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Transcriber's note:
Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
Upright text within a block of italic text is enclosed by
parenthesis marks [example: 〈Poisons)].
A carat character is used to denote superscription. A
single character following the carat is superscripted
(example: M^r).
A Mechanical Account of Poisons in Several Essays.
BY
RICHARD MEAD, M.D.F.R.S.
And Physician to St. _Thomas_’s Hospital.
_The Second Edition, Revised, with Additions._
_LONDON_:
Printed by _J. M._ for RALPH SMITH at the _Bible_, under the
_Piazza’s_, of the _Royal Exchange, Cornhill_. 1708.
THE PREFACE
_〈To〉 give an exact and particular Account of the Nature and Manner
of acting of 〈Poisons〉, is no easie Matter; but to Discourse more
intelligibly of 〈Them〉 than Authors have hitherto done, not very
difficult. One may without much Pains shew their Effects to be owing to
something more than the bare Qualities of Heat or Cold; and Discover
the Footsteps of 〈Mechanism〉 in those surprizing 〈Phænomena〉 which are
commonly ascribed to some 〈Occult〉 or Unknown Principle. But to Unravel
the Springs of the several Motions upon which such 〈Appearances〉
do depend, and Trace up all the Symptoms to their First Causes,
requires some Art as well as Labour; and that both upon the account
of the Exquisite Fineness, and marvellous Composition, of the Animal
Machine in which they are Transacted, and of the Minuteness of those
Bodies which have the force to induce in it such Sudden and Violent
Alterations._
_I have attempted somewhat this way in the following 〈Essays〉; in which
I do not promise Methodical, and Finish’d Treatises, but only some
short Hints of Natural History, and Rude Strokes of Reasoning; which,
if put together, and rightly Improved, may perhaps serve to furnish out
a more tolerable SPECIMEN of the DOCTRINE of POISONS, than has yet been
Published._
_The First Draught of this small Piece, I made some Years since,
Entertaining my self at Leisure Hours, with Experiments on 〈Vipers〉,
and other 〈Venomous Creatures〉; Examining now and then the Texture of
〈Arsenic〉, 〈Mercury Sublimate〉, and the like Malignant Substances;
Turning over what Authors had said on the several Subjects, and making
such Remarks as from Time to Time Occurr’d._
_There continued Enquiries made up at last, Three or Four short
Discourses; which, when I began to Digest into Order, the Increase of
Business contracted the Intervals of my spare Time; and the Diversion
of such Studies quickly giving way to the Severity of more Necessary
Labours, They were quite thrown by, Till Talking not long since with
Dr. 〈Areskine〉, concerning the 〈Viper〉, I took Occasion to review my
scattered Papers, and confirm my Reasonings by New Experiments. He very
readily offered Me His 〈Anatomical Observations〉; These I have put
at the End of the First 〈Essay〉; Which do not promise a 〈Complete
Dissection〉 of the 〈Animal〉, but chiefly shew the Make of those Parts
which are concern’d in the 〈Poison〉._
_My Design, in Thinking of These Matters, was, to Try how far I could
carry 〈Mechanical Considerations〉 in Accounting for those Surprizing
Changes, which 〈Poisons〉 make in an 〈Animal Body〉; Concluding (as I
think, fairly) that if so abstruse 〈Phænomena〉 as These did come under
the known Laws of Motion, It might very well be taken for granted, that
the more obvious Appearances in the same Fabrick are owing to such
Causes as are within the 〈Reach〉 of Geometrical Reasoning; And that
therefore as the first Step towards the Removal of a Disease is to know
Its Origin, so he is likely to be the best Physician, who having the
same assistance of Observations and Histories with Others, does best
understand the 〈Humane Oeconomy〉, the Texture of the Parts, Motions of
the Fluids, and the Power which other Bodies have to make Alterations
in any of These._
_Nor indeed ought any One to Doubt of This, who considers that the
〈Animal Compages〉 is not an irregular Mass, and disorderly Jumble of
Atoms, but the Contrivance of Infinite Wisdom, and Master-piece of that
Creating Power, who has been pleased to do all Things by Establish’d
Laws and Rules, and that Harmony and Proportion should be the Beauty of
all his Works._
_It were therefore heartily to be wish’d, that those Gentlemen who
are so much afraid of Introducing 〈Mathematical Studies〉, that is,
Demonstration and Truth, into the Practice of Physick, were so far at
least Instructed in the necessary Disciplines, as to be able to pass
a true Judgment, what Progress and Advances may be made this way;
They would not then perhaps Decry an Attempt of so much Moment to the
Wellfare of Mankind, as vain and impossible, because it is difficult,
and requires Application and Pains._
_It is very evident, that all other Methods of Improving Medicine
have been found Ineffectual, by the Stand it has been at these two or
three Thousand Years; and that since of late 〈Mathematicians〉 have
set Themselves to the Study of it, Men do already begin to Talk so
Intelligibly and Comprehensibly, even about abstruse Matters, that
it may be hop’d in a short time, if Those who are Design’d for this
〈Profession〉, are early, while their Minds and Bodies are Patient
of Labour and Toil, Initiated in the Knowledge of 〈Numbers〉 and
〈Geometry〉, that 〈Mathematical〉 Learning will be the Distinguishing
Mark of a Physician from a Quack; and that He who wants this necessary
Qualification, will be as Ridiculous as one without 〈Greek〉 or 〈Latin〉._
_I have, as to what regards the 〈Animal Oeconomy〉, Referr’d as much
as I could to the Works of 〈Bellini〉, which have brought great Light
into the Dark Regions of Physick, and Taught Us to argue clearly and
consistently, instead of Amusing our selves with Unintelligible Words
or Precarious 〈Hypotheses〉. The 〈Dissertations〉 of Dr. 〈Pitcarne〉, who
is the Honour of his Profession in 〈Scotland〉, are a Convincing Proof
of the Advantage of such a Mechanical Way of Reasoning; nor could
〈Malice〉 it self deny This, were not 〈Ignorance〉 in Confederacy with
it, which will secure any One from being Benefitted by the most useful
Demonstrations._
_Notwithstanding This, I have been forced now and then to make
Digressions from my Subject, to clear some Doctrines necessary to be
known which have not been Explained by others. For indeed the 〈Data〉
from which We argue in these Matters are by many too few. Dr. 〈Cheyne〉,
the Author of the 〈New Theory of Fevers〉, has enumerated several
Particulars in which the 〈Theoretic〉 Part of Medicine still wants
Improvement. If these 〈Deficiencies〉 were made good, We might with
more Ease Proceed in our Enquiries into Human Nature, and should soon
Convince the World, that the most useful of Arts, if duly Cultivated,
is more than meer 〈Conjecture〉, or base 〈Empiricism〉._
_As to the Authors I have made use of, who have Treated of 〈Poisons〉, I
have Quoted only those who Furnished me with Matter of Fact; For there
are but few 〈Originals〉; and very large Volumes on this Subject do many
times contain little more than a Collection of 〈Vulgar Errors〉._
_I had once Thought to have carried these 〈Searches〉 farther; in
Particular, besides what is occasionally mention’d in the last 〈Essay〉
concerning 〈Infection〉 in acute Diseases, to have enquired into the
Nature of 〈Contagious〉 and 〈Hereditary Distempers〉. But the Humour of
Scribling would not hold out; And some perhaps will say, ’Tis well
enough it didn’t; For I am not Ignorant how Few I am like to Please;
If it be hard to Think and Write Justly, ’tis harder yet to Bring
Others to one’s own 〈Taste〉; Nor shall I be at all Angry, if to Many
I have afforded Matter of 〈Satyr〉 and 〈Invective〉; Less Wit suffices
for These than for the Discovery of Useful Truths. They who have no
Smattering of 〈Mathematical〉 Knowledge, are incompetent Judges of
what Service I have done towards the Improvement of the 〈Theory〉, or
〈Practice〉 of 〈Medicine〉, and Those who are acquainted with these
Matters, will, it may be, think it something to Talk Intelligibly on
such difficult and abstruse Points. I neither want 〈Applause〉, nor fear
〈Censure〉; and therefore be the Fate of These Papers what it will,
as they were first Penn’d for my own 〈Satisfaction〉, and Innocent
〈Entertainment〉; so I am resolved They shall never Ingage me in the
Trouble of 〈Quarrels〉 or 〈Disputes〉._
THE CONTENTS.
ESSAY I.
_Of the Viper._
_An Appendix containing Anatomical Observations, and an Account of
some other Venomous Animals._
ESSAY II.
_Of the 〈Tarantula〉 and Mad Dog._
ESSAY III.
_Of Poisonous Minerals and Plants._
ESSAY IV.
_Of Opium._
ESSAY V.
_Of Venomous Exhalations from the Earth, Poisonous Airs and Waters._
[Illustration]
ESSAY. I.
OF THE VIPER.
The Viper has always been so Notorious for its Venom, that the most
remote Antiquity made it an Emblem of what is Hurtful and Destructive.
Nay, so terrible was the Nature of these Creatures, that they were
very commonly thought to be sent as Executioners of Divine Vengeance
upon Mankind for Enormous Crimes, which had escaped the Course of
Common Justice. Thus _Herodotus_ (1) and _Ælian_ (2) do both take notice
that Adders were sacred among the _Ægyptians_; that they affirmed of
one sort of ’em particularly, that they were made to be Ministers of
the Will of the Gods, by averting Evil from Good Men, and punishing
the Bad. And _Pausanias_ (3) observes of the _Arabians_, that they
forbore to offer any Violence to the Vipers which were found near
to the Balsam-Tree, as reputing ’em Holy. The Footsteps of which
Superstition do still remain among these People to this very Day,
for _Veslingius_ (4) saw many of ’em take these Creatures into their
Houses, feed ’em, and worship them as the _Genii_ of the Place. The
same odd Fancy obtains in the _East-Indies_, for the King of _Calicut_
causes Cottages to be set up for Serpents to keep them from the Rain,
and makes it Death to any that shall hurt one of ’em; thinking them
to be Heavenly Spirits, because they can so suddenly Kill Men (5). A
Remarkable Instance of such an Opinion as this we have in the History
of St. _Paul_ (6), whom the People of _Malta_ when they saw the Viper
leap upon his Hand, presently concluded to be a Murderer, and as
readily made a God of him, when instead of having his Hand Inflamed,
or falling down Dead, (one or other of which is usually the Effect of
those Bites) he without any harm shook the Beast into the Fire. It
being Obvious enough to imagine, that He must stand in a near Relation
at least to the Gods themselves, who could thus Command the Messengers
of their Vengeance, and Counterwork the Effects of such powerful Agents.
And this, after the many Conjectures upon the Matter, seems to be the
true Reason why Antiquity not only Represented the First Masters of
Physick, _Hermes_, _Æsculapius_, _Hippocrates_, &c. in their Statues
and Medals, with a Viper added to their Figure, but also Worshipped
them under this Form, for Diseases in those Days, especially the
most Violent, Plagues, Fevers, _&c._ were in like manner, as these
Creatures, reputed the Commission’d Messengers of Divine Anger and
Displeasure (7). They therefore who by their Art could Cure and
Stop the Course of these, as they were supposed to do this by the
particular Leave and Assistance of Heaven, so had Honours paid to
Them accordingly, and this Representation was in the Nature of an
Hieroglyphick Character; for as the Learned _Spanhem_ observes, (8) the
Viper was a Symbol or Emblem of Divine Power.
_Macrobius_ indeed gives us another account of this Custom, and that is
from the Property which all Serpents have of casting their _Exuviæ_, or
Upper-Skin, every Year, which makes ’em fit Emblems or Representations
of Health; the Recovery of which from Sickness and Diseases may justly
be looked upon as the beginning of a fresh Period of Life, and (as
the throwing off the _Senectus_ of these Creatures seems to be) the
Renewing of Age (9).
Whether one or the other of these Reasons be allow’d of, or both
thought good, certain it is that such fond and superstitious Fancies
concerning the Viper, together with the mistaken Opinion that few of
its Parts were exempt from Poison, did not suffer the Ancients to make
any Curious Enquiries into its Nature by Anatomy and Experiments, and
this is the Cause of the many Errors they have delivered down to us
in these Points, which by gradual Advances have since been rectified,
and the inward Make, Properties, and Generation of this Animal,
largely treated of; more especially M. _Redi_ (10), _Charas_ (11), and
Dr. _Tyson_ in his Dissection of the _Rattle-Snake_ (12), which is a
larger Species of a Viper, have taken Pains on this Subject, to whose
Discoveries, what is yet wanting, we shall add at the End of this Essay.
The Symptoms which follow upon the Bite of a Viper, when it fastens
either one or both its greater Teeth in any Part of the Body, are an
acute Pain in the Place Wounded, with a Swelling at first Red, but
afterwards Livid, which by degrees spreads farther to the Neighbouring
Parts with great Faintness, and a Quick, tho’ Low, and sometimes
Interrupted Pulse, great Sickness at the Stomach, with Bilious,
Convulsive Vomitings, Cold Sweats, and sometimes Pains about the
Navel; and if the Cure be not speedy, Death it self, unless the
Strength of Nature prove sufficient to overcome these Disorders; and
tho’ it does, the Swelling still continues inflamed for some time; nay,
in some Cases more considerably upon the abating of the other Symptoms,
than at the beginning; and often from the small Wound runs a sanious
Liquor, and little Pustules are raised about it; the colour of the
whole Skin is changed Yellow, as if the Patient had the _Jaundice_.
These Mischiefs, altho’ different Climates, Season of the Year more or
less Hot, the greater or lesser Rage of the Viper, the Beast it self of
a larger or smaller Size, and consequently able to communicate more or
less Venom, and the like Circumstances, may variously heighten or abate
’em, yet do usually discover themselves much after the same manner in
all; unless the Bite happen not to be accompanied with the Effusion of
that _Liquor_, which is the main Instrument and Cause of this violent
and shocking Disturbance.
But before I proceed to enquire into the Nature and Manner of Acting
of this _Juice_, it may be worth the while to take Notice, that this
is not made on purpose to be deadly and destructive to _Mankind_; but
that the true Design of it is (tho’ Authors have not regarded it) to
perform an Office and Service of so great Moment, to the Preservation
of the Individual, that without it this Creature could not subsist.
For Vipers live chiefly upon Lizzards, Frogs, Toads, Mice, Moles, and
the like Animals, which they do not chew, but swallow down whole,
and they lie in the Stomach; or if that be not big enough to receive
them, partly in that, and partly in the Œsophagus, which is membranous
and capable of great Distension, till by the Salival Juices of those
Parts, together with the Help of the Fibres of the Stomach, and the
Contraction of the Muscles of the Abdomen, they are gradually dissolved
into a Fluid Substance, fit for the Nourishment of their Bodies, which
is the Work of many Days; this is _one_ Reason why these Creatures can
live so long without taking any fresh Food, which I have known them to
do Three or Four Months; as _another_ is, that their Blood is a grosser
and more viscid Fluid than that of most other Animals; so that there
is but a very little expence of it by Transpiration, and consequently
less need of Recruit; this not only _Microscopes_ discover, but Reason
teaches; because there is but very little Muscular Force in the Stomach
to comminute the Food, and make a Chyle of fine Parts, and therefore
the Blood must accordingly be of a Tough and Clammy Consistence.
Besides, the Heart of a Viper has properly but one Ventricle, and the
Circulation of the Blood is performed after the same Manner as it is
in a Frog and Tortoise, in which not above one Third of it passes
thro’ the Lungs; upon which Account its Comminution in them by the Air
is proportionably lesser than in other Animals. Now such a manner of
Feeding as _this_ does necessarily require, that the Prey should upon
the first Catching be immediately kill’d, otherwise it were by no means
fit to be let into the Stomach; for we are not to think that the Force
of this Part would be alone sufficient to destroy it, the Subtilty of
a living Creature (besides the Consideration of the Weakness of the
Fibres) being in a great Measure able to elude _that_, as indeed we do
every Day find live Animals in the Ventricles of others; and therefore
to do _this_ is the proper Use both of the Teeth and their Poison; for
which being designed and adapted, it is no wonder if the Viper, this
same Way by which it destroys its Prey, proves sometimes mischievous
to any other Creatures besides, when it happens to be enraged, or by
any Provocation stirr’d up to bite.
The Description of the Poisonous _Fangs_, their Make, Articulation and
Motion, as also of the Glands that separate the Yellowish Liquor, and
the Bags that contain it; I shall give, together with some Anatomical
Observations, at the End of this Discourse.
This Venomous Juice it self is of so inconsiderable a quantity, that it
is no more than one good _Drop_ that does the Execution; and for this
reason Authors have contented themselves with Trials of the Bite upon
several Animals, never Essaying to examine the Texture and Make of the
Liquor it self; for which purpose I have oftentimes by holding a Viper
advantageously, and inraging it till it struck out its Teeth, made it
to bite upon somewhat solid, so as to void its Poison; which carefully
putting upon a Glass Plate, I have with a Microscope, as nicely as I
could, viewed its Parts and Composition.
Upon the first Sight I could discover nothing but a Parcel of small
Salts nimbly floating in the Liquor, but in a very short time the
Appearance was changed, and these saline Particles were now shot out
as it were into _Crystals_ of an incredible Tenuity and Sharpness, with
something like Knots here and there, from which they seemed to proceed,
so that the whole Texture did in a manner represent a _Spider’s Webb_,
tho’ infinitely Finer, and more Minute; and yet withal so rigid were
these pellucid _Spicula_, or _Darts_, that they remained unaltered upon
my Glass for several Months (13).
I have made several Trials with this _Juice_ in order to find out under
what Tribe of Salts these Crystals are to be ranged; and not without
some difficulty, by reason of the Minute Quantity of the Liquor, and
the Hazard of Experiments of this Nature, have plainly seen that it
does, as an _Acid_, turn the blue Tincture of _Heliotropium_ to a Red
Colour.
I did not succeed so well in mixing it with Syrup of Violets, and yet
it did really seem to induce in this a _Reddish Hue_; but I am very
certain it did not at all change it to a _Greenish_ Colour, as it would
have done if any ways _Alcalious_.
This may suffice in their own way of arguing, to convince those
Gentlemen, who without the Assistance of any Experiments, meerly to
serve an _Hypothesis_ which they have too fondly taken up, have with
great Assurance told the World, that the Viperine Venom is an _Alcali_,
and consequently to be cured by _Acid_ Remedies. But it is by far more
easie to Spin out a false Notion into precarious Reasonings, than to
make faithful Experiments, and fairly improve ’em by just and necessary
Consequences.
To proceed, this Discovery agrees very well with a Relation
communicated by an Ingenious Person to Dr. _Tyson_, which does so much
illustrate this Matter, that I shall transcribe it in his own Words,
out of the before cited _Philosophical Transactions_; he says then,
That being in the _Indies_, there came to him an _Indian_ with several
Sorts of _Serpents_, offering to shew him some Experiments about the
Force of their Poison; having therefore first pulled out a large One,
the _Indian_ told him this would do no Harm; and making a Ligature on
his Arm as in letting Blood, he exposed it naked to the Serpent, being
first irritated to make him bite it; the Blood that came out of the
Wound made by his Teeth, he gathered with his Finger, and laid it on
his Thigh, till he had got near a Spoonful, after this he takes out
another called _Cobra de Capelo_, which was lesser, and inlarges much
upon the Greatness of his Poison; to shew an Instance of it, grasping
it out about the Neck, he expresses some of the Liquor in the Bags of
the Gums, about the Quantity of half a Grain, and this he puts to the
coagulated Bleed on his Thigh, which immediately put it into a great
_Fermentation_, and working like _Barme_, changed it into a _Yellowish_
Liquor.
This I say does well enough accord with what we have been advancing
concerning the Nature of this _Juice_, for Mr. _Boyle_ has long since
proved by Experiments, that there is nothing of Acid in human Blood;
and Dr. _Pitcarn_ (14) has demonstrated, that the _Acid Substances_ of
Vegetables taken into the Stomach, are by the Action of this Part,
the Lungs and Heart, when they come into the Blood-Vessels, turn’d to
_Alcalious_; so that the Arterial Fluid must necessarily be considered
as an _Alcali_; and therefore according to the known Principles of
Chymistry, its mixture with such a Liquor as we have discovered the
Viperine _Sanies_ to be, will always exhibit some such appearance as
this now related.
But not to engage any farther in these sort of Controversies, we may
perhaps from the foregoing Observations receive some Light in order to
understand the Nature and Reason of all those Symptoms which attend
the Bite of this Creature. For the pungent Salts of this Venom, when
with Force thrown into the Wound, will not only as so many _Stimuli_,
irritate and fret the sensile Membranes, whereupon there necessarily
follows a greater Afflux than ordinary of the Animal Juices that way,
(as is manifest from the _Bellinian_ Doctrine, _De Stimulis_) so that
the wounded Part must be Swelled, Inflamed, Livid, _&c._ but also these
_Spicula_ being mixt with the Blood, will so disjoin and disunite the
Parts of it, that its Mixture must be quite alter’d; and from the
various _Cohæsion_ of its _Globules_ will arise such different Degrees
of _Fluidity_ and _Impulse_ towards the Parts, _&c._ from what this
Liquor had before, that its very Nature will be changed, or in the
common way of speaking, it will be truly and really _Fermented_.
To understand aright how all this is done, it is necessary to hint
somewhat concerning the Nature of _Fluids_ in General, and those
Alterations in them which we call _Fermentations_; for I shall retain
this known Word, tho’ in the proper Sense in which ’tis commonly used,
there can be no _Fermenting_ of the Liquors in the Animal Body.
And here I must refer to the Treatise of _Bellini de Fermentis_, who
has with great Clearness shewn, that there is in all _Fluids_ not only
a simple _Contact_ of their Parts, but also a _nisus in Contactum_, or
_Cohæsion_, and this of a certain _Degree_ or _Force_, and besides,
of a particular _Direction_; which is indeed, tho’ express’d in other
words, the very same thing with the _Attraction_ of the Particles
one to another; This Mr. _Newton_ has demonstrated to be the great
Principle of Action in the Universe, has taught us the Laws of it in
the greater Quantities and Collections of _Matter_; and he who rightly
Studies his Philosophy will understand that the same obtains in the
most Minute and Finest Corpuscles, which do unite into Bodies of
different _Solidity_ and _Make_, according to the Degree with which
they do mutually _attract_ each other, and to the _Superficies_, by
which, when drawn, they do _touch_ and _adhere_. To this if we add a
_Pression_ of the several Parts of the Fluid every way, and consider
withal, that this _Uniform_ Attraction of the Parts to one another
must be variously changed by the different Attraction of Heterogeneous
Bodies mixt with them, we have the great Principles of all Fluids, upon
which their several _Phænomena_ do depend.
And hence it follows, that whatsoever _Power_ is sufficient to
make a Change in this Attraction, or Cohæsion of the Parts, makes
an Alteration of the Nature of the Fluid; that is, as the Chymists
express it, puts it into a _Fermentation_. And if any one shall think
it necessary to enquire into the particular Manner of producing such
an Effect, we may perhaps in so abstruse a Matter not improbably
Conjecture _thus_, That our Blood consisting chiefly of Two Parts, a
simple _Lymph_, and an infinite Number of small _Globules_, containing
a very subtle and elastic Fluid, these acute Salts, when mingled with
it, do prick those Globules, or _Vesiculæ_, and so let out their
imprisoned active Substance, which expanding it self every way,
must necessarily be the Instrument of this speedy Alteration and
Change (15). From such an _Hypothesis_ as this (and, it may be, not
very easily from any other) we may account for many of the surprizing
Phænomena in the Fermentations of Liquors; and as precarious as
it seems, its Simplicity, and Plainness, and Agreement with the
forementioned Doctrine, will, I believe, recommend it before any other
to those who are not unacquainted with _Geometrical_ Reasonings. But I
wave these Considerations at present, and shall only add One Remark or
Two with Relation to the purpose in Hand, and so proceed.
In the first place then, we may from this _Theory_, learn, how it comes
to pass that so small a Portion of Juice should infect so great a
quantity of Liquor; for in order to do this, it is not necessary that
the Venom should be at the very first mixt with all its Parts; but it
is sufficient that it prick some of the _Bladders_, and the elastic
Matter of these being let out, will be a nimble _Vehicle_ to the acute
Salts, and not only by its activity disperse them thro’ the Fluid,
but restore to them their decreasing _Force_, and thus continue their
Effects, till a great part of the Liquor undergoes at least, in some
Degree, the like Alteration.
And this will the more easily happen in the present Case, because
the _Force_ with which this Poison is thrown into the Blood, as
appears from the Mechanism of the discharging Organs, is very great,
and consequently its Effects will be proportionably violent, or the
Mischief more large and diffused.
The want of this may be one Reason why the Experiment of first making
a Wound in the Flesh with any sharp Instrument, and then dropping in
the _Sanies_, may not always succeed so well in killing Animals, as one
would from the preceeding Doctrine be ready to expect. Tho’ if some
amends be made for this Defect, by taking a greater quantity of the
Juice, and carefully instilling it, It proves equally Fatal this way,
as when immediately discharg’d from the Viper it self. Thus it might
happen that those Trials of this kind, which were happily made by S^r
_Redi_, might not however convince M^r _Charas_, in as much as there
is oftentimes a great deal of difference in the Event of Experiments,
when made with Purpose, and a Design that they should succeed, and
when Timorously and Cautiously managed, lest they should unluckily
overthrow a darling _Hypothesis_.
The other Observation I shall draw from the foregoing Theory, is this,
That it appears from hence what a vast _variety_ there may be in the
Fermentations even of one and the same Fluid; for these being no other
than _Changes_ made in the _Cohæsion_ of the compounding Particles,
are capable of as many Alterations as _Motion_ in its _Degrees_ and
_Directions_ can admit of, which are really Infinite.
This I mention with regard to some of the following _Essays_, in which,
if we ascribe many Symptoms seemingly very different, to a Ferment
rais’d in the Blood, it may be consider’d, that the Nature of this
Cause is such, as according to the several Properties of the _Primum
Agens_, or _Fermenting Power_, to bear by far more Varieties than any
one can be aware of.
To return to the Viper; the Effects of such an Agitation of the
Blood, as we have been describing, must not only be whatever are
the Consequences of a disturbed _Circulation_, and irregular and
interrupted _Secretion_ of the Spirits, as low Pulse, Faintings,
Sickness, Palpitation of the Heart, Convulsive Vomitings, Tremblings
of the Body, _&c._ but also the _Texture_ of this Fluid being thus
broken, those Parts of it which are of the slowest Motion, and greatest
Viscidity, will be easily separated from the others; such they are,
which when united together do compound the _Bile_, and therefore these
will tinge the Capillary Vessels, and fine _Ducts_ in the Skin, with a
Yellowish Colour; that is, will induce an _Icterus_, or Jaundice.
For it is not only (if at all _Primarily_) from an Obstruction of the
_Biliary Canals_ that this Symptom does proceed, but also from any
Cause whatsoever, which either destroys the Saline Part of the Bile, by
the means of which its Oil is kept mixt with the Water of the Blood,
or else increases the Oily and Sulphureous Part to that Degree, that
tho’ it be duly impregnated with Salt, yet the Watery Part of the
Blood, which can only take up a certain Proportion of it, being already
_Saturated_, can receive no more; or lastly, does, by _disuniting_
the compounding Particles of the Blood, alter that _Intestine_ Motion
and Agitation which is necessary to carry along thro’ the Vessels,
together with the more volatile Parts, those which are more Clammy
and Glutinous. For in all these Cases ’tis plain that the Bilious
Corpuscles must be _præcipitated_ upon those Parts of the Body where
there is least Motion, that is, upon the extreme Superficies.
And tho’ this Theory may perhaps appear extravagant, because new and
uncommon, yet it will not, I believe, seem ill grounded or irrational
to those who understand the Doctrine of the _Mixture_ of Heterogene
Fluids, and their _Separation_; and who withal know, that the Vessels
are rarely obstructed, unless it be from the fault of the Liquid they
carry, and consequently that a Defect in the Bile it self must be
(excepting some extraordinary Cases) antecedent to the Obstruction of
the Biliary Ducts.
In short, the different Cure of this Disease confirms these Notions;
for an _Icterus_ from the first Cause assign’d, which is generally
owing to a sedentary Life, want of Exercise, _&c._ and attended with
an extreme Costiveness and white _Fæces_, is cured by Volatile,
Acrimonious, and Bitter Salts. From the Second produced oftentimes
by drinking strong Liquors, Spirits, _&c._ and accompanied with a
_Diarrhœa_, partly by Diluting and Temperating, partly by Stomachic
and Strenghning Medicines. As the last Species of it (for the sake of
which we have mention’d the other) is removed by such _Antidotes_ as
overcome and destroy the Venomous Ferment, corrupting the Blood, and
breaking its _Compages_. But to have hinted these things may abundantly
suffice for the present.
We must however take Notice, That _tho’_ the _main_ Alterations made
by this Poison be in the Fluid of the Arteries, _yet_ that _That_
of the Nerves may hereby be considerably _changed_ too; for _This_
consisting, as well as the Blood of differing Parts, and being
dispersed in small _Tubes_ all over the Body, is not only very capable
of _various_ Degrees of _Force_, _Impulse_, _&c._ but _Undulating_
continually towards the Brain, and being the chief Instrument of Motion
and Action, may perhaps sometimes more immediately convey the Mischief
to the sensile Membranes, and thus be the Cause of those violent
Pains, Convulsions, Sickness, _&c_ with which Those who are Bitten are
presently seiz’d.
Many are the Experiments I could relate to evince the Truth of this
Reasoning concerning the Viperine Venom, which do entirely agree with
those made by S^r _Redi_, whose Judgment and Sincerity in Observations
of this Nature no Body ever called in Question, till Monsieur _Charas_
having espous’d a Notion, that this Poison does not lie in the Yellow
Liquor of the Gums, but in the enraged Spirits of the Viper, rais’d
new Difficulties about the Success of some Trials made in _France_,
endeavouring thereby to invalidate the Force and Authority of those
made in _Italy_.
I shall therefore, in order to put this Matter out of all doubt,
mention Two or Three Experiments made by Dr. _Areskine_, when at
_Paris_, that it may appear how defective those of Mr. _Charas_ are,
and that the Difference of the Climate does not (as some began to
imagine (16)) make any considerable Alteration in the Effects of this
Venom, or its manner of Killing.
First then, having got a large Female Viper, he made it to Bite Six
Pigeons, one after another; the First and Second that were bit, died
within about half an Hour, one a little Time before the other; the
third liv’d about two Hours; the Fourth seem’d to be very sick, but
recovered; the Fifth and Sixth were no more hurt than if they had been
prick’d with a Pin or Needle.
Then he cut off the Head of a brisk Viper, and let it lie twenty four
Hours, with the Fangs of which he wounded One Pigeon in the Breast,
and another in the Thigh, which both expired as soon after, as if
they had been biten by a living Viper. After this, having got a great
many Vipers together, he made them bite upon a peice of Glass of a
Cylindrical Figure, by this means preserving the Yellow Juice which
they emitted, and slightly wounding two Pigeons, he first let the
Bleeding be stopt, then put some of this Liquor into the Wounds, upon
which both the Pigeons died about two Hours after.
The same Ingenious Person tells me, that Monsieur _du Verney_ made not
only These, but also several other Experiments of the same Nature, in
the _Royal Acamy_, with the like Success.
These Proofs are so convincing and full, that no one, I think, can
desire more; but they will receive yet a farther Confirmation from the
_Apparatus_ or Mechanism of the Organs, with admirable Nicety contrived
for the Discharge of this Venom, of which more by and by.
Nor is it any Objection against all _This_, that the _Liquor_ is
innocent and harmless in the Mouth or Stomach of any one, so as that it
may be safely tasted or sucked out of the Wound, and swallowed; for,
_as_ we observ’d before, that many _Acid_ Substances taken into the
Stomach are by the Action of that Part turned to _Alcalious_, so there
is no Question but these Saline _Spicula_ are partly by the Muscular
Force of the Fibres, partly by the Salival Juice, all broken and
dissolved; or if any can pass into the Intestines, the Balsam of the
_Bile_ will be an _Antidote_ for Them; the Reason of which will appear
when we come to the Cure.
In the mean time it may not be amiss to Remark, That even the Ancients
seem to have known thus much concerning the Nature of this Poison; of
this _Galen_ gives us Testimony in severl Places; particularly in his
Book _de Temperamentis_ (17), where he takes notice, that _nothing has
the same Power upon the human Body outwardly as inwardly; Thus_ (says
he) _neither the Venom of the Viper, nor of the Asp nor frothy Spittle
of the Mad Dog, are alike Mischievous when they fall upon the Skin, or
enter into the Stomach, as when outwardly communicated by a Wound._
The chief of the _Latin_ Physicians (18), _Celsus_ has elegantly
express’d the Matter in few Words, when advising to _Suck_ the Wound
made by the Bite; he adds, _Neq; Hercules Scientiam præcipuam habent hi
qui Psilli nominantur, sed audaciam usu ipso confirmatam, nam Venenum
Serpentis, ut quædam etiam Venatoria Venena, quibus Galli præcipuè
utuntur, non gustu sed in vulnere nocent_.
And therefore brave _Cato_, when marching the Remains of _Pompey_’s
Army thro’ _Africa_, very wisely told the Soldiers, almost choak’d with
Thirst, yet afraid to drink of a Spring they came to, because full of
Serpents (19),
_Noxia Serpentum est admisto sanguine Pestis,
Morsu Virus habent, & Fatum Dente minantur,
Pocula Morte carent_――
In the like manner it was in those times also known, that the virulent
Juice had the same bad Effects, when mixt with the Blood, by means of
a common Wound, as when communicated by the Venomous Bite. This made
_Celsus_ (20) advise in sucking out the Poison, to take care there be no
Ulcer in the Mouth; tho’ this Caution be rather slighted and ridiculed
by _Severinus_ (21), and others; who do hereby discover how little they
understood of the Seat and Nature of this Poison. And _Galen_ (22)
mentioning the Story of _Cleopatra_, relates from other Authors, that
she killed her self _by pouring the_ Virus _of an Asp into a Wound made
in her Arm by her own Teeth_.
In short, it is upon this Foundation, that _Pliny_ (23) assures us, the
_Scythians_ Poison’d their Arrows with the _Sanies_ of Vipers mixt with
human Blood; the way of doing it _Aristotle_ (24) has at large related;
and the _Tartars_ are said to use the like Trick to this Day. After
the same manner the _Indians_ make use of the Venom of the Lizard,
called _Gecco_; this Creature they hang up by the Tail, and by Whipping
exasperate till it discharge its _Virus_, in which they tinge their
Darts; and a very slight Wound with these Weapons is speedy Death (25).
It is worth the while in the next Place to consider the Cure of
this Mischief, which without all doubt ought to be by such External
Mannagement of the Wound as may immediately destroy the infused Venom.
Mr. _Boyle_ (26) experienced a hot Iron held as near the Place as the
Patient could possibly endure it very effectual to this Purpose. But
the same Method did not answer Expectation in the famous Case related
by Monsieur _Charas_ (27).
An extraordinary Virtue against this and other venomous Bites is
ascribed to the _Snake-stones_ brought from the _East-Indies_, one of
which is to be presently apply’d to the Part, and let stick till it
drop off; these are said to be taken out of the Head of the Serpent
called by the _Portugueze_, _Cobra de Capelo_; and to suck the Poison
out of the Wound. S^r _Redi_ (28) made Trials with several of them, but
found no Service from any. Yet _Baglivi_ (29) tells us of a terrible
Bite of a Scorpion cured this way. Monsieur _Charas_ (30) his Pigeons
all died, tho’ _these_ were immediately clapped on, and stuck close to
the Wound: But Dr. _Havers_ saw a good Effect of _one_ upon a Dog, who
tho’ severely bitten, suffered no Harm, nor any farther Mark of the
Poison than a livid Circle round the Place.
In plain Truth, _as_ these celebrated _Stones_ do not seem to be what
it is pretended they are, but rather Factitious Bodies compounded, it
may be, of Calcined Bones, and some Testaceous Matters mixt together;
_so_ by Reason of their spongy and porous Texture, they do very readily
adhere to any moistened Part of the Flesh, and imbibe whatsoever
humidity they meet with. This their Quality any one may experience
by holding one of them to the Roof of his Mouth; and it is upon this
Score, that when put into Water, Bubbles are raised by the Air in their
Interstices, which some have too fondly thought to be the Effects of
their throwing out the Venom they had sucked in.
Their _make_ being thus, some Part at least of the Poisonous Juice may
easily be drawn out of the Wound by such an Application, and yet so
much of _it_ may sometimes happen to remain in the Flesh, as may make
the Bite however to prove Mortal. And thus it fared with a Pigeon,
to the Thigh of which, first bitten by a Viper, I applied one of the
Stones; for tho’ it stuck fast to the Wound, and thus saved the Life
for about four Hours; (whereas others usually died in about half an
Hour) yet after this the Mortification of the Part prevailed to that
Degree as to become fatal to the tender Creature.
But our _Viper-Catchers_ have a Remedy far beyond all these, in which
They do place so great Confidence, as to be no more afraid of a Bite
than of a common Puncture, immediately curing themselves by the
Application of their _Specifick_.
This, tho’ they keep as a great Secret, I have however upon strict
Enquiry found out to be no other than the _Axungia Viperina_ presently
rubbed into the Wound. And to convince my self of its good Effects, I
inraged a Viper to bite a young Dog in the Nose; both the Teeth were
struck deep in; he howled bitterly, and the Part began to swell; I
diligently applied some of the _Axungia_ I had ready at Hand, and he
was very well the next Day.
But because some Gentlemen who saw this Experiment were apt to impute
the Cure rather to the Dog’s Spittle, (he licking the Wound) than to
the Virtue of the _Fat_, we made him to be bit again in the Tongue,
forbearing the Use of our Remedy, and he died within four or five Hours.
At another time I made the like Trial with the same Success.
_As_ this _Axungia_ consists of Clammy and Viscid Parts, which are
withal more Penetrating and Active than most other Oily Substances,
_so_ these, without all doubt, do involve, and as it were sheath the
Volatile Salts of the Venemous Liquor, and thus prevent their Shooting
out into those Crystalline _Spicula_, which we have observ’d to be the
main Instruments of that deadly Mischief which attends the Bite.
By this means it comes to pass, that this Cure, if rightly manag’d,
is so easie and certain, as not to need the help of any _Internal_
Medicines to forward it; but _These_ however must take place, where,
thro’ Want of the other, the Poison is spread farther, and has tainted
the whole Mass of Blood.
Nor yet is it necessary even in this Case to fatigue the Patient with a
_Farrago_ of _Theriacas_, _Antidotes_, &c. for the _Volatile Salt_ of
Vipers is alone sufficient to do the Work, if given in just Quantities,
and duly repeated; provided moderate Sweats be incouraged in Bed; thus
it succeeded with Monsieur _Charas_ in the before cited Case, and in
some others I could relate; in one of which the Mischief had gone so
far as to induce an universal _Icterus_.
This leads me last of all to hint something concerning the Use of the
Viper in _Physick_; because Authors are very large in enumerating
its Virtues against many, and those too some of ’em very obstinate,
Distempers.
One of the first whom we find in Antiquity to have made use of the
Flesh of this Creature to Medicinal Purposes, was, I think, _Antonius
Musa_, the Famons Physician to _Octavius Cæsar_; of whom _Pliny_ (31)
tells us, That _when he met with incurable Ulcers, he ordered the
eating of Vipers, and by this means they were quickly Healed_.
It is not improbable that he might have learned this from the Great
_Greek_ Physician _Craterus_, mention’d often by _Cicero_ in his
Epistles to _Atticus_, who, as _Porphyrius_ (32) relates, _very happily
cured a miserable Slave, whose Skin in a strange manner fell off from
his Bones, by advising him to feed upon Vipers dressed after the manner
of fish_.
Be this as it will, in _Galen_’s time the profitable Qualities of the
Viper were very commonly known; himself relating (33) very remarkable
Stories of the Cures of the _Elephantiasis_, or _Lepra_, done by the
Viper Wine.
_Aretæus_, who most probably liv’d about the same time with
_Galen_, and of all the Ancients has most accurately described the
_Elephantiasis_, commends, as _Craterus_ did, the eating of Vipers
instead of Fish in the same Diseases (34). And to this purpose I
remember, that _as Lopes_ (35) in his Relations of the Kingdom of
_Congo_ in _Africa_, takes notice how greedily the _Negroes_ eat
_Adders_, roasting them, and esteeming them as the most delicious Food;
_so Dampier_ (36) also informs us, that the Natives of _Tonquin_ in the
_East Indies_ do treat their Friends with _Arack_, in which _Snakes_
and _Scorpions_ have been infus’d, accounting this not only a great
Cordial, but also an Antidote against the _Leprosie_, and all other
sorts of Poison.
The Physicians in _Italy_ and _France_ do very commonly prescribe the
Broth and Gelly of Vipers Flesh for much the same Uses, that is, to
invigorate and purifie the Mass of Blood exhausted with Diseases, or
tainted with some Vicious and Obstinate _Ferment_.
From all this it appears, That the main Efficacy of the Viperine Flesh
is to quicken the Circle of the Blood, promote its due Mixture, and by
this means cleanse and scoure the _Glands_ of those stagnating Juices,
which, turning to Acidity, are the Origine of many, at least, of those
troublesome Distempers in the Surface of the Body, which go under the
Names of _Scrophulous_, _Leprous_, &c.
These good Effects are owing to that penetrating, strong _Salt_,
with which the Substance of these Creatures does, in a very great
Proportion, abound; and the Reason of _this_ is from the Food they
live on, which we have observ’d before to be Lizzards, Moles, _&c._
whose Nature every one knows to be such as must necessarily, when they
are dissolv’d in the Stomach, supply the Blood with a great Quantity of
Active and Volatile Parts. And herein lies the Difference between the
Flesh of Vipers, and _that_ of other Innocent Serpents, which feeding
upon Grass, Herbs, _&c._ do not recommend themselves to us by any of
those Properties which are in so Eminent a Degree found in the former.
Whosoever reflects on what has been said on this Head, will very
readily Acknowledge, That our Physicians deal too Cautiously or
Sparingly with a Remedy which may be apply’d to very good Purposes,
when they prescribe a few Grains of the _Pouder_ of dried Vipers,
or make up a small Quantity of their Flesh into _Troches_; whereas,
if Service be really to be done this Way, the Patient ought to eat
frequently of Viper-Gelly, or Broth; or rather, as the ancient manner
was, to boil Vipers, and eat them like Fish; if this Food will not go
down, (tho’ really very Good and Delicious Fare) to make use at least
of Wine, in which Vipers have for a long time been infused, by which
I know a very obstinate _Lepra_ has been removed; or lastly, in some
Cases, especially where Wine is not Convenient, to take good Quantities
of their _Volatile Salt_, in which alone the Virtue of the before-named
Medicines does principally reside.
[Illustration]
An APPENDIX to the Foregoing Essay; Containing
_Some Anatomical Observations on the VIPER, and an Account of some
other_ Venomous Animals.
In repeated Dissections of the _Viper_, comparing the _Descriptions_
given Us by Authors with the _Parts_ themselves, I have found them
in many Particulars to be very Defective. I shall however at present
confine my self to some Observations made chiefly on those Organs
which serve to prepare and emit the _Poison_.
To begin therefore with the Head. The _Skull_ (_Fig. 2._) is composed
of several Bones, joined together by _Sutures_, as in _Man_, but with
this Difference, that the _Os Frontis_ in the Viper consists of Two
Bones united by a Rectilinear _Suture_, and the _Parietal_ Bones are
entire; whereas in Man the _Parietal_ Bones have _Sutures_, and the _Os
Frontis_ is entire.
(_a_) Shews Two small Semicircular Bones, which form the inferior Part
of the _Nostrils_.
(_b_) The Two Bones which make the upper Part of the _Nose_, from the
latter pass down two thin _Laminæ_, which touching one another, and
falling perpendicular upon the _Ossa Palati_, compose the _Septum_ of
the Nose.
(_e e_) Point out the _Ossa Frontis_, which form the upper Part of the
_Orbits_ of the Eyes. And (_c c_) the _Orbits_ themselves.
The _Parietal Bones_ (_d_) make a large Cavity, in which the greatest
Part of the Brain is contained, and _this_ we may call the _Sinciput_.