+---------------------------------------------------------+
| Note: |
| |
| _ around word indicats italics _END OF XVIII CENTURY._ |
| = around word indicats bold =T= |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
ILLUSTRATED
HISTORY OF
FURNITURE
FIRST EDITION 1892
SECOND EDITION 1892
THIRD EDITION 1893
FOURTH EDITION 1899
FIFTH EDITION 1903
TRUSLOVE AND BRAY
PRINTERS
WEST NORWOOD S E
[Illustration:
ENGLISH SATIN-WOOD
DRESSING-TABLE.
WITH PAINTED DECORATION.
_END OF XVIII CENTURY._
]
ILLUSTRATED
HISTORY OF
FURNITURE
FROM THE EARLIEST TO
THE PRESENT TIME BY
FREDERICK LITCHFIELD
AUTHOR OF "POTTERY AND PORCELAIN"
WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS
LONDON: TRUSLOVE & HANSON LIMITED
NEW YORK: JOHN LANE MDCCCCIII
[Illustration: AN OLD ENGLISH "GRANDFATHER" CLOCK.
LATE XVIII. CENTURY.
(_See pp._ 121-2.)]
PREFACE.
In the following pages the Author has placed before the reader an account
of the changes in the design of Decorative Furniture and Woodwork, from
the earliest period of which we have any reliable or certain record until
the present time.
A careful selection of illustrations has been made from examples of
established authenticity, the majority of which are to be seen, either in
the Museums to which reference is made, or by permission of the owners;
and the representations of the different "interiors" will convey an idea
of the character and disposition of the Furniture of the periods to
which they refer. These illustrations are arranged, so far as possible,
in chronological order, and the descriptions which accompany them are
explanatory of the historical and social changes which have influenced the
manners and customs, and directly or indirectly affected the Furniture
of different nations. An endeavour is made to produce a "panorama,"
which may prove acceptable to many, who, without wishing to study the
subject deeply, may desire to gain some information with reference to it
generally, or with regard to some part of it, in which they may feel a
particular interest.
It will be obvious that within the limits of a single volume of moderate
dimensions it is impossible to give more than an outline sketch of many
periods of design and taste which deserve far more consideration than is
here bestowed upon them; the reader is, therefore, asked to accept the
first chapter, which refers to "Ancient Furniture" and covers a period of
several centuries, as introductory to that which follows, rather than as a
serious attempt to examine the history of the Furniture during that space
of time. The fourth chapter, which deals with a period of some hundred
and fifty years, from the time of King James the First until that of
Chippendale and his contemporaries, and the last three chapters, are more
fully descriptive than some others, partly because trustworthy information
as to these times is more accessible, and partly because it is probable
that English readers will feel greater interest in the Furniture of which
they are the subject. The French _meubles de luxe_, from the latter half
of the seventeenth century until the Revolution, are also treated more
fully than the Furniture of other periods and countries, on account of
the interest which has been manifested in this description of the cabinet
maker's and metal mounter's work during the past fifteen or twenty years.
There is evidence of this appreciation in the enormous prices realised
at notable auction sales, when such Furniture has been offered for
competition to wealthy connoisseurs.
In order to gain a more correct idea of the design of Furniture of
different periods, it has been necessary to notice the alterations
in architectural styles which influenced, and were accompanied by,
corresponding changes in the fashion of interior woodwork. Such comments
are made with some diffidence, as it is felt that this branch of the
subject would have received more fitting treatment by an architect, who
was also an antiquary, than by an antiquary with only a limited knowledge
of architecture.
Some works on "Furniture" have taken the word in its French
interpretation, to include everything that is "movable" in a house;
other writers have combined with historical notes, critical remarks
and suggestions as to the selection of Furniture. The Author has not
presumed to offer any such advice, and has confined his attention to a
description of that which, in its more restricted sense, is understood as
"Decorative Furniture and Woodwork." For his own information, and in the
pursuit of his business, he has been led to investigate the causes and
the approximate dates of the several changes in taste which have taken
place, and has recorded them in as simple and readable a story as the
difficulties of the subject permit.
Numerous acts of kindness and co-operation, received while preparing the
work for the Press, have rendered the task very pleasant; and while the
Author has endeavoured to acknowledge, in a great many instances, the
courtesies received, when noticing the particular occasion on which such
assistance was rendered, he would desire generally to record his thanks to
the owners of historic mansions, the officials of our Museums, the Clerks
of City Companies, Librarians, and others, to whom he is indebted. The
views of many able writers who have trodden the same field of enquiry have
been adopted where they have been confirmed by the writer's experience or
research, and in these cases he hopes he has not omitted to express his
acknowledgments for the use he has made of them.
The large number of copies subscribed for, accompanied, as many of the
applications have been, by expressions of goodwill, and confidence
beforehand, have been very gratifying, and have afforded great
encouragement during the preparation of the work.
If the present venture is received in such a way as to encourage a larger
effort, the writer hopes both to multiply examples and extend the area of
his observations.
F. L.
32, ST. JAMES'S STREET, S.W.
[Illustration]
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
PAGE
BIBLICAL REFERENCES: Solomon's House and Temple--Palace of
Ahasuerus. ASSYRIAN FURNITURE: Nimrod's Palace--Mr. George Smith
quoted. EGYPTIAN FURNITURE: Specimens in the British Museum--The
Workman's Stool--Various Articles of Domestic Furniture--Dr. Birch
quoted. GREEK FURNITURE: The Bas-reliefs in the British Museum--The
Chest of Cypselus--Laws and Customs of the Greeks--House of
Alcibiades--Plutarch quoted. ROMAN FURNITURE: Position of Rome--The
Roman House--Cicero's Table--Thyine Wood--Customs of wealthy
Romans--Downfall of the Empire 1
CHAPTER II.
Period of 1,000 years from Fall of Rome, A. D. 476, to
Capture of Constantinople, 1453--The Crusades--Influence of
Christianity--Chairs of St. Peter and Maximian at Rome, Ravenna,
and Venice--Edict of Leo III. prohibiting Image worship--The
Rise of Venice--Charlemagne and his successors--The Chair
of Dagobert--Byzantine character of Furniture--Norwegian
carving--Russian and Scandinavian--The Anglo-Saxons--Sir Walter
Scott quoted--Descriptions of Anglo-Saxon Houses and Customs--Art
in Flemish Cities--Gothic Architecture--The Coronation Chair
at Westminster Abbey--Penshurst--French Furniture in the
14th Century--Description of rooms--The South Kensington
Museum--Transition from Gothic to Renaissance--German carved work;
the Credence, the Buffet, and Dressoir 17
CHAPTER III.
THE RENAISSANCE IN ITALY: Leonardo da Vinci and Raffaelle--Church of
St. Peter, contemporary great artists--The Italian Palazzo--Methods
of gilding, inlaying and mounting Furniture--Pietra-durá and
other enrichments--Ruskin's criticism. THE RENAISSANCE IN FRANCE:
François I. and the Chateau of Fontainebleau--Influence on
Courtiers--Chairs of the time--Design of Cabinets--M. E. Bonnaffé on
The Renaissance--Bedstead of Jeanne d'Albret--Deterioration of taste
in time of Henry IV.--Louis XIII. Furniture--Brittany woodwork. THE
RENAISSANCE IN THE NETHERLANDS: Influence of the House of Burgundy
on Art--The Chimney-piece at Bruges, and other casts of specimens
at South Kensington Museum. THE RENAISSANCE IN SPAIN: The resources
of Spain in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries--Influence of
Saracenic Art--High-backed Leather Chairs, the Carthusian Convent
at Granada. THE RENAISSANCE IN GERMANY: Albrecht Dürer Famous
Steel Chair of Augsburg--German seventeenth century carving in St.
Saviour's Hospital. THE RENAISSANCE IN ENGLAND: Influence of Foreign
Artists in the time of Henry VIII.--End of Feudalism--Hampton
Court Palace--Linen Pattern Panels--Woodwork in the Henry VII
Chapel at Westminster Abbey--Livery Cupboards at Hengrave--Harrison
quoted--The "parler," alteration in English customs--Chairs of the
sixteenth century--Coverings and Cushions of the time, extract
from old inventory--South Kensington Cabinet--Elizabethan Mirror
at Goodrich Court--Shaw's "Ancient Furniture"--The Glastonbury
Chair--Introduction of Frames into England--Characteristics of
Native Woodwork--Famous Country Mansions--Alteration in design of
Woodwork and Furniture--Panelled Rooms at South Kensington--The
Charterhouse--Gray's Inn Hall and Middle Temple--The Hall of
the Carpenters' Company--The Great Bed of Ware--Shakespeare's
Chair--Penshurst Place 47
CHAPTER IV.
English Home Life in the Reign of James I.--Sir Henry Wotton
quoted--Inigo Jones and his work--Ford Castle--Chimney Pieces in
South Kensington Museum--Table in the Carpenters' Hall--Hall of the
Barbers' Company--The Charterhouse--Time of Charles I.--Furniture
at Knole--Eagle House, Wimbledon--Mr. Charles Eastlake--Monuments
at Canterbury and Westminster--Settles, Couches, and Chairs
of the Stuart period--Sir Paul Pindar's House--Cromwellian
Furniture--The Restoration--Indo-Portuguese Furniture--Hampton Court
Palace--Evelyn's description--The Great Fire of London--Hall of the
Brewers' Company--Oak Panelling of the time--Grinling Gibbons and
his work--The Edict of Nantes--Silver Furniture at Knole--William
III. and Dutch influence--Queen Anne--Sideboards, Bureaus, and
Grandfather's Clocks--Furniture at Hampton Court 91
CHAPTER V.
CHINESE FURNITURE: Probable source of artistic taste--Sir William
Chambers quoted--Racinet's "Le Costume Historique"--Dutch
Influence--The South Kensington and the late Duke of Edinburgh
Collections--Processes of making Lacquer--Screens in the Kensington
Museum. JAPANESE FURNITURE: Early History--Sir Rutherford Alcock and
Lord Elgin--The Collection of the Shôgun--Famous Collections--Action
of the present Government of Japan--Special characteristics.
INDIAN FURNITURE: Early European influence--Furniture of the
Moguls--Racinet's Work--Bombay Furniture--Ivory Chairs and
Tables--Specimens in the India Museum. PERSIAN WOODWORK: Collection
of Objets d'Art formed by General Murdoch Smith, R.E.--Industrial
Arts of the Persians--Arab influence--South Kensington Specimens.
SARACENIC WOODWORK: Oriental customs--Specimens in the South
Kensington Museum of Arab Work--M. d'Aveune's Work 125
CHAPTER VI.
PALACE OF VERSAILLES: "Grand" and "Petit Trianon"--The three Styles
of Louis XIV., XV., and XVI.--Colbert and Lebrun--André Charles
Boule and his Work--Carved and Gilt Furniture--The Regency and its
Influence--Alteration in Condition of French Society--Watteau,
Lancret, and Boucher. LOUIS XV. FURNITURE: Famous Ébenistes--Vernis
Martin Furniture--Caffieri and Gouthière Mountings--Sêvres Porcelain
introduced into Cabinets--Gobelins Tapestry--The "Bureau du Roi."
LOUIS XVI. AND MARIE ANTOINETTE: The Queen's Influence--The
Painters Chardin and Greuze--More simple Designs--Characteristic
Ornaments of Louis XVI. Furniture--Riesener's Work--Gouthière's
Mountings--Specimens in the Louvre--The Hamilton Palace Sale--French
influence upon the design of furniture in other countries--The Jones
Collection--Extract from the "Times" 145
CHAPTER VII.
Chinese Styles--Sir William Chambers--The Brothers Adams'
work--Pergolesi, Cipriani, and Angelica Kauffmann--Architects
of the time--Wedgwood and Flaxman--Chippendale's Work and his
Contemporaries--Chair in the Barbers' Hall--Lock, Shearer,
Hepplewhite, Ince, Mayhew, Sheraton--Introduction of Satinwood
and Mahogany--Gillows, of Lancaster and London--History of the
Sideboard--The Dining Room--Furniture of the time 173
CHAPTER VIII.
The French Revolution and the First Empire--Influence on design of
Napoleon's Campaigns--The Cabinet presented to Marie Louise--Dutch
Furniture of the time--English Furniture--Sheraton's later
work--Thomas Hope, architect--George Smith's designs--Fashion
during the Regency--Gothic revival--Seddon's furniture--Other
makers--Influence on design of the Restoration in France--Furniture
of William IV. and early part of Queen Victoria's reign--Baroque
and Rococo styles--The Panelling of Rooms, Dado, and Skirting--The
Art Union--The Society of Arts--Sir Charles Barry and the new
Palace of Westminster--Pugin's designs--Auction Prices of
Furniture--Christie's--The London Club Houses--Steam--Different
Trade Customs--Exhibitions in France and England--Harry Rogers'
work--The late Queen's cradle--State of Art in England during the
first part of Queen Victoria's reign--Continental designs--Italian
carving--Cabinet work--General remarks 203
CHAPTER IX.
THE GREAT EXHIBITION:--Exhibitors and contemporary Cabinet
Makers--Exhibition of 1862, London; 1867, Paris; and
subsequently--Description of Illustrations--Fourdinois, Wright and
Mansfield--The South Kensington Museum--Talbert's Work--Revival of
Marquetry--Comparison of Present Day with that of a Hundred Years
ago--Æstheticism--Traditions--Trades-Unionism--The Arts and Crafts
Exhibition Society--Kensington School of Woodcarving--Independence
of Furniture--Present Fashions--Writers on Design--The New
Renaissance--"Trade" Journals--Modern Furniture in other
Countries--Concluding Remarks 229
APPENDIX.
Lists of Artists and Manufacturers of Furniture--Woods--Tapestry
used for French Furniture--The processes of Gilding and
Polishing--The Pianoforte 251
INDEX 268
[Illustration: CARVED OAK NAPKIN PRESS.
Lent to the South Kensington Museum by II. Farrer, Esq.
EARLY XVII. CENTURY.]
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
CHAPTER I.
COLORED FRONTISPIECE _facing Title_
PAGE
"GRANDFATHER" CLOCK iv.
A SEVENTEENTH CENTURY NAPKIN PRESS xii.
VIGNETTE OF BAS-RELIEF--EGYPTIAN SEATED, as Ornament to
Initial Letter 1
ASSYRIAN BRONZE THRONE AND FOOTSTOOL 3
CHAIRS FROM KHORSABAD AND XANTHUS AND ASSYRIAN THRONE 4
REPOSE OF KING ASSHURBANIPAL 5
EXAMPLES OF EGYPTIAN FURNITURE IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM: Stool; Stand
for a Vase; Head Rest or Pillow; Workman's Stool; Vase on a Stand;
Folding Stool; Ebony Seat inlaid with ivory 6
AN EGYPTIAN OF HIGH RANK SEATED _facing_ 6
AN EGYPTIAN BANQUET 7
CHAIR WITH CAPTIVES AS SUPPORTS 8
BACCHUS AND ATTENDANTS VISITING ICARUS _facing_ 8
GREEK BEDSTEAD WITH A TABLE 9
GREEK FURNITURE 10
INTERIOR OF AN ANCIENT ROMAN HOUSE _facing_ 12
A ROMAN STUDY 13
ROMAN SCAMNUM OR BENCH }
} 14
ROMAN BISELLIUM, OR SEAT FOR TWO PERSONS }
ROMAN COUCH, GENERALLY OF BRONZE 15
BRONZE LAMP AND STAND 16
ROMAN TRICLINIUM, OR DINING ROOM _facing_ 16
CHAPTER II.
VIGNETTE OF GOTHIC OAK ARMOIRE, as Ornament to Initial Letter 17
CHAIR OF ST. PETER, ROME 19
DAGOBERT CHAIR 21
A CARVED NORWEGIAN DOORWAY _facing_ 22
SCANDINAVIAN CHAIR 23
COVER OF A CASKET CARVED IN WHALEBONE 24
SAXON HOUSE (IX. CENTURY) 25
ANGLO-SAXON FURNITURE OF ABOUT THE X. CENTURY 27
THE SEAT ON THE DAIS }
} 28
SAXON STATE BED }
ENGLISH FOLDING CHAIR (XIV. CENTURY) }
} 29
CRADLE OF HENRY V. }
CORONATION CHAIR, WESTMINSTER ABBEY 31
CHAIR IN YORK MINSTER 32
TWO CHAIRS OF THE XV. CENTURY _facing_ 32
TABLE AT PENSHURST 33
BEDROOM (XIV. CENTURY) 34
CARVED OAK BEDSTEAD AND CHAIR 35
INTERIOR OF A BEDROOM--"THE NEW BORN INFANT" 37
PORTRAIT OF CHRISTINE DE PISAN 38
STATE BANQUET, WITH ATTENDANT MUSICIANS (two woodcuts) 39
A HIGH BACKED CHAIR (XV. CENTURY) 40
MEDIÆVAL BED AND BEDROOM _facing_ 40
A SCRIBE OR COPYIST 41
TWO GERMAN CHAIRS 42
CARVED OAK BUFFET (French Gothic) 43
OLD ENGLISH OAK BUFFET 44
FLEMISH BUFFET _facing_ 44
A TAPESTRIED ROOM }
} 45
A CARVED OAK SEAT }
INTERIOR OF APOTHECARY'S SHOP 46
DWELLING ROOM OF A FRENCH CHATEAU _following_ 46
COURT OF THE LADIES OF QUEEN ANNE OF BRITTANY " 46
CHAPTER III.
VIGNETTE OF THE CARYATIDES CABINETS, as Ornament to Initial Letter 47
REPRODUCTION OF DECORATION BY RAFFAELLE _following_ 48
SALON OF M. BONAFFÉ " 48
A SIXTEENTH CENTURY ROOM " 48
CHAIR IN CARVED WALNUT 49
VENETIAN CENTRE TABLE 50
MARRIAGE COFFER IN CARVED WALNUT _following_ 50
MARRIAGE COFFER " 50
PAIR OF ITALIAN CARVED BELLOWS 51
CARVED ITALIAN MIRROR FRAME, XVI. CENTURY 52
A SIXTEENTH CENTURY COFFRE-FORT 53
ITALIAN COFFER 55
ITALIAN CHAIRS 56
EBONY CABINET _facing_ 56
VENETIAN STATE CHAIR 57
ORNAMENTAL PANELLING IN ST. VINCENT'S CHURCH,
ROUEN _following_ 58
CHIMNEY PIECE (FONTAINEBLEAU) " 58
CARVED OAK PANEL (1577) 59
FAC SIMILES OF ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD 60
CARVED OAK BEDSTEAD OF JEANNE D'ALBRET _following_ 60
CARVED OAK CABINET, XVI. CENTURY " 60
CARVED OAK CABINET (LYONS) " 60
LOUIS XIII. AND HIS COURT 62
DECORATION OF A SALON IN LOUIS XIII. STYLE _facing_ 62
AN EBONY ARMOIRE (FLEMISH RENAISSANCE) 64
A BARBER'S SHOP AND A FLEMISH WORKSHOP (XVI. CENTURY) 65
A FLEMISH CITIZEN AT MEALS 66
SEDAN CHAIR OF CHARLES V. 67
SILVER TABLE (WINDSOR CASTLE) 63
CHAIR OF WALNUT OR CHESTNUT WOOD, SPANISH, WITH EMBOSSED
LEATHER }
} _following_ 68
WOODEN COFFER (XVI. CENTURY) _following_ 68
THE STEEL CHAIR (LONGFORD CASTLE) _facing_ 70
GERMAN CARVED OAK BUFFET 71
CARVED OAK CHEST 72
CHAIR OF ANNA BOLEYN 74
TUDOR CABINET 75
THE GLASTONBURY CHAIR 78
CARVED OAK ELIZABETHAN BEDSTEAD 80
OAK WAINSCOTING _facing_ 80
DINING HALL IN THE CHARTERHOUSE 82
SCREEN IN THE HALL OF GRAY'S INN _facing_ 82
HALL OF GRAY'S INN 83
CARVED OAK PANELS (CARPENTERS' HALL) 85
PART OF AN ELIZABETHAN STAIRCASE 86
THE ENTRANCE HALL, HARDWICK HALL _facing_ 86
SHAKESPEARE'S CHAIR 88
THE "GREAT BED OF WARE" _facing_ 88
THE "QUEEN'S ROOM," PENSHURST PLACE 89
CARVED OAK CHIMNEY PIECE IN SPEKE HALL 90
CHAPTER IV.
A CHAIR OF XVII. CENTURY, as Ornament to Initial Letter 91
OAK CHIMNEY PIECE IN SIR W. RALEIGH'S HOUSE 92
CHIMNEY PIECE IN BYFLEET HOUSE 93
"THE KING'S CHAMBER," FORD CASTLE 94
CENTRE TABLE (CARPENTERS' HALL) 95
CARVED OAK CHAIRS 96
OAK CHIMNEY PIECE FROM LIME STREET, CITY _facing_ 96
OAK SIDEBOARD 97
SEATS AT KNOLE 99
ARM CHAIR, KNOLE 100
THE "SPANGLE" BEDROOM, KNOLE 101
COUCH, CHAIR, AND SINGLE CHAIR (PENSHURST PLACE) _facing_ 104
"FOLDING" AND "DRAWINGE" TABLE 106
CHAIRS, STUART PERIOD 107
CHAIR USED BY CHARLES I. DURING HIS TRIAL 108
SETTLE OF CARVED OAK _facing_ 108
TWO CARVED OAK CHAIRS 109
STAIRCASE IN GENERAL IRETON'S HOUSE 110
SETTEE AND CHAIR (PENSHURST PLACE) _facing_ 110
SEDES BUSBIANA 112
THE MASTER'S CHAIR IN THE BREWERS' HALL 115
CARVED OAK "LIVERY" CUPBOARD 116
THREE CHAIRS FROM HAMPTON COURT, HARDWICKE, AND KNOLE _facing_ 116
CARVED OAK SCREEN IN STATIONERS' HALL 117
SILVER FURNITURE AT KNOLE 119
THREE CHIMNEY PIECES BY JAMES GIBBS _facing_ 122
CHAIR IN HOLLAND HOUSE, DESIGNED BY CLEYN 123
CHAPTER V.
PATTERN OF A CHINESE LAC SCREEN 124
AN EASTERN (SARACENIC) TABLE, as Ornament to Initial Letter 125
JAPANESE CABINET OF RED CHASED LACQUER-WORK 130
CASKET OF INDIAN LACQUER WORK 134
DOOR OF CARVED SANDAL WOOD FROM TRAVANCORE _facing_ 136
PERSIAN INCENSE BURNER OF ENGRAVED BRASS 137
GOVERNOR'S PALACE, MANFALÛT 140
SPECIMEN OF SARACENIC PANELLING 141
CARVED DOOR OF SYRIAN WORK 142
SHAPED PANEL OF SARACENIC WORK 143
CHAPTER VI.
BOULE ARMOIRE (HAMILTON PALACE) 144
VIGNETTE OF A LOUIS QUATORZE COMMODE, as Ornament to Initial
Letter 145
BOULE ARMOIRE (Jones Collection) _facing_ 146
PEDESTAL CABINET BY BOULE (Jones Collection) 148
A CONCERT IN THE REIGN OF LOUIS XIV. 149
A BOUDOIR (LOUIS XIV. PERIOD) 150
DECORATION OF A SALON IN THE LOUIS XIV. STYLE _facing_ 150
A BOULE COMMODE 152
FRENCH SEDAN CHAIR _facing_ 152
A SCREEN PANEL BY WATTEAU 153
CARVED AND GILT CONSOLE TABLE 154
LOUIS XV. "FAUTEUIL" (CARVED AND GILT) 155
LOUIS XV. COMMODE (Jones Collection) 156
A PARQUETERIE COMMODE 157
PART OF A SALON (LOUIS XV.) 158
"BUREAU DU ROI" _facing_ 158
PART OF A SALON IN LOUIS XVI. STYLE 160
A MARQUETERIE CABINET (Jones Collection) 162
WRITING TABLE (RIESENER) _facing_ 162
THE "MARIE ANTOINETTE" WRITING TABLE 164
BEDSTEAD OF MARIE ANTOINETTE _facing_ 164
A CYLINDER SECRETAIRE (Rothschild Collection) 165
AN ARM CHAIR (LOUIS XVI.) 166
CARVED AND GILT SETTEE AND ARM CHAIR _following_ 166
A SOFA EN SUITE 166
A MARQUETERIE ESCRITOIRE (Jones Collection) 167
A NORSE INTERIOR, SHEWING FRENCH INFLUENCE 169
A SECRETAIRE WITH SEVRES PLAQUES 170
A CLOCK BY ROBIN (Jones Collection) 171
HARPSICHORD, ABOUT 1750 172
CHAPTER VII.
VIGNETTE OF A CHIPPENDALE GIRANDOLE, as Ornament to Initial
Letter 173
FAC-SIMILE OF DRAWINGS BY ROBERT ADAM 175
ENGLISH SATIN WOOD DRESSING TABLE _following_ 176
CHIMNEY-PIECE AND OVERMANTEL, DESIGNED BY W. THOMAS _following_ 176
TWO CHIPPENDALE CHAIRS IN THE "CHINESE" STYLE 177
FAC-SIMILE OF TITLE PAGE OF CHIPPENDALE'S "GENTLEMAN AND CABINET
MAKER'S DIRECTOR" 178
TWO BOOK CASES FROM CHIPPENDALE'S "DIRECTOR" _facing_ 178
TEA CADDY CARVED IN THE FRENCH STYLE (CHIPPENDALE) 179
A BUREAU FROM CHIPPENDALE'S "DIRECTOR" 180
A DESIGN FOR A STATE BED FROM CHIPPENDALE'S "DIRECTOR"
_following_ 180
"FRENCH" COMMODE AND LAMP STANDS 180
BED PILLARS 180
CHIMNEY-PIECE AND MIRROR 180
PARLOUR CHAIRS BY CHIPPENDALE 181
CLOCK CASE BY CHIPPENDALE 182
CHINA SHELVES, DESIGNED BY W. INCE 184
GIRANDOLES AND PIER TABLE, DESIGNED BY W. THOMAS 185
PARLOUR CHAIRS, DESIGNED BY W. INCE 187
LADIES' SECRETAIRES, DESIGNED BY W. INCE 188
DESK AND BOOKCASE, DESIGNED BY W. INCE 189
CHINA CABINET, DESIGNED BY J. MAYHEW 190
"DRESSING CHAIRS," DESIGNED BY J. MAYHEW 191
DESIGNS OF FURNITURE FROM HEPPLEWHITE'S "GUIDE" _facing_ 192
PLAN OF A ROOM (HEPPLEWHITE) 193
INLAID TEA CADDY AND TOPS OF PIER TABLES, FROM HEPPLEWHITE'S
"GUIDE" 194
KNEEHOLE TABLE BY SHERATON 195
CHAIRS BY SHERATON 196
CABINET AND BOOKCASE WITH SECRETAIRE, BY SHERATON 197
CHAIR BACKS, FROM SHERATON'S "CABINET MAKER" 198
A SIDEBOARD IN THE STYLE OF ROBERT ADAM _facing_ 200
TOILET GLASS AND URN STANDS 201
CARVED JARDINIERE BY CHIPPENDALE 202
CHAPTER VIII.
VIGNETTE OF AN EMPIRE TRIPOD, as Ornament to Initial Letter 203
CABINET PRESENTED TO MARIE LOUISE _facing_ 204
STOOL AND ARM CHAIR (NAPOLEON I. PERIOD) 205
NELSON'S CHAIRS BY SHERATON _facing_ 206
DRAWING ROOM CHAIR, DESIGNED BY SHERATON 207
DRAWING ROOM CHAIR 208
"CANOPY BED" BY SHERATON _following_ 208
"SISTERS' CYLINDER BOOKCASE" BY SHERATON 208
SIDEBOARD AND SOFA TABLE (SHERATON) 209
DESIGN OF A ROOM BY T. HOPE 211
LIBRARY FAUTEUIL, FROM SMITH'S "BOOK OF DESIGNS" 213
PARLOR CHAIRS 214
BOOKCASE BY SHERATON _facing_ 214
DRAWING ROOM CHAIRS, FROM SMITH'S BOOK 215
PRIE-DIEU IN CARVED OAK, DESIGNED BY MR. PUGIN 218
SECRETAIRE AND BOOKCASE (German Gothic Style) 219
CRADLE FOR H.M. QUEEN VICTORIA, BY H. ROGERS 222
DESIGN FOR A TEA CADDY BY J. STRUDWICK 223
DESIGN FOR ONE OF THE WINGS OF A SIDEBOARD BY W. HOLMES 224
DESIGN FOR A WORK TABLE BY H. FITZCOOK 225
VENETIAN STOOL OF CARVED WALNUT 228
CHAPTER IX.
EXAMPLES OF DESIGN IN FURNITURE IN THE 1851 EXHIBITION:--
SIDEBOARD, IN CARVED OAK, BY GILLOW _following_ 228
CHIMNEY-PIECE AND BOOKCASE BY HOLLAND AND SONS 228
CABINET BY CRACE 228
BOOKCASE BY JACKSON AND GRAHAM 228
GRAND PIANOFORTE BY BROADWOOD 228
VIGNETTE OF A CABINET, MODERN JACOBEAN STYLE, as Ornament
to Initial Letter 229
LADY'S ESCRITOIRE BY WETTLI, BERNE 230
LADY'S WORK TABLE AND SCREEN IN PAPIER MACHÉ 232
SIDEBOARD (SIR WALTER SCOTT) BY COOKES, WARWICK _following_ 232
A STATE CHAIR BY JANCOWSKI, YORK 232
SIDEBOARD, IN CARVED OAK, BY DURANT, PARIS 232
BEDSTEAD, IN CARVED EBONY, BY ROULÉ, ANTWERP 232
PIANOFORTE, BY LEISTLER, VIENNA 232
BOOKCASE IN LIME TREE, BY LEISTLER, VIENNA 232
CABINET, WITH BRONZE AND PORCELAIN, BY GAMBS, ST. PETERSBURG 232
CASKET OF IVORY, WITH ORMULU MOUNTINGS, BY MATIFAT, PARIS 233
TABLE AND CHAIR, IN THE CLASSIC STYLE, BY CAPELLO, TURIN 234
CABINET OF EBONY, WITH CARNELIONS, BY LITCHFIELD AND RADCLYFFE
(1862 Exhibition, Paris) 235
CABINET OF EBONY WITH BOXWOOD CARVINGS, BY FOURDINOIS, PARIS
(1867 Exhibition, London) _following_ 236
CABINET OF SATINWOOD, WITH WEDGWOOD PLAQUES, BY WRIGHT AND
MANSFIELD (1867 Exhibition, Paris) _following_ 236
CABINET OF EBONY AND IVORY BY ANDREA PICCHI, FLORENCE (1867
Exhibition, Paris) _following_ 236
DINING ROOM BY BRUCE J. TALBERT _facing_ 238
THE ELLESMERE CABINET 243
THE SALOON AT SANDRINGHAM HOUSE _following_ 244
THE DRAWING ROOM AT SANDRINGHAM HOUSE 244
CARVED FRAME BY RADSPIELER, MUNICH 248
[Illustration]
CHAPTER I.
Ancient Furniture.
BIBLICAL REFERENCES: Solomon's House and Temple--Palace of
Ahasuerus. ASSYRIAN FURNITURE: Nimrod's Palace--Mr. George Smith
quoted. EGYPTIAN FURNITURE: Specimens in the British Museum--The
Workman's Stool--Various Articles of Domestic Furniture--Dr. Birch
quoted. GREEK FURNITURE: The Bas-reliefs in the British Museum--The
Chest of Cypselus--Laws and Customs of the Greeks--House of
Alcibiades--Plutarch quoted. ROMAN FURNITURE: Position of Rome--The
Roman House--Cicero's Table--Thyine Wood--Customs of wealthy
Romans--Downfall of the Empire.
BIBLICAL REFERENCES.
[Illustration]
The first well-known reference to woodwork is to be found in the Book of
Genesis, in the instructions given to Noah to make an Ark of gopher[1]
wood, "to make a window," to "pitch it within and without with pitch," and
to observe definite measurements. From the specific directions thus handed
down to us, we may gather that mankind had acquired at a very early period
of the world's history a knowledge of the different kinds of wood, and of
the use of tools.
We know, too, from the bas-reliefs and papyri in the British Museum, how
advanced were the Ancient Egyptians in the arts of civilization, and
that the manufacture of comfortable and even luxurious furniture was
not neglected. In them, the Hebrews must have had excellent workmen for
teachers and taskmasters, to have enabled them to acquire sufficient skill
and experience to carry out such precise instructions as were given for
the erection of the Tabernacle, some 1,500 years before Christ--as to the
kinds of wood, measurements, ornaments, fastenings ("loops and taches"),
curtains of linen, and coverings of dried skins. We have only to turn
for a moment to the 25th chapter of Exodus to be convinced that all the
directions there mentioned were given to a people who had considerable
experience in the methods of carrying out work, which must have resulted
from some generations of carpenters, joiners, weavers, dyers, goldsmiths,
and other craftsmen.
A thousand years before Christ, we have those descriptions of the building
and fitting by Solomon of the glorious work of his reign, the great
Temple, and of his own, "the King's house," which gathered from different
countries the most skilful artificers of the time, an event which marks an
era of advance in the knowledge and skill of those who were thus brought
together to do their best work towards carrying out the grand scheme. It
is worth while, too, when we are referring to Old Testament information
bearing upon the subject, to notice some details of furniture which are
given, with their approximate dates as generally accepted, not because
there is any particular importance attached to the precise chronology of
the events concerned, but because, speaking generally, they form landmarks
in the history of furniture. One of these is the verse (2 Kings chap.
iv.) which tells us the contents of the "little chamber in the wall,"
when Elisha visited the Shunammite, about B.C. 895; and we are told of
the preparations for the reception of the prophet: "And let us set for
him there a bed and a table and a stool and a candlestick." Another
incident is some 420 years later, when, in the allusion to the grandeur
of the Palace of Ahasuerus, we catch a glimpse of Eastern magnificence
in the description of the drapery which furnished the apartment: "Where
were white, green, and blue hangings, fastened with cords of fine linen
and purple, to silver rings and pillars of marble; the beds were of gold
and silver, upon a pavement of red and blue and white and black marble."
(Esther i. 6.)
There are, unfortunately, no trustworthy descriptions of ancient Hebrew
furniture. The illustrations in Kitto's Bible, Mr. Henry Soltau's "The
Tabernacle, the Priesthood, and the Offerings," and other similar books,
are apparently drawn from imagination, founded on descriptions in the Old
Testament. In these, the "table for shew-bread" is generally represented
as having legs partly turned, with the upper portions square, to which
rings were attached for the poles by which it was carried. As a nomadic
people, their furniture would be but primitive, and we may take it that
as the Jews and Assyrians came from the same stock, and spoke the same
language, such ornamental furniture as there was would, with the exception
of the representations of figures of men or of animals, be of a similar
character.
ASSYRIAN FURNITURE.
[Illustration: PART OF ASSYRIAN BRONZE THRONE AND FOOTSTOOL, ABOUT B. C.
888, REIGN OF ASSHURNAZIRPAL.
(_From a Photo by Mansell & Co. of the Original in the British Museum._)]
The discoveries which have been made in the oldest seat of monarchical
government in the world, by such enterprising travellers as Sir Austin
Layard, Mr. George Smith, and others who have thrown so much light upon
domestic life in Nineveh, are full of interest in connection with this
branch of the subject. We learn from these authorities that the furniture
was ornamented with the heads of lions, bulls, and rams; tables thrones,
and couches were made of metal and wood, and probably inlaid with
ivory; the earliest chair, according to Sir Austin Layard, having been
made without a back, and the legs terminating in lion's feet or bull's
hoofs. Some were of gold, others of silver and bronze. On the monuments
of Khorsabad, representations have been discovered of chairs supported
by animals, and by human figures, probably those of prisoners. In the
British Museum is a bronze throne, found by Sir A. Layard amidst the ruins
of Nimrod's Palace, which shews ability of high order for skilled metal
work.
Mr. Smith, the famous Assyrian excavator and translator of cuniform
inscriptions, has told us in his "Assyrian Antiquities" of his finding
close to the site of Nineveh, portions of a crystal throne somewhat
similar in design to the bronze one mentioned above, and in another part
of this interesting book we have a description of an interior that is
useful in assisting us to form an idea of the condition of houses of a
date which can be correctly assigned to B.C. 860:--"Altogether in this
place I opened six chambers, all of the same character, the entrances
ornamented by clusters of square pilasters, and recesses in the rooms in
the same style; the walls were colored in horizontal bands of red, green,
and yellow, and where the lower parts of the chambers were panelled with
small stone slabs, the plaster and colours were continued over these."
Then follows a description of the drainage arrangements, and finally we
have Mr. Smith's conclusion that this was a private dwelling for the wives
and families of kings, together with the fact that on the other side of
the bricks he found the legend of Shalmeneser II. (B.C. 860), who probably
built this palace.
[Illustration: ASSYRIAN CHAIR FROM KHORSABAD.
(_In the British Museum._)]
[Illustration: ASSYRIAN CHAIR FROM XANTHUS.
(_In the British Museum._)]
[Illustration: ASSYRIAN THRONE.
(_In the British Museum._)]
In the British Museum is an elaborate piece of carved ivory, with
depressions to hold colored glass, etc., from Nineveh, which once formed
part of the inlaid ornament of a throne, shewing how richly such objects
were ornamented. This carving is said by the authorities to be of
Egyptian origin. The treatment of figures by the Assyrians was more clumsy
and more rigid, and their furniture generally was more massive than that
of the Egyptians.
An ornament often introduced into the designs of thrones and chairs is a
conventional treatment of the tree sacred to Asshur, the Assyrian Jupiter;
the pine cone, another sacred emblem, is also found, sometimes as in the
illustration of the Khorsabad chair on page 4, forming an ornamental foot,
and sometimes being part of the merely decorative design.
The bronze throne, illustrated on page 3, appears to have been of
sufficient height to require a footstool, and in "Nineveh and its Remains"
these footstools are specially alluded to. "The feet were ornamented, like
those of the chair, with the feet of lions or the hoofs of bulls."
The furniture represented in the following illustration, from a bas-relief
in the British Museum, is said to be of a period some two hundred years
later than the bronze throne and footstool.
[Illustration: REPOSE OF KING ASSHURBANIPAL.
(_From a Bas-relief in the British Museum._)]
EGYPTIAN FURNITURE.
[Illustration:
Stool. Stand for a Vase. Workman's Stool. Vase on a Stand.
Head Rest or Pillow.
FOLDING STOOL. EBONY SEAT INLAID WITH IVORY.
(_From Photos by Mansell & Co. of the Originals in the British Museum._)
]
In the consideration of ancient Egyptian furniture we find valuable
assistance in the examples carefully preserved to us, and accessible to
every one in the British Museum, and one or two of these deserve passing
notice. Nothing can be more suitable for its purpose than the "Workman's
Stool:" the seat is precisely like that of a modern kitchen chair (all
wood), slightly concaved to promote the sitter's comfort, and supported
by three legs curving outwards. This is simple, convenient, and admirably
adapted for long service. For a specimen of more ornamental work, the
folding stool in the same glass case should be examined; the supports
are crossed in a similar way to those of a modern camp-stool and the
lower parts of the legs carved as heads of geese, with inlayings of ivory
to assist the design and give richness to its execution.
[Illustration: AN EGYPTIAN OF HIGH RANK SEATED.
(_From a Photo by Mansell & Co. of the Original Wall Painting in the
British Museum._)
PERIOD: B.C. 1500-1400.]
Portions of legs and rails, turned as if by a modern lathe, mortice holes
and tenons, fill us with wonder as we look upon work which, at the most
modern computation, must be 3,000 years old, and may be of a date still
more remote.
In the same room, arranged in cases round the wall, is a collection
of several objects which, if scarcely to be classed under the head of
furniture, are articles of luxury and comfort, and demonstrate the
extraordinary state of civilisation enjoyed by the old Egyptians, and help
us to form a picture of their domestic habits.
[Illustration: AN EGYPTIAN BANQUET.
(_From a Wall Painting at Thebes._)]
Amongst these are boxes, some inlaid with various woods, and also with
little squares of bright turquoise blue pottery let in as a relief; others
veneered with ivory; wooden spoons carved in most intricate designs, of
which one, representing a girl amongst lotus flowers, is a work of great
artistic skill; boats of wood, head rests, and models of parts of houses
and granaries, together with writing materials, different kinds of tools
and implements, and a quantity of personal ornaments and requisites.
"For furniture, various woods were employed, ebony, acacia, or sont,
cedar, sycamore, and others of species not determined. Ivory, both of the
hippopotamus and elephant, were used for inlaying, as also were glass
pastes; and specimens of marquetry are not uncommon. In the paintings
in the tombs, gorgeous pictures and gilded furniture are depicted. For
cushions and mattresses, linen cloth and colored stuffs, filled with
feathers of the waterfowl, appear to have been used, while seats have
plaited bottoms of linen cord or tanned and dyed leather thrown over them,
and sometimes the skins of panthers served this purpose. For carpets they
used mats of palm fibre, on which they often sat. On the whole an Egyptian
house was lightly furnished, and not encumbered with so many articles as
are in use at the present day."
The above paragraph forms part of the notice with which the late Dr.
Birch, the eminent antiquarian, formerly at the head of this department of
the British Museum, has prefaced a catalogue of the antiquities alluded
to. The visitor to the Museum should be careful to procure one of these
useful and inexpensive guides to this portion of its contents.
Some illustrations taken from ancient statues and bas-reliefs in the
British Museum, from copies of wall paintings at Thebes and other sources,
give us a good idea of the furniture of this ancient people. Amongst the
group of illustrations on p. 6 will be seen a representation of a wooden
head-rest, which prevented the disarrangement of the coiffure of an
Egyptian lady of rank. A very similar head-rest, with a cushion attached
for comfort to the neck, is still in common use by the Japanese of the
present day.
[Illustration: CHAIR WITH CAPTIVES AS SUPPORTS.
(_From Papyrus in British Museum._)]
[Illustration: BACCHUS AND ATTENDANTS VISITING ICARUS.
(_Reproduced from a Bas-relief in the British Museum._)
PERIOD: ABOUT A.D. 100.]
GREEK FURNITURE.
An early reference to Greek furniture is made by Homer, who describes
coverlids of dyed wool, tapestries, carpets, and other accessories, which
must therefore have formed part of the contents of a great man's residence
centuries before the period which we recognise as the "meridian" of Greek
Art.
[Illustration: GREEK BEDSTEAD WITH A TABLE.
(_From an old Wall Painting._)]
In the second Vase-room of the British Museum the painting on one of
these vases represents two persons sitting on a couch, upon which is a
cushion of rich material, while for the comfort of the sitters there is a
footstool, probably of ivory. Facing page 8 there is an illustration of
a bas-relief in stone, "Bacchus received as a guest by Icarus," in which
the couch has turned legs and the feet are ornamented with carved leaf
work. Illustrations of tripods used for sacred or other purposes, and as
supports for braziers, lead us to the conclusion that tables were made
of wood, of marble, and of metal; also folding chairs, and couches for
sleeping and resting, but not for reclining at meals, as was the fashion
at a later period. In most of the designs for these various articles of
furniture there is a similarity of treatment of the head, legs, and feet
of lions, leopards, and sphinxes to that which we have noticed in the
Assyrian patterns.
[Illustration: GREEK FURNITURE.
(_From Antique Bas-reliefs._)]
The description of an interesting piece of furniture may be noticed here,
because its date is verified by its historical associations, and it was
seen and described by Pausanias about 800 years afterwards. This is the
famous chest of Cypselus of Corinth, the story of which runs that when his
mother's relations, having been warned by the Oracle of Delphi, that her
son would prove formidable to the ruling party, sought to murder him, his
life was saved by his concealment in this chest, and he became ruler of
Corinth for some 30 years (B.C. 655-625). It is said to have been made of
cedar, carved and decorated with figures and bas-reliefs, some in ivory,
some in gold or ivory part gilt, and inlaid on all four sides and on the
top.
The peculiar laws and customs of the Greeks at the time of their greatest
prosperity were not calculated to encourage display or luxury in private
life, or the collection of sumptuous furniture. Their manners were simple
and their discipline was very severe. Statuary, sculpture of the best
kind, painting of the highest merit--in a word, the best that Art could
produce--were all dedicated to the national service in the enrichment of
Temples and other public buildings, the State having indefinite and almost
unlimited power over the property of all wealthy citizens. The public
surroundings of an influential Athenian were therefore in direct contrast
to the simplicity of his home, which contained the most meagre supply
of chairs and tables, while the _chefs d'œuvre_ of Phidias, Apelles and
Praxiteles adorned the Senate House, the Theatre, and the Temple.
There were some exceptions to this rule, and we have records that during
the later years of Greek prosperity such simplicity was not observed.
Alcibiades is said to have been the first to have his house painted and
decorated, and Plutarch tells us that he kept the painter Agatharcus
a prisoner until his task was done, and then dismissed him with an
appropriate reward. Another ancient writer relates that "The guest of
a private house was enjoined to praise the decorations of the ceilings
and the beauty of the curtains suspended from between the columns." This
occurs, according to Mr. Perkins, the American translator of Dr. Falke's
German book "Kunst im Hause," in the "Wasps of Aristophanes," written B.C.
422.
The illustrations, taken from the best authorities in the British Museum,
the National Library of Paris, and other sources, shew the severe style
adopted by the Greeks in their furniture.
ROMAN FURNITURE.
As we are accustomed to look to Greece in the time of Pericles for purity
of style and perfection of taste in Art, so do we naturally expect its
gradual demoralisation in its transfer to the great Roman Empire. From
that little village on the Palatine Hill, founded some 750 years B.C.,
Rome had spread and conquered in every direction, until in the time of
Augustus she was mistress of the whole civilized world, herself the centre
of wealth, civilisation, luxury, and power. Antioch in the East, and
Alexandria in the South, ranked next to her as great cities of the world.
From the excavations of Herculaneum and Pompeii we have learned enough
to conceive some general idea of the social life of a wealthy Roman in
the time of Rome's highest prosperity. The houses had no upper story, but
enclosed two or more quadrangles, or courts, with arcades into which the
rooms opened, receiving air and ventilation from the centre open court.
The illustration opposite p. 12 will give an idea of this arrangement.
In Mr. Hungerford Pollen's useful handbook there is a description of
each room in a Roman house, with its proper Latin title and purpose; and
we know from other descriptions of Ancient Rome that the residences in
the Imperial City were divided into two distinct classes--that of the
_domus_ and _insula_, the former being the dwellings of the Roman nobles,
and corresponding to the modern _Palazzi_, while the latter were the
habitations of the middle and lower classes. Each _insula_ consisted of
several sets of apartments, generally let out to different families, and
was frequently surrounded by shops. The houses described by Mr. Pollen
appear to have had no upper story, but as ground became more valuable in
Rome, houses were built to such a height as to be a source of danger,
and in the time of Augustus there were not only strict regulations as to
building, but the height was limited to 70 feet. The Roman furniture of
the time was of the most costly kind. Tables were made of marble, gold,
silver, and bronze, and were engraved, damascened, plated, and enriched
with precious stones. The chief woods used were cedar, pine, elm, olive,
ash, ilex, beech, and maple. Ivory was much used, and not only were the
arms and legs of couches and chairs carved to represent the limbs of
animals, as has been noted in the Assyrian, Egyptian, and Greek designs,
but other parts of furniture were ornamented by carvings in bas-relief
of subjects taken from Greek mythology and legend. Veneers were cut
and applied, not as some have supposed for the purpose of economy, but
because by this means the most beautifully marked or figured specimens
of the woods could be chosen, and a much richer and more decorative
effect produced than would be possible when only solid timber was used.
As a prominent instance of the extent to which the Romans carried the
costliness of some special pieces of furniture, we have it recorded on
good authority (Mr. Pollen) that the table made for Cicero cost a million
sesterces, a sum equal to about £9,000, and that one belonging to King
Juba was sold by auction for the equivalent of £10,000.
[Illustration: INTERIOR OF AN ANCIENT ROMAN HOUSE.
Said to have been that of Sallust.
PERIOD: B.C. 20 TO A.D. 20.]
[Illustration: A ROMAN STUDY.
Shewing Scrolls or Books in a "Scrinium;" also Lamp, Writing Tables, etc.]
Cicero's table was made of a wood called Thyine--wood which was brought
from Africa and held in the highest esteem. It was valued not only on
account of its beauty but also from superstitious or religious reasons.
The possession of thyine wood was supposed to bring good luck, and its
sacredness arose from the fact that from it was produced the incense used
by the priests. Dr. Edward Clapton, of St. Thomas' Hospital, who made a
collection of woods named in the Scriptures, managed to secure a specimen
of thyine, which a friend of his obtained on the Atlas Mountains. It
resembles the woods which we know as tuyere and amboyna.[2]
Roman, like Greek houses, were divided into two portions--the front
for the reception of guests and the duties of society, with the back
for household purposes, and the occupation of the wife and family; for
although the position of the Roman wife was superior to that of her Greek
contemporary, which was little better than that of a slave, still it was
very different to its later development.
The illustration following p. 16, of a repast in the house of Sallust,
represents the host and his eight male guests reclining on the seats of
the period, each of which held three persons, and was called a triclinium,
making up the favourite number of a Roman dinner party, and possibly
giving us the proverbial saying--"Not less than the Graces nor more than
the Muses"--which is still held to be a popular regulation for a dinner
party.
[Illustration: ROMAN SCAMNUM OR BENCH.]
[Illustration: ROMAN BISELLIUM, OR SEAT FOR TWO PERSONS.
But generally occupied by one, on occasions of festivals, etc.]
From discoveries at Herculaneum and Pompeii a great deal of information
has been gained of the domestic life of the wealthier Roman citizens, and
there is a useful illustration on the preceding page of the furniture of a
library or study in which the designs are very similar to the Greek ones
we have noticed; it is not improbable they were made and executed by Greek
workmen.
It will be seen that the books such as were then used, instead of being
placed on shelves or in a bookcase, were kept in round boxes called
_Scrinia_, which were generally of beech wood, and could be locked or
sealed when required. The books in rolls or sewn together were thus easily
carried about by the owner on his journeys.
Mr. Hungerford Pollen mentions that wearing apparel was kept in
_vestiaria_, or wardrobe rooms, and he quotes Plutarch's anecdote of the
purple cloaks of Lucullus, which were so numerous that they must have been
stored in capacious hanging closets rather than in chests.
In the _atrium_, or public reception room, was probably the best furniture
in the house. According to Moule's "Essay on Roman Villas," "it was here
that numbers assembled daily to pay their respects to their patron, to
consult the legislator, to attract the notice of the statesman, or to
derive importance in the eyes of the public from the apparent intimacy
with a man in power."
The growth of the Roman Empire eastward, the colonisation of Oriental
countries, and subsequently the establishment of an Eastern Empire,
produced gradually an alteration in Greek design, and though, if we were
discussing the merits of design and the canons of taste, this might be
considered a decline, still its influence on furniture was doubtless to
produce more ease and luxury, more warmth and comfort, than would be
possible if the outline of every article of useful furniture were decided
by a rigid adherence to classical principles. We have seen that this was
more consonant with the public life of an Athenian; but the Romans, in
the later period of the Empire, with their wealth, their extravagance,
their slaves, their immorality and gross sensuality, lived in a splendour
and with a prodigality that well accorded with the gorgeous coloring
of Eastern hangings and embroideries, of rich carpets and comfortable
cushions, of the lavish use of gold and silver, and meretricious and
redundant ornament.
[Illustration: ROMAN COUCH, GENERALLY OF BRONZE.
(_From an Antique Bas-relief._)]
This slight sketch, brief and inadequate as it is, of a history of
furniture from the earliest time of which we have any record, until
from the extraordinary growth of the vast Roman Empire, the arts and
manufactures of every country became as it were centralised and focussed
in the palaces of the wealthy Romans, brings us down to the commencement
of what has been deservedly called "the greatest event in history"--the
decline and fall of this enormous empire. For fifteen generations, for
some five hundred years, did this decay, this vast revolution, proceed
to its conclusion. Barbarian hosts settled down in provinces they had
overrun and conquered, the old Pagan world died as it were, and the new
Christian era dawned. From the latter end of the second century until
the last of the Western Cæsars, in A.D. 476, it is, with the exception of
a short interval when the strong hand of the great Theodosius stayed the
avalanche of Rome's invaders, one long story of the defeat and humiliation
of the citizens of the greatest power the world has ever known. It is a
vast drama that the genius and patience of a Gibbon has alone been able
to deal with, defying almost by its gigantic catastrophes and ever raging
turbulence the pen of history to chronicle and arrange. When the curtain
rises on a new order of things, the age of Paganism has passed away, and
the period of the Middle Ages will have commenced.
[Illustration: ROMAN BRONZE LAMP AND STAND.
(_Found in Pompeii._)]
[Illustration: THE ROMAN TRICLINIUM, OR DINING ROOM.
The plan in the margin shews the position of guests; the place of honor
was that which is indicated by "No. 1," and that of the host by "No. 9."
(_The Illustration is taken from Dr. Jacob von Falke's "Kunst im Hause."_)]
[Illustration: Plan of Triclinium.]
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 1: Gopher is supposed to mean cypress wood. See Notes on Woods
(Appendix).]
[Footnote 2: See also Notes on Woods (Appendix).]