Chippendale and his Contemporaries.
Chinese Styles--Sir William Chambers--The Brothers Adams'
work--Pergolesi, Cipriani, and Angelica Kauffmann--Architects
of the time--Wedgwood and Flaxman--Chippendale's Work and his
Contemporaries--Chair in the Barbers' Hall--Lock, Shearer,
Hepplewhite, Ince, Mayhew, Sheraton--Introduction of Satinwood
and Mahogany--Gillows, of Lancaster and London--History of the
Sideboard--The Dining Room--Furniture of the time.
Soon after the second half of the eighteenth century had set in,
during the latter days of the second George, and the early part of his
successor's long reign, there is a distinct change in the design of
English decorative furniture.
Sir William Chambers, R.A., an architect, who has left us Somerset House
as a lasting monument of his talent, appears to have been the first to
impart to the interior decoration of houses what was termed "the Chinese
style," as the result of his visit to China, of which a notice was made
in the chapter on Eastern furniture; and as he was considered an "oracle
of taste" about this time, his influence was very powerful. Chair backs
consequently have the peculiar irregular lattice work which is seen in
the fretwork of Chinese and Japanese ornaments; and Pagodas, Chinamen
and monsters occur in his designs for cabinets. The overmantel which had
hitherto been designed with some architectural pretension, now gave way
to the larger mirrors which were introduced by the improved manufacture
of plate glass; and the chimney piece became lower. During his travels in
Italy, Chambers had found some Italian sculptors, and had brought them to
England, to carve in marble his designs; they were generally of a free
Italian character, with scrolls of foliage and figure ornaments: but being
of stone instead of woodwork, they scarcely belong to our subject, save to
indicate the change in fashion of the chimney piece, the vicissitudes of
which we have already noticed. Chimney pieces were now no longer specially
designed by architects, as part of the interior fittings, but were made
and sold with the grates, to suit the taste of the purchaser, often quite
irrespective of the rooms for which they were intended. It may be said
that Dignity gave way to Elegance.
Robert Adam, having returned from his travels in France and Italy, had
designed and built, in conjunction with his brother James, Adelphi
Terrace, about 1769, and subsequently Portland Place, and other streets
and houses of a like character; the furniture being made under the
direction of Robert, to suit the interiors. There is much interest
attaching to No. 25, Portland Place, because this was the house built,
decorated and furnished by Robert Adam for his own residence, and,
fortunately, the chief reception rooms remain to show the style then
in vogue. The brothers Adam introduced into England the application of
composition ornaments to woodwork. Festoons of drapery, wreaths of flowers
caught up with rams' heads, or of husks tied with a knot of riband, and
oval patent to mark divisions in a frieze, or to emphasize a break in the
design, are ornaments characteristic of what was termed the Adams style.
Robert Adam published between 1778 and 1822, in three magnificent volumes,
"Works in Architecture." One of these was dedicated to King George III.,
to whom he was appointed Architect. Many of his designs for furniture
was carried cut by Gillows; there is a good collection of his original
drawings in the Soane Museum, Lincoln's Inn Fields.
The decoration was generally in low relief, with fluted pilasters, and
sometimes a rather stiff Renaissance ornament decorating the panel; the
effect was neat and chaste, and a distinct change from the rococo style
which had preceded it.
The design of furniture was modified to harmonize with such decoration.
The sideboard had a straight and not infrequently a serpentine-shaped
front, with square tapering legs, and was surmounted by a pair of
urn-shaped knife cases, the wood used being almost invariably mahogany
with the inlay generally of plain flutings relieved by fans or oval paterœ
in satin wood.
Piranesi, Cipriani and Angelica Kauffmann had been attracted to England
by the promise of lucrative employment, and not only decorated the panels
of ceilings and walls which were enriched by Adams's "_compo_." (in
reality a revival of the old Italian gesso work), but also painted the
ornamental cabinets, occasional tables, and chairs of the time. Some of
the work of Angelica Kauffmann as a decorative artist may still be seen in
several houses in Adelphi Terrace, in the Arts Club, and in many private
residences, of which there is a very useful list in Miss Frances Gerard's
biography of the artist, published in 1892.
[Illustration: FAC-SIMILE OF ORIGINAL DRAWINGS BY ROBERT ADAM (REDUCED).]
Towards the end of the century, satin wood was introduced into England
from the East Indies; it became very fashionable, and was a favourite
ground-work for decoration, the medallions of figure subjects, generally
of cupids, wood-nymphs, or illustrations of mythological fables, on
darker colored wood, formed an effective relief to the yellow satin
wood. Sometimes the cabinet, writing table, or spindle-legged occasional
piece was made entirely of this wood, having no other decoration beyond
the beautiful marking of carefully-chosen veneers; sometimes it was
banded with tulipwood or harewood (a name given to sycamore artificially
stained), and at other times painted as just described. A very beautiful
example of this last-named treatment is the dressing table in the South
Kensington Museum, which we give as an illustration on the opposite page.
Besides Chambers, there were several other architects who designed
furniture about this time who have been almost forgotten. Abraham Swan,
some of whose designs for wooden chimney pieces in the quasi-classic style
are given, flourished about 1758. John Carter, who published "Specimens
of Ancient Sculpture and Painting"; Nicholas Revitt and James Stewart,
who jointly published "Antiquities of Athens" in 1762; J. C. Kraft, who
designed in Robert Adam's style; W. Thomas, M.S.A., and others, have left
us many drawings of interior decorations, chiefly chimney pieces and
the ornamental architraves of doors, all of them in low relief and of a
classical character, as was the fashion towards the end of the eighteenth
century.
Josiah Wedgwood, too, turned his attention to the production of plaques
in relief, for adaptation to chimney pieces of this character. In a
letter written from London to Mr. Bentley, his partner, at the works, he
deplores the lack of encouragement in this direction which he received
from the architects of his day; he, however, persevered, and by the
aid of Flaxman's inimitable artistic skill as a modeller, made several
plaques of his beautiful jasper ware, which were let in to the friezes of
chimney pieces, and also into other woodwork. There can be seen in the
South Kensington Museum a pair of pedestals of this period (1770-1790) so
ornamented.
It is now necessary to consider the work of a group of English cabinet
makers, who not only produced a great deal of excellent furniture, but who
also published a large number of designs drawn with extreme care and a
considerable degree of artistic skill.
The first of these, and the best known, was Thomas Chippendale, who is
said to have been born in Worcester. He appears to have succeeded his
father, a chair maker, and to have carried on a large and successful
business in St. Martin's Lane, London, which was at this time an important
Art centre, and close to the newly-founded Royal Academy.
[Illustration: ENGLISH SATINWOOD DRESSING TABLE.
With Painted Decoration.
END OF XVIII. CENTURY.]
[Illustration: CHIMNEYPIECE AND OVERMANTEL.
DESIGNED BY W. THOMAS, ARCHITECT. 1783.
Very similar to Robert Adam's work.]
Chippendale published "The Gentleman and Cabinet Maker's Director," not,
as stated in the introduction to the catalogue to the South Kensington
Museum, in 1769, but some years previously, as is testified by a copy of
the "third edition" of the work, which is in the writer's possession and
bears date 1762, the first edition having appeared in 1754. The title page
of this edition is reproduced in _fac-simile_ on page 178.
[Illustration: CHAIRS,
With ornament in the Chinese style, by Thomas Chippendale.]
This valuable work of reference contains over two hundred copper-plate
engravings of chairs, sofas, bedsteads, mirror frames, girandoles,
torchères or lamp stands, dressing tables, cabinets, chimney pieces,
organs, jardinières, console tables, brackets, and other useful and
decorative articles, of which some examples are given. It will be observed
from these that the designs of Chippendale are very different from those
popularly ascribed to him. Indeed it would appear that this maker has
become better known than any other, from the fact of the designs in his
book having been recently republished in various forms; his popularity has
thus been revived, while the names of his contemporaries are forgotten.
For the last fifteen or twenty years, therefore, during which time the
fashion has obtained of collecting the furniture of a bygone century,
almost every cabinet, table, or mirror frame, presumably of English
manufacture, which is slightly removed from the ordinary type of domestic
furniture, has been, for want of a better title, called "Chippendale." As
a matter of fact, he appears to have adopted from Chambers the fanciful
Chinese ornament, and the rococo style of that time, which was superseded
some five-and-twenty years later by the quiet and more classic designs of
Adam and his contemporaries.
[Illustration:
THE
GENTLEMAN and CABINET-MAKER's
DIRECTOR:
Being a large COLLECTION of the
Most ELEGANT and USEFUL DESIGNS
OF
HOUSEHOLD FURNITURE,
In the Most FASHIONABLE TASTE.
Including a great VARIETY of
CHAIRS, SOFAS, BEDS, and COUCHES; CHINA-TABLES, DRESSING-TABLES,
SHAVING-TABLES, BASON-STANDS, and TEAKETTLE-STANDS; FRAMES for
MARBLE-SLABS, BUREAU-DRESSING-TABLES, and COMMODES; WRITING-TABLES,
and LIBRARY-TABLES; LIBRARY-BOOK-CASES, ORGAN-CASES for
private Rooms, or Churches, DESKS, and BOOK-CASES; DRESSING
and WRITING-TABLES with BOOK-CASES, TOILETS, CABINETS, and
CLOATHS-PRESSES; CHINA-CASES, CHINA-SHELVES, and BOOK-SHELVES;
CANDLE-STANDS, TERMS for BUSTS, STANDS for CHINA JARS, and
PEDESTALS; CISTERNS for WATER, LANTHORNS, and CHANDELIERS;
FIRE-SCREENS, BRACKETS, and CLOCK-CASES; PIER-GLASSES, and
TABLE-FRAMES; GIRANDOLES, CHIMNEY-PIECES, and PICTURE-FRAMES;
STOVE-GRATES, BOARDERS, FRETS, CHINESE-RAILING, and BRASS-WORK, for
Furniture.
AND OTHER
ORNAMENTS.
TO WHICH IS PREFIXED,
A Short EXPLANATION of the Five ORDERS of ARCHITECTURE;
WITH
Proper DIRECTIONS for executing the most difficult Pieces,
the Mouldings being exhibited
at large, and the Dimensions of each DESIGN specified.
The Whole comprehended in TWO HUNDRED COPPER-PLATES, neatly engraved.
Calculated to improve and refine the present TASTE, and suited to
the Fancy and Circumstances of
Persons in all Degrees of Life.
By THOMAS CHIPPENDALE,
CABINET-MAKER and UPHOLSTERER, in St. Martin's Lane, London.
THE THIRD EDITION.
LONDON:
Printed for the AUTHOR, and sold at his House, in St. Martin's Lane;
Also by T. BECKET and P. A. DE HONDT, in the Strand.
MDCCLXII.
_Fac-simile of the Title Page of Chippendale's "Director."_
(_Reduced by Photography._) _The original is folio size._ ]
[Illustration: _Two bookcases._
Nᵒ. LXXXVII.
_T. Chippendale invᵗ et delins._ _Publish'd according to Act of
Parliament 1769._ _J Taylor Sculp_
FAC-SIMILE OF A PAGE IN CHIPPENDALE'S "DIRECTOR." (The original is folio
size.)]
[Illustration: TEA CADDY,
Carved in the French style. (From Chippendale's "Director.")]
In the chapter on Louis XV. and Louis XVI. furniture, it has been shewn
how French fashion went through a similar change about this same period.
In Chippendale's chairs and console tables, in his state bedsteads and his
lamp-stands, one can recognize the broken scrolls and curved lines, so
familiar in the bronze mountings of Caffieri. The influence of the change
which had occurred in France during the Louis Seize period is equally
evident in Adam's treatment. It was helped forward by the migration into
this country of skilled workmen from France, during the troubles of the
revolution at the end of the century. Some of Chippendale's designs bear
such titles as "French chairs" or a "Bombé-fronted Commode." These might
have appeared as illustrations in a contemporary book on French furniture,
so identical are they in every detail with the carved woodwork of Picau,
of Canner, or of Nilson, who designed the flamboyant frames of the time
of Louis XV. Other designs have more individuality. In his mirror frames
he introduced a peculiar bird with a long snipe-like beak and rather
impossible wings, an imitation of rockwork and dripping water, Chinese
figures with pagodas and umbrellas; and sometimes the illustration of
Æsop's fables interspersed with scrolls and flowers. By dividing the glass
unequally, by the introduction into his design of bevelled pillars with
carved capitals and bases, he produced a quaint and pleasing effect, very
suitable to the rather effeminate fashion of his time, and in harmony
with three-cornered hats, wigs and patches, embroidered waistcoats, knee
breeches, silk stockings, and enamelled snuff-boxes. In some of the
designs there is a fanciful Gothic, to which he makes special allusion in
his preface, as likely to be considered by his critics as impracticable,
but which he undertakes to produce if desired--
"Though some of the profession have been diligent enough to
represent them (espescially those after the Gothick and Chinese
manner) as so many specious drawings impossible to be worked off by
any mechanick whatsoever. I will not scruple to attribute this to
Malice, Ignorance, and Inability; and I am confident I can convince
all Noblemen, Gentlemen, or others who will honour me with their
Commands, that every design in the book can be improved, both as to
Beauty and Enrichment, in the execution of it, by
"Their most obedient servant,
"THOMAS CHIPPENDALE."
[Illustration: A BUREAU.
(From Chippendale's "Director.")]
The reader will notice that in the examples selected from Chippendale's
book there are none of those fretwork tables and cabinets which are
generally termed "Chippendale." We know, however, that besides the designs
which have just been described, and which were intended for gilding, he
also made mahogany furniture, and in the "Director" there are drawings
of chairs, washstands, writing-tables and cabinets of this description.
Fretwork is seldom seen, but the carved ornament is generally a foliated
or curled endive scroll; sometimes the top of a cabinet is finished in
the form of a Chinese pagoda. Upon examining a piece of furniture that
may reasonably be ascribed to him, it will be found to be of excellent
workmanship, and the wood, always mahogany without any inlay, is richly
marked, shewing a careful selection of material.
[Illustration:
Nᵒ XIXII.
_A Design for a State Bed._
_A Chippendale Design._ _Published according to Act of Parliament 1765._
_J. Taylor sculp._
FAC-SIMILE OF A PAGE IN CHIPPENDALE'S "DIRECTOR."
(The original is folio size.)]
[Illustration: "FRENCH" COMMODE AND LAMP STANDS.
DESIGNED BY T. CHIPPENDALE, AND PUBLISHED IN HIS "DIRECTOR."]
[Illustration:
Pl. XXXV.
_Beds Pillars_
_A Chippendale invᵗ et delves._ _Published according to
Act of Parliament._ _J. Taylor sculp._
FAC-SIMILE OF A PAGE IN CHIPPENDALE'S "DIRECTOR."
(The original is folio size.)]
[Illustration: CHIMNEYPIECE AND MIRROR.
DESIGNED BY T. CHIPPENDALE, AND PUBLISHED IN HIS "DIRECTOR."]
[Illustration: PARLOUR CHAIRS, BY CHIPPENDALE.]
The chairs of Chippendale and his school are very characteristic. If the
outline of the back of some of them be compared with the stuffed back of
the chair from Hardwick Hall (illustrated in Chap. IV.) it will be seen
that the same lines occur, but instead of the frame of the back being
covered with silk, tapestry, or other material--as in William III.'s
time--Chippendale's are cut open into fanciful patterns; and in his more
highly ornate work, the twisted ribands of his design are scarcely to be
reconciled with the use for which a dining room chair is intended. The
well-moulded sweep of his lines, however, counter-balances this defect to
some extent, and a good Chippendale mahogany chair will ever be an elegant
article of furniture.
One of the most graceful chairs of about the middle of the century, in
the style of Chippendale's best productions, is the Master's Chair in
the Hall of the Barbers' Company. It is carved in rich Spanish mahogany,
and upholstered in morocco leather; the ornament consists of scrolls and
cornucopiæ with flowers charmingly disposed, the arms and motto of the
Company being introduced. Unfortunately, there is no certain record as to
the designer and maker of this beautiful chair, and it is to be regretted
that the date (1865), the year when the Hall was redecorated, should have
been placed in prominent gold letters on this interesting relic of a past
century.
[Illustration: CLOCK CASE, BY CHIPPENDALE.]
Apart from the several books of design noticed in this chapter, there
were published two editions of a work, undated, containing many of the
drawings found in Chippendale's book. This book was entitled, "Upwards of
One Hundred New and Genteel Designs, being all the most approved patterns
of household furniture in the French taste. By a Society of Upholders
and Cabinet makers." It is probable that Chippendale was a member of
this Society, and that some of the designs were his, but that he severed
himself from it, and published his own book, preferring to advance his
individual reputation. The "sideboard" which one so generally hears called
"Chippendale" scarcely existed in his time. If it did it must have been
quite at the end of his career. There were side tables, sometimes called
"Side-Boards," but they contained neither cellaret nor cupboard; only a
drawer for table linen.
The name of Robert Manwaring should not be omitted as one of Chippendale's
contemporaries. He published "The Chairmaker's Guide" in 1766, which
included "upwards of two hundred new and genteel designs, both decorative
and plain, of all the most approved patterns for burjairs, toillets,
cornishes and lanthorns, etc."
The patterns of his chair-backs are very similar to those of his
contemporaries, and four of his designs which were reproduced in
"Furniture and Decoration," two years ago, only differ in detail from
those illustrated here as the work of Ince and Mayhew. Manwaring also
designed china cabinets, fenders, balconies, and other decorative items,
and he is believed to have been a leading member of the Society of
Upholders and Cabinet Makers, alluded to in page 182.
Two other designers and makers of mahogany ornamental furniture, who also
deserve special mention in the discussion of eighteenth century English
furniture, are W. Ince and J. Mayhew, who were partners in business in
Broad Street, Golden Square, and contemporary with Chippendale. They also
published a book of designs,[16] which is alluded to by Thomas Sheraton
in the preface to his "Cabinet Maker and Upholsterer's Drawing Book,"
published in 1793. A few examples from Ince and Mayhew's "Cabinet Maker's
Real Friend and Companion" are given, from which it is evident that,
without any distinguishing brand, or without the identification of any
particular piece of furniture with one of their designs, it is difficult
to distinguish between their work and that of Chippendale and other
contemporary makers.
It is, however, noticeable, after careful comparison of the work of
Chippendale with that of Ince and Mayhew, that the furniture designed
and made by the latter has many more of the characteristic details and
ornaments which are now generally looked upon as denoting the work of
Chippendale; for instance, the fretwork ornaments finished by the carver,
and then applied to the plain mahogany; the open-worked scroll shaped
backs to encoignures or china shelves; and the carved Chinaman with the
pagoda. Some of the frames of chimney glasses and pictures made by Ince
and Mayhew are almost identical with those attributed to Chippendale.
[Illustration: CHINA SHELVES, DESIGNED BY W. INCE.
(Reproduced by Photography from an old Print in the Author's possession.)]
Other well known designers and manufacturers of this time were
Hepplewhite, who published a book of designs very similar to those of his
contemporaries, and Matthias Lock, some of whose original drawings were on
view in the Exhibition of 1862,[17] with interesting memoranda attached,
giving the names of his workmen and the wages paid: from these it would
appear that five shillings a day was at that time sufficient remuneration
for a skilful wood carver.
[Illustration: GIRANDOLES AND PIER TABLE, DESIGNED BY W. THOMAS,
ARCHITECT, 1783.
(Reproduced by Photography from an old Print in the Author's possession.)]
Another good designer and maker of much excellent furniture of this
time was "Shearer," who has been unnoticed by nearly all writers on the
subject. In an old book of designs in the author's possession, "Shearer
delin" and "published according to Act of Parliament, 1788," appears
underneath the representations of sideboards, tables, bookcases, dressing
tables, which are very similar in every way to those of Sheraton, his
contemporary. George Richardson and Matthias Darly should also be
mentioned as notable designers of furniture and decorative details of this
time.
A copy of Hepplewhite's Book, in the author's possession (published in
1789), contains 300 designs "of every article of household furniture in
the newest and most approved taste," and it is worth while to quote from
his preface to illustrate the high esteem in which English cabinet work
was held at this time.
"English taste and workmanship have of late years been much sought for by
surrounding nations; and the mutability of all things, but more especially
of fashions, has rendered the labours of our predecessors in this line of
little use; nay, in this day can only tend to mislead those foreigners who
seek a knowledge of English taste in the various articles of household
furniture."
It is amusing to think how soon the "mutabilities of fashion" did for a
time supersede many of his designs.
A selection of drawings from his book is given, and it will be useful
to compare them with those of other contemporary makers. From such a
comparison it will be seen that in the progress from the rococo of
Chippendale to the more severe lines of Sheraton, Hepplewhite forms a
connecting link between the two.
The names given to some of these designs appear curious; for instance:
"Rudd's table or reflecting dressing table," so called from the first one
having been invented for a popular character of that time.
"Knife cases," for the reception of the knives which were kept in them and
used to "garnish" the sideboards.
"Cabriole chair," implying a stuffed back, and not having reference, as it
does now, to the curved form of the leg.
"Bar backed sofa," being what we should now term a three or four chair
settee, _i.e._, like so many chairs joined and having an arm at either end.
"Library case" instead of Bookcase.
"Confidante" and "Duchesse," which were sofas of the time.
"Gouty stool," a stool having an adjustable top.
"Tea chest," "Urn stand," and other names which have now disappeared from
ordinary use in describing similar articles.
[Illustration: PARLOUR CHAIRS, DESIGNED BY W. INCE.]
[Illustration: LADIES' SECRETAIRES, DESIGNED BY W. INCE.
(Reproduced by Photography from an old print in the Author's possession.)]
[Illustration: DESK AND BOOKCASE, DESIGNED BY W. INCE.
(Reproduced by Photography from an old Print in the Author's possession.)]
[Illustration: CHINA CABINET, DESIGNED BY J. MAYHEW.
(Reproduced from an old Print in the Author's possession.)]
[Illustration: "DRESSING CHAIRS," DESIGNED BY J. MAYHEW.
These shew the influence of Sir W. Chambers' Chinese style.]
Hepplewhite had a "_specialité_," to which he alludes in his book, and
of which he gives several designs. This was his japanned or painted
furniture; the wood was coated with a preparation after the manner of
Chinese or Japanese lacquer, and then decorated, generally with gold on a
black ground, the designs being in fruits and flowers: and also medallions
painted in the style of Cipriani and Angelica Kauffmann. Subsequently,
furniture of this character, instead of being japanned, was only painted
white. It is probable that many of the chairs of this time which one now
sees to be of wood of inferior quality, and with scarcely any ornament,
were originally decorated in the manner just described, and therefore
the "carving" of details would have been superfluous. Injury to the
enamelling, by wear and tear, was most likely the cause of their being
stripped of their rubbed and partly obliterated decorations, and they were
then stained and polished, presenting an appearance which is scarcely just
to the designer and manufacturer.
In some of Hepplewhite's chairs, too, as in those of Sheraton, one may
fancy he sees evidence of the squabbles of two fashionable factions of
this time, "the Court party" and the "Prince's party," the latter having
the well-known Prince of Wales' plumes very prominent, and forming the
ornamental support of the back of the chair. Another noticeable enrichment
is the carving of wheat ears on the shield shape backs of the chairs.
To convey an idea of the fashion of the day, "the plan of a room shewing
the proper distribution of the furniture," appears on page 193. It is
evident from the large looking glass which overhangs the sideboard that
the fashion had now set in to use these mirrors. Some thirty or forty
years later this mirror became part of the sideboard, and, in some large
and pretentious designs which we have seen, the sideboard itself was
little better than the support of a huge glass in a heavily carved frame.
The dining tables of this period deserve a passing notice as a step in
the development of that important member of our "Lares and Penates." What
was, and is still, called the "pillar and claw" table, came into fashion
towards the end of the last century. It consisted of a round or square top
supported by an upright cylinder, which rested on a plinth having three,
or sometimes four, feet carved as claws. In order to extend these tables
for a larger number of guests, an arrangement was made for placing several
together. When apart, they served as pier or side tables, and some of
these--the two end ones, being semi-circular--may still be found in some
of our old inns.[18]
[Illustration:
TEA TRAY.
TEA TRAY.
GIRANDOLE.
PARLOUR CHAIR, WITH PRINCE OF WALES' PLUMES.
PIER TABLE.
PARLOUR CHAIR.
DESIGNS OF FURNITURE.
FROM HEPPLEWHITE'S "GUIDE," PUBLISHED 1787.]
[Illustration: FAC-SIMILE OF PAGE IN HEPPLEWHITE'S "CABINET MAKER'S
GUIDE," PUBLISHED IN 1787.
_Plan of a Room,--shewing the proper
distribution of the Furniture._
]
It was not until the year 1800 that Richard Gillow, of the well-known
firm in Oxford Street, invented and patented the convenient telescopic
contrivance which, with slight improvements, has given us the table of the
present day. The term still used by auctioneers in describing a modern
extending table as a "set of dining tables," is, probably, a survival
of the older method of providing for a dinner party. Gillow's patent is
described as "an improvement in the method of constructing dining and
other tables calculated to reduce the number of legs, pillars, and claws,
and to facilitate and render easy, their enlargement and reduction."
[Illustration: INLAID TEA CADDY AND TOP OF PIER TABLES.
(_From "Hepplewhite's Guide."_)]
As an interesting link between the present and the past, it may be useful
here to introduce a slight notice of this well-known firm of furniture
manufacturers, for which the writer is indebted to Mr. Clarke, one of
the present partners of Gillows. "We have an unbroken record of books
dating from 1724, but we existed long anterior to this: all records were
destroyed during the Scottish Rebellion in 1745. The house originated in
Lancaster, which was then the chief port in the north, Liverpool not being
in existence at the time, and Gillows exported furniture largely to the
West Indies, importing rum as payment, for which privilege they held a
special charter. The house opened in London in 1765, and for some time the
Lancaster books bore the heading and inscription, 'Adventure to London.'
On the architect's plans for the premises now so well known in Oxford
Street, occur these words, 'This is the way to Uxbridge.'" Mr. Clarke's
information may be supplemented by adding that from Dr. Gillow, whom
the writer had the pleasure of meeting some years ago, and who was the
thirteenth child of the Richard Gillow before mentioned, he learnt that
this same Richard Gillow retired in 1830, and died as lately as 1866 at
the age of 90. Dowbiggin, founder of the firm of Holland and Sons, was an
apprentice to Richard Gillow.
Mahogany may be said to have come into general use subsequent to 1720,
and its introduction is asserted to have been due to the tenacity of
purpose of a Dr. Gibbon, whose wife wanted a candle box, an article of
common domestic use of the time. The Doctor, who had laid by in the garden
of his house in King Street, Covent Garden, some planks sent to him by
his brother, a West Indian captain, asked a joiner to use a part of the
wood for this purpose; it was found too tough and hard for the tools
of the period, but the Doctor was not to be thwarted, and insisted on
harder-tempered tools being found, and the task was completed; the result
was the production of a candle box which was admired by every one. He
then ordered a bureau of the same material, and when it was finished, he
invited his friends to see the new work; amongst others, the Duchess of
Buckingham begged a small piece of the precious wood, and it soon became
the fashion. On account of its toughness, and peculiarity of grain, it
was capable of treatment impossible with oak, and the high polish it took
by oil and rubbing (not French polish, a later invention), caused it to
come into great request. The term "putting one's knees under a friend's
mahogany," probably dates from about this time.
[Illustration: KNEEHOLE TABLE, BY SHERATON.]
Thomas Sheraton, who commenced work some twenty years later than
Chippendale, and continued in business until the early part of the
nineteenth century, accomplished much excellent work in English furniture.
[Illustration: CHAIRS, BY SHERATON]
The fashion had now changed; instead of the rococo--literally, rock work
and shell (_roequaille et coquaille_)--ornament, which had gone out,
a simpler and more severe taste had come in. In Sheraton's cabinets,
chairs, writing tables, and occasional pieces, we have therefore no
longer the cabriole leg or the carved ornament; but, as in the case of
the brothers Adam, and the furniture designed by them for such houses as
those in Portland Place, we have now square tapering legs, severe lines,
and quiet ornament. Sheraton trusted almost entirely for decoration
to his marqueterie. Some of this is very delicate and of excellent
workmanship. He introduced occasionally into his scrolls animals with
foliated extremities, and he also inlaid marqueterie trophies of musical
instruments; but as a rule the decoration was in wreaths of flowers,
husks, or drapery, in strict adherence to the fashion of the decorations
to which allusion has been made. A characteristic feature of his cabinets
was the swan-necked pediment surmounting the cornice, being a revival of
an ornament fashionable during Queen Anne's reign. It was then chiefly
found in stone, marble, or cut brickwork, but subsequently became
prevalent in inlaid woodwork.
[Illustration: A CHINA CABINET AND A BOOKCASE WITH SECRETAIRE.
Designed by T. Sheraton, and published in his "Cabinet Maker and
Upholsterer's Drawing Book," 1793.]
Sheraton was apparently a man very well educated for his time, whether
self taught or not one cannot say; but that he was an excellent
draughtsman, and had a complete knowledge of geometry, is evident from
the skilful drawings in his book, and the careful though rather verbose
directions he gives for perspective drawing. Many of his numerous
designs for furniture and ornamental items are drawn to a scale with the
geometrical nicety of an engineer's or architect's plan. He has drawn in
elevation, plan, and minute detail, each of the five architectural orders.
[Illustration: CHAIR BACKS, FROM SHERATON'S "CABINET MAKER."]
The selection made here from his designs for the purposes of illustration,
is not taken from his later work, which properly belongs to a future
chapter, when we come to consider the influence of the French Revolution,
and the translation of the "Empire" style to England. Sheraton published
"The Cabinet Maker and Upholsterer's Drawing Book" in 1793, and the list
of subscribers whose names and addresses are given, throws much light
on the subject of the furniture of his time.[19] Amongst these are many
of his aristocratic patrons and no less than 450 names and addresses
of cabinet makers, chair makers, and carvers, exclusive of harpsichord
manufacturers, musical instrument makers, upholsterers, and other kindred
trades. Included with these we find the names of firms who, from the
appointments they held, it may be inferred, had a high reputation for
good work, and a leading position in the trade, but who, perhaps from the
absence of a taste for "getting into print" and from the lack of any brand
or mark by which their work can be identified, have passed into oblivion
while their contemporaries are still famous. The following names taken
from this list are probably those of men who had for many years conducted
well known and old established businesses, but would now be but poor ones
to "conjure" with: while those of Chippendale, Sheraton, or Hepplewhite,
are a ready passport for a doubtful specimen. For instance:--France,
Cabinet Maker to His Majesty, St. Martin's Lane; Charles Elliott, Upholder
to His Majesty and Cabinet Maker to the Duke of York, Bond Street;
Campbell and Sons, Cabinet Makers to the Prince of Wales, Mary-le-bone
Street, London. Besides those who held Royal appointments, there were
other manufacturers of decorative furniture--Thomas Johnson, Copeland,
Robert Davy, a French carver named Nicholas Collet, who settled in
England, and many others.
In Mr. J. H. Pollen's larger work on furniture and woodwork, which
includes a catalogue of the different examples in the South Kensington
Museum, there is a list of the various artists and craftsmen who have been
identified with the production of artistic furniture either as designers
or manufacturers, and the writer has found this of considerable service.
In the Appendix to this work, this list has been reproduced, with the
addition of several names (particularly those of the French school)
omitted by Mr. Pollen, and it will, it is hoped, prove a useful reference
to the reader.
* * * * *
Although in deference to the prevailing taste for our National manufacture
of the latter half of the last century, this chapter is somewhat long, on
account of the endeavour to give more detailed information about English
furniture of that period, still, in concluding it, a few remarks about the
"Sideboard" may be allowed.
The changes in form and fashion of this important article of domestic
furniture are interesting, and to explain them a slight retrospect is
necessary. The word "Buffet," sometimes translated "Sideboard," which was
used to describe continental pieces of furniture of the fifteenth and
sixteenth centuries, does not designate our Sideboard, which may be said
to have been introduced by William III., and of which kind there is a fair
specimen in the South Kensington Museum; an illustration of it has been
given in the chapter dealing with that period.
The term "stately sideboard" occurs in Milton's "Paradise Regained,"
which was published in 1671; and Dryden, in his translation of "Juvenal,"
published in 1693, when contrasting the furniture of the classical period
of which he was writing, with that of his own time, uses the following
line:--
"No sideboards then with gilded plate were dressed."
The fashion in those days of having symmetrical doors in a room, that is,
false doors to correspond with the door used for exit, which one still
finds in many old houses in the neighbourhood of Portland Place, and
particularly in the Palaces of St. James' and of Kensington, enabled our
ancestors to have good cupboards for the storage of glass, crockery, and
reserve wine. After the middle of the eighteenth century, however, these
extra doors and the cupboard enclosed by them, gradually disappeared;
and soon after the mahogany side table came into fashion, it became the
custom to supplement this article of furniture by an independent pedestal
cupboard on either side (instead of the cupboards alluded to), one for
hot plates and the other for wine. Then, as the thin legs gave the table
rather a lanky appearance, the _garde de vin_, or cellaret, was added in
the form of an oval tub of mahogany, with bands of brass, sometimes raised
on low feet with castors for convenience, which was used as a wine cooler.
A pair of urn-shaped mahogany vases stood on the pedestals, and these
contained--the one hot water for the servants' use in washing the knives,
forks, and spoons, which being then much more valuable were limited in
quantity, and the other held iced water for the guests' use. To understand
this arrangement the reader is referred to the illustration on page 193.
A brass rail at the back of the side table, with ornamented pillars and
branches for candles, was used, partly to enrich the furniture, and partly
to form a support to the handsome pair of knife and spoon cases, which
completed the garniture of a gentleman's sideboard of this period. It
would therefore seem that the modern sideboard is the combination of these
separate articles into one piece of furniture--at different times and in
different fashions--first the pedestals joined to the table produced our
"pedestal sideboard," then the mirror was joined to the back, the cellaret
made part of the interior fittings, and the banishment of knife cases and
urns to the realms of the curiosity hunter, or for conversion into spirit
cases and stationery holders. The sarcophagus, often richly carved, of
course succeeded the simple cellaret of Sheraton's period.
Before we dismiss the furniture of the "dining room" of this period, it
may interest some of our readers to know that until the first edition
of "Johnson's Dictionary" was published in 1755, the term was not to be
found in the vocabularies of our language designating its present use.
In Barrat's "Alvearic," published in 1580, "parloir," or "parler," was
described as "a place to sup in." Later, "Minsheu's Guide unto Tongues,"
in 1617, gave it as "an inner room to dine or to suppe in," but Johnson's
definition is "a room in houses on the first floor, elegantly furnished
for reception or entertainment."
[Illustration: A SIDEBOARD IN MAHOGANY WITH INLAY OF SATINWOOD.
IN THE STYLE OF ROBERT ADAM.]
To the latter part of the eighteenth century--the English furniture
of which time has been discussed in this Chapter--belong the quaint
little "urn stands" which were made to hold the urn with boiling water,
while the tea pot was placed on a little slide which is drawn out from
underneath the top. In those days tea was an expensive luxury, and
urn stands (illustrated below) were inlaid in the fashion of the time.
These, together with the old mahogany or marqueterie tea caddies, which
were sometimes the object of considerable skill and care, are dainty
relics of the past. One of these, designed by Chippendale, as illustrated
on page 179, and another by Hepplewhite will be found on page 194. They
were fitted with two and sometimes three bottles or tea poys of silver or
Battersea enamel, to hold the black and green teas, and when really good
examples of these daintily-fitted tea caddies are offered for sale they
bring large sums.
[Illustration: URN STAND.]
[Illustration: TOILET GLASS.]
[Illustration: URN STAND.]
The "wine table" of this time deserves a word. These are now somewhat
rare, and are only to be found in a few old houses, and in some of the
Colleges at Oxford and Cambridge. These are fitted with revolving tops,
which had circles turned out to a slight depth for each glass to stand in,
and they were sometimes shaped like the half of a flat ring. These latter
were for placing in front of the fire, when the outer side of the table
formed a convivial circle, round which the sitters gathered after they had
left the dinner table.
One of these old tables is still to be seen in the Hall of Gray's Inn, and
the writer was told that its fellow was broken and had been "sent away."
They are nearly always of good rich mahogany, and have legs more or less
ornamental according to circumstances.
A distinguishing feature of English furniture of the eighteenth century
was the partiality for secret drawers and contrivances for hiding away
papers or valued articles; and in old secretaires and writing tables we
find a great many ingenious designs which remind us of the days when there
were but few banks, and people kept money and deeds in their own custody.
The reader who would make a careful study of English furniture of
the period discussed in this chapter, is referred to the exhaustive
work edited by Mr. John Aldam Heaton, and published by Mr. Bumpus in
parts:--"Furniture and Decoration in England during the 18th Century,
being facsimile reproductions of the choicest examples from the works of
Chippendale, Adam, G. Richardson, Hepplewhite, Sheraton, Piranesi, and
others."
[Illustration: CARVED JARDINIERE, BY CHIPPENDALE.]
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 16: "The universal system of Household Furniture, 300 designs on
95 plates, folio. London. N.D. (circa 1770)"]
[Footnote 17: Matthias Lock published "A new book of pier frames, ovals,
girandoles, tables, etc." Imp. 8vo., 1769.]
[Footnote 18: The Court room of the Stationers' Hall contains an excellent
set of tables of this kind.]
[Footnote 19: The late Mr. Adam Black, senior partner in the publishing
firm of A. and C. Black, and Lord Macaulay's colleague in Parliament, when
quite a young man, assisted Sheraton in the production of this book; at
that time the famous designer of furniture was in poor circumstances.]