirit which pervades the
members of a group--the controlling spirit which governs the impulses
of the individuals and makes them try to do right and give their best
in the common cause. It is as essential to the successful working of
an organized machine of humans as is live steam to the working of a
cold engine. Its existence in any group is recognized by a ready,
cheerful obedience to instructions, by respect for those in authority,
by keenness for the common success, and by a high sense of individual
duty. It has been well called the "soul" of armies. This means that
it is the responsive animating spirit which leads men to splendid
deeds of heroism, gives them heart for cheerful endurance of untold
hardships, makes them freely surrender individual wills to the will
of the leader, and binds them into a loyal fellowship, aspiring,
sacrificing, working together for a common cause.
Given a policy of unfailing justice, and no matter for what purpose men
are brought together, this spirit of discipline may be made to pervade
the whole group. It is the direct result of good leadership, and comes
naturally from knowing how to handle men. It cannot exist under poor
leadership. Its relative value for attaining results has been measured
by Napoleon as seventy-five per cent of all the elements that go to
make success in battle. In any undertaking demanding the continued
application of the powers of man, its value must be rated very high.
An organization that lacks discipline may not hope for efficiency. And
as poor leadership thus denies efficiency to an organization, so may
its efficiency be increased in direct proportion to the quality of
leadership shown by those in control, especially by those in direct
contact with the men.
The object of discipline is therefore seen to be an increase in the
total of results. So do not let the mind get fixed on discipline as the
end sought by leadership; it is but a means to the attainment of this
real object--better results. As in the army many an officer failed of
success because he centered his attention on being a disciplinarian and
forgot that the object of all training and discipline was success in
action, so in any activity, the leader must not let the importance of
discipline in itself obscure his judgment when deciding any step toward
attaining or maintaining it. It is not the end, but is to be used as a
means toward attaining the real end--one hundred per cent results.
_Morale_ is the final development of the highest type of discipline,
and is thus the prize reward for good leadership. Based fundamentally
on a belief in the cause for which we are working, it can never be
inspired in an atmosphere of injustice or suspicion. Having morale
means that no matter what obstacle or difficulty we face, we meet it
absolutely confident of our ability to overcome it. Confidence--a
justified confidence--is therefore the cornerstone of morale.
Discipline and experience have made each man confident of his own
fitness and ability, confident of the intelligent leadership of his
chief, and confident of the ability and loyal co-operation of his
fellow-mates in the team. To establish his men's confidence in these
three things must therefore be a constant consideration in the mind of
the leader. This consideration influences his every decision as to
what to do and what to say, and how to do and say it. He uses the words
and the method best adapted to work toward these results, well knowing
that his men are influenced by his every act toward either confidence
in or distrust of his leadership, their own ability, or the worth of
their fellows. He thus builds up through honest, intelligent confidence
that morale which is going to make his team ready to meet anything.
The manifestations of discipline and morale, and the various appeals
to inspire them, differ in accordance with the work to be done by the
members of the group and with the personalities of both the leader and
his men. But all spring from an application of the same principles--and
making this application to the specific case in hand becomes the
interesting study and exercise of wit for the leader concerned. It is
for him to arouse just the kind of spirit he needs for the special
work and with the particular men he has. The spirit which holds the
stoker faithful to his task in the bowels of the ship is different in
form from that which animates the gun crew on the deck above--yet both
spring from the same sources.
_Leadership._--The development of man as an individual, his inherent
qualities of manliness, high purpose, and a self-respecting
individuality which still recognizes its responsibility as a citizen
of the community--all these developed qualities make him potentially a
splendid tool in the hands of a skillful master, and a dangerous one in
the hands of a bungler. To handle these tools skillfully has therefore
become a recognized art. It will be only when this art is generally
known and practiced by our leaders that the nation may hope to benefit
by anything like the full measure of its manpower.
This art of handling men is called leadership; and during the late
war was made a study for practical application in all armies. On his
excellence in the practice of this art depended every military leader's
ability to deliver that superior manpower of his men which made his
unit victorious. In the past this used to be the function of the few
"born leaders" who seemed to know instinctively how to inspire others
to give their uttermost. But these born leaders were too few to meet
modern requirements, so we were forced to make their natural art a
matter of analysis and instruction.
This art is based on the fact that there is in every man a tremendous
latent force which may be aroused and used by a skillful leader who
knows how to inspire the man's loyalty, pride, and ambition to do
his utmost for the glory of his group and the honor of his cherished
leader. The poor leader leaves all this enthusiastic service and
devotion dormant in his men, and therefore commands only mediocrity.
His men do just well enough to conform to cold requirements. The letter
of the law is their sole guide, and they may even seek means to evade
that. Such leadership paralyzes efficiency, and does actual harm to the
character of the man who must operate under it. Denied the privilege
of giving free play to his constructive instincts, he becomes prey to
those which breed on discouragement and discontent, and the end of this
man is far worse than the beginning.
Not so with good leadership. It wins its efficiency and material
reward, not at the expense of manhood, but by appeal to the very
instincts whose free play gives pleasure to the inner man and results
in the upbuilding of his character and his faculties. The end thus
finds him a better man and citizen for the kind of work he has done.
It is this dual result which so highly commends the practice of this
art. The most mercenary may well adopt it for the material gain it
will bring; the altruist may adopt it for the inner joy of seeing the
character and manliness of his men growing under his hands. And in the
end even the leader who accepted it for material reasons will find
self-satisfaction in that he must feel that the community is better
for his living in it.
Leadership is an art, not an exact science. Its seat is in a man's soul
rather than in his brain. To attempt to teach it we appeal broadly
to a man's understanding and appreciation of what the laws of life
require. It is a comprehensive subject which may be far from completely
covered in one chapter. But fortunately one need not attain anything
like perfection in order to be recognized as a good leader and to
win a fine response from his men. So much is man a creature of the
better instincts, so responsive is he to fair and decent treatment,
that if his leader but be genuine in his practice of but a few of
these principles of leadership, his men will deny his weaknesses and
failures, and give him their loyalty and service without measure.