In 1813-1814, as major-general of militia, he commanded in the campaign

against the Creek Indians in Georgia and Alabama, defeated them (at

Talladega, on the 9th of November 1813, and at Tohopeka, on the 29th of

March 1814), and thus first attracted public notice by his talents. In

May 1814 he was commissioned as major-general in the regular army to

serve against the British; in November he captured Pensacola, Florida,

then owned by Spain, but used by the British as a base of operations;

and on the 8th of January 1815 he inflicted a severe defeat on the enemy

before New Orleans, the contestants being unaware that a treaty of peace

had already been signed. During his stay in New Orleans he proclaimed

martial law, and carried out his measures with unrelenting sternness,

banishing from the town a judge who attempted resistance. When civil law

was restored, Jackson was fined $1000 for contempt of court; in 1844

Congress ordered the fine with interest ($2700) to be repaid. In 1818

Jackson received the command against the Seminoles. His conduct in

following them up into the Spanish territory of Florida, in seizing

Pensacola, and in arresting and executing two British subjects,

Alexander Arbuthnot and Robert Ambrister, gave rise to much hostile

comment in the cabinet and in Congress; but the negotiations for the

purchase of Florida put an end to the diplomatic difficulty. In 1821

Jackson was military governor of the territory of Florida, and there

again he came into collision with the civil authority. From this, as

from previous troubles, John Quincy Adams, then secretary of state,

extricated him.

In July 1822 the general assembly of Tennessee nominated Jackson for

president; and in 1823 he was elected to the United States Senate, from

which he resigned in 1825. The rival candidates for the office of

president in the campaign of 1824 were Jackson, John Quincy Adams, W. H.

Crawford and Henry Clay. Jackson obtained the largest number of votes

(99) in the electoral college (Adams receiving 84, Crawford 41 and Clay

37); but no one had an absolute majority, and it thus became the duty of

the House of Representatives to choose one of the three

candidates--Adams, Jackson and Crawford--who had received the greatest

numbers of electoral votes. At the election by the house (February 9,

1825) Adams was chosen, receiving the votes of 13 states, while Jackson

received the votes of 7 and Crawford the votes of 4. Jackson, however,

was recognized by the abler politicians as the coming man. Martin Van

Buren and others, going into opposition under his banner, waged from the

first a relentless and factious war on the administration. Van Buren was

the most adroit politician of his time; and Jackson was in the hands of

very astute men, who advised and controlled him. He was easy to lead

when his mind was in solution; and he gave his confidence freely where

he had once placed it. He was not suspicious, but if he withdrew his

confidence he was implacable. When his mind crystallized on a notion

that had a personal significance to himself, that notion became a hard

fact that filled his field of vision. When he was told that he had been

cheated in the matter of the presidency,[1] he was sure of it, although

those who told him were by no means so.

There was great significance in the election of Jackson in 1828. A new

generation was growing up under new economic and social conditions. They

felt great confidence in themselves and great independence. They

despised tradition and Old World ways and notions; and they accepted the

Jeffersonian dogmas, not only as maxims, but as social forces--the

causes of the material prosperity of the country. By this generation,

therefore, Jackson was recognized as a man after their own heart. They

liked him because he was vigorous, brusque, uncouth, relentless,

straightforward and open. They made him president in 1828, and he

fulfilled all their expectations. He had 178 votes in the electoral

college against 83 given for Adams. Though the work of redistribution of

offices began almost at his inauguration, it is yet an incorrect account

of the matter to say that Jackson corrupted the civil service. His

administration is rather the date at which a system of democracy,

organized by the use of patronage, was introduced into the federal arena

by Van Buren. It was at this time that the Democratic or Republican

party divided, largely along personal lines, into Jacksonian Democrats

and National Republicans, the latter led by such men as Henry Clay and

J. Q. Adams. The administration itself had two factions in it from the

first, the faction of Van Buren, the secretary of state in 1829-1831,

and that of Calhoun, vice-president in 1829-1832. The refusal of the

wives of the cabinet and of Mrs Calhoun to accord social recognition to

Mrs J. H. Eaton brought about a rupture, and in April 1831 the whole

cabinet was reorganized. Van Buren, a widower, sided with the president

in this affair and grew in his favour. Jackson in the meantime had

learned that Calhoun as secretary of war had wished to censure him for

his actions during the Seminole war in Florida in 1818, and henceforth

he regarded the South Carolina statesman as his enemy. The result was

that Jackson transferred to Van Buren his support for succession in the

presidency. The relations between Jackson and his cabinet were unlike

those existing under his predecessors. Having a military point of view,

he was inclined to look upon the cabinet members as inferior officers,

and when in need of advice he usually consulted a group of personal

friends, who came to be called the "Kitchen Cabinet." The principal

members of this clique were William B. Lewis (1784-1866), Amos Kendall

and Duff Green, the last named being editor of the _United States

Telegraph_, the organ of the administration.

In 1832 Jackson was re-elected by a large majority (219 electoral votes

to 49) over Henry Clay, his chief opponent. The battle raged mainly

around the re-charter of the Bank of the United States. It is probable

that Jackson's advisers in 1828 had told him, though erroneously, that

the bank had worked against him, and then were not able to control him.

The first message of his first presidency had contained a severe

reflection on the bank; and in the very height of this second campaign

(July 1832) he vetoed the re-charter, which had been passed in the

session of 1831-1832. Jackson interpreted his re-election as an approval

by the people of his war on the bank, and he pushed it with energy. In

September 1833 he ordered the public deposits in the bank to be

transferred to selected local banks, and entered upon the "experiment"

whether these could not act as fiscal agents for the government, and

whether the desire to get the deposits would not induce the local banks

to adopt sound rules of currency. During the next session the Senate

passed a resolution condemning his conduct. Jackson protested, and after

a hard struggle, in which Jackson's friends were led by Senator Thomas

Hart Benton, the resolution was ordered to be expunged from the record,

on the 16th of January 1837.

In 1832, when the state of South Carolina attempted to "nullify" the

tariff laws, Jackson at once took steps to enforce the authority of the

federal government, ordering two war vessels to Charleston and placing

troops within convenient distance. He also issued a proclamation warning

the people of South Carolina against the consequences of their conduct.

In the troubles between Georgia and the Cherokee Indians, however, he

took a different stand. Shortly after his first election Georgia passed

an act extending over the Cherokee country the civil laws of the state.

This was contrary to the rights of the Cherokees under a federal treaty,

and the Supreme Court consequently declared the act void (1832).

Jackson, however, having the frontiersman's contempt for the Indian,

refused to enforce the decision of the court (see NULLIFICATION;

GEORGIA: _History_).

Jackson was very successful in collecting old claims against various

European nations for spoliations inflicted under Napoleon's continental

system, especially the French spoliation claims, with reference to which

he acted with aggressiveness and firmness. Aiming at a currency to

consist largely of specie, he caused the payment of these claims to be

received and imported in specie as far as possible; and in 1836 he

ordered land-agents to receive for land nothing but specie. About the

same time a law passed Congress for distributing among the states some

$35,000,000 balance belonging to the United States, the public debt

having all been paid. The eighty banks of deposit in which it was lying

had regarded this sum almost as a permanent loan, and had inflated

credit on the basis of it. The necessary calling in of their loans in

order to meet the drafts in favour of the states, combining with the

breach of the overstrained credit between America and Europe and the

decline in the price of cotton, brought about a crash which prostrated

the whole financial, industrial and commercial system of the country for

six or seven years. The crash came just as Jackson was leaving office;

the whole burden fell on his successor, Van Buren.

In the 18th century the influences at work in the American colonies

developed democratic notions. In fact, the circumstances were those

which create equality of wealth and condition, as far as civilized men

ever can be equal. The War of Independence was attended by a grand

outburst of political dogmatism of the democratic type. A class of men

were produced who believed in very broad dogmas of popular power and

rights. There were a few rich men, but they were almost ashamed to

differ from their neighbours and, in some known cases, they affected

democracy in order to win popularity. After the 19th century began the

class of rich men rapidly increased. In the first years of the century a

little clique at Philadelphia became alarmed at the increase of the

"money power," and at the growing perils to democracy. They attacked

with some violence, but little skill, the first Bank of the United

States, and they prevented its re-charter. The most permanent interest

of the history of the United States is the picture it offers of a

primitive democratic society transformed by prosperity and the

acquisition of capital into a great republican commonwealth. The

denunciations of the "money power" and the reiteration of democratic

dogmas deserve earnest attention. They show the development of classes

or parties in the old undifferentiated mass. Jackson came upon the

political stage just when a wealthy class first existed. It was an

industrial and commercial class greatly interested in the tariff, and

deeply interested also in the then current forms of issue banking. The

southern planters also were rich, but were agriculturists and remained

philosophical Democrats. Jackson was a man of low birth, uneducated,

prejudiced, and marked by strong personal feeling in all his beliefs and

disbeliefs. He showed, in his military work and in his early political

doings, great lack of discipline. The proposal to make him president won

his assent and awakened his ambition. In anything which he undertook he

always wanted to carry his point almost regardless of incidental effects

on himself or others. He soon became completely engaged in the effort to

be made president. The men nearest to him understood his character and

played on it. It was suggested to him that the money power was against

him. That meant that, to the educated or cultivated class of that day,

he did not seem to be in the class from which a president should be

chosen. He took the idea that the Bank of the United States was leading

the money power against him, and that he was the champion of the masses

of democracy and of the common people. The opposite party, led by Clay,

Adams, Biddle, &c., had schemes for banks and tariffs, enterprises which

were open to severe criticism. The political struggle was very intense

and there were two good sides to it. Men like Thomas H. Benton, Edward

Livingston, Amos Kendall, and the southern statesmen, found material for

strong attacks on the Whigs. The great mass of voters felt the issue as

Jackson's managers stated it. That meant that the masses recognized

Jackson as their champion. Therefore, Jackson's personality and name

became a power on the side opposed to banks, corporations and other

forms of the new growing power of capital. That Jackson was a typical

man of his generation is certain. He represents the spirit and temper of

the free American of that day, and it was a part of his way of thinking

and acting that he put his whole life and interest into the conflict. He

accomplished two things of great importance in the history: he crushed

excessive state-rights and established the contrary doctrine in fact and

in the political orthodoxy of the democrats; he destroyed the great

bank. The subsequent history of the bank left it without an apologist,

and prejudiced the whole later judgment about it. The way in which

Jackson accomplished these things was such that it cost the country ten

years of the severest liquidation, and left conflicting traditions of

public policy in the Democratic party. After he left Washington, Jackson

fell into discord with his most intimate old friends, and turned his

interest to the cause of slavery, which he thought to be attacked and in

danger.

Jackson is the only president of whom it may be said that he went out of

office far more popular than he was when he entered. When he went into

office he had no political opinions, only some popular notions. He left

his party strong, perfectly organized and enthusiastic on a platform of

low expenditure, payment of the debt, no expenditure for public

improvement or for glory or display in any form and low taxes. His name

still remained a spell to conjure with, and the politicians sought to

obtain the assistance of his approval for their schemes; but in general

his last years were quiet and uneventful. He died at his residence, "The

Hermitage," near Nashville, Tennessee, on the 8th of June 1845.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Of the early biographies, that by J. H. Eaton

(Philadelphia, 1824) is a history of Jackson's early military

exploits, written for political purposes. Amos Kendall's _Life_ (New

York, 1843) is incomplete, extending only to 1814. James Parton's

elaborate work (3 vols., New York, 1860) is still useful. Parton

prepared a shorter biography for the "Great Commanders Series" (New

York, 1893), which emphasizes Jackson's military career. W. G.

Sumner's _Andrew Jackson_ in the "American Statesmen Series" (Boston,

1882; revised, 1899) combines the leading facts of Jackson's life with

a history of his times. W. G. Brown wrote an appreciative sketch

(Boston, 1900) for the "Riverside Biographical Series." Of more recent

works the most elaborate are the _History of Andrew Jackson_, by A. C.

Buell (New York, 1904), marred by numerous errors, and the _Life and

Times of Andrew Jackson_, by A. S. Colyar (Nashville, 1904). Charles

H. Peck's _The Jacksonian Epoch_ (New York, 1899) is an account of

national politics from 1815 to 1840, in which the antagonism of

Jackson and Clay is emphasized. (W. G. S.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The charge was freely made then and afterwards (though, it is now

believed, without justification) that Clay had supported Adams and by

influencing his followers in the house had been instrumental in

securing his election, as the result of a bargain by which Adams had

agreed to pay him for his support by appointing him secretary of

state.

JACKSON, CYRIL (1746-1819), dean of Christ Church, Oxford, was born in

Yorkshire, and educated at Westminster and Oxford. In 1771 he was chosen

to be sub-preceptor to the two eldest sons of George III., but in 1776

he was dismissed, probably through some household intrigues. He then

took orders, and was appointed in 1779 to the preachership at Lincoln's

Inn and to a canonry at Christ Church, Oxford. In 1783 he was elected

dean of Christ Church. His devotion to the college led him to decline

the bishopric of Oxford in 1799 and the primacy of Ireland in 1800. He

took a leading part in framing the statute which, in 1802, launched the

system of public examinations at Oxford, but otherwise he was not

prominent in university affairs. On his resignation in 1809 he settled

at Felpham, in Sussex, where he remained till his death.

JACKSON, FREDERICK GEORGE (1860- ), British Arctic explorer, was

educated at Denstone College and Edinburgh University. His first voyage

in Arctic waters was on a whaling-cruise in 1886-1887, and in 1893 he

made a sledge-journey of 3000 miles across the frozen _tundra_ of

Siberia lying between the Ob and the Pechora. His narrative of this

journey was published under the title of _The Great Frozen Land_ (1895).

On his return, he was given the command of the Jackson-Harmsworth Arctic

expedition (1894-1897), which had for its objective the general

exploration of Franz Josef Land. In recognition of his services he

received a knighthood of the first class of the Danish Royal Order of St

Olaf in 1898, and was awarded the gold medal of the Paris Geographical

Society in 1899. His account of the expedition was published under the

title of _A Thousand Days in the Arctic_ (1899). He served in South

Africa during the Boer War, and obtained the rank of captain. His

travels also include a journey across the Australian deserts.

JACKSON, HELEN MARIA (1831-1885), American poet and novelist, who wrote

under the initials of "H. H." (Helen Hunt), was born in Amherst,

Massachusetts, on the 18th of October 1831, the daughter of Nathan Welby

Fiske (1798-1847), who was a professor in Amherst College. In October

1852 she married Lieutenant Edward Bissell Hunt (1822-1863), of the U.S.

corps of engineers. In 1870 she published a little volume of meditative

_Verses_, which was praised by Emerson in the preface to his _Parnassus_

(1874). In 1875 she married William S. Jackson, a banker, of Colorado

Springs. She became a prolific writer of prose and verse, including

juvenile tales, books of travel, household hints and novels, of which

the best is _Ramona_ (1884), a defence of the Indian character. In 1883,

as a special commissioner with Abbot Kinney (b. 1850), she investigated

the condition and needs of the Mission Indians in California. _A Century

of Dishonor_ (1881) was an arraignment of the treatment of the Indians

by the United States. She died on the 12th of August 1885 in San

Francisco.

In addition to her publications referred to above, _Mercy Philbrick's

Choice_ (1876), _Hetty's Strange History_ (1877), _Zeph_ (1886), and

_Sonnets and Lyrics_ (1886) may be mentioned.

JACKSON, MASON (c. 1820-1903), British engraver, was born at

Berwick-on-Tweed about 1820, and was trained as a wood engraver by his

brother, John Jackson, the author of a history of this art. In the

middle of the 19th century he made a considerable reputation by his

engravings for the Art Union of London, and for Knight's _Shakespeare_

and other standard books; and in 1860 he was appointed art editor of the

_Illustrated London News_, a post which he held for thirty years. He

wrote a history of the rise and progress of illustrated journalism. He

died in December 1903.

JACKSON, THOMAS (1579-1640), president of Corpus Christi College,

Oxford, and dean of Peterborough, was born at Witton-le-Wear, Durham,

and educated at Oxford. He became a probationer fellow of Corpus in

1606, and was soon afterwards elected vice-president. In 1623 he was

presented to the living of St Nicholas, Newcastle, and about 1625 to the

living of Winston, Durham. Five years later he was appointed president

of Corpus, and in 1632 the king presented him to the living of Witney,

Oxfordshire. He was made a prebendary of Winchester in 1635, and was

dean of Peterborough in 1635-1639. Although originally a Calvinist, he

became in later life an Arminian.

His chief work was a series of commentaries on the Apostles' Creed,

the first complete edition being entitled _The Works of Thomas

Jackson, D.D._ (London, 1673). The commentaries were, however,

originally published in 1613-1657, as twelve books with different

titles, the first being _The Eternal Truth of Scriptures_ (London,

1613).

JACKSON, THOMAS JONATHAN (1824-1863), known as "Stonewall Jackson,"

American general, was born at Clarksburg, Virginia (now West Virginia),

on the 21st of January 1824, and was descended from an Ulster family. At

an early age he was left a penniless orphan, and his education was

acquired in a small country school until he procured, mainly by his own

energy, a nomination to the Military Academy. Lack of social graces and

the deficiencies of his early education impeded him at first, but "in

the end 'Old Jack,' as he was always called, with his desperate

earnestness, his unflinching straightforwardness, and his high sense of

honour, came to be regarded with something like affection." Such

qualities he displayed not less amongst the light-hearted cadets than

afterwards at the head of troops in battle. After graduating he took

part, as second lieutenant in the 1st U.S. Artillery, in the Mexican

War. At Vera Cruz he won the rank of first lieutenant, and for gallant

conduct at Contreras and Chapultepec respectively he was brevetted

captain and major, a rank which he attained with less than one year's

service. During his stay in the city of Mexico his thoughts were

seriously directed towards religion, and, eventually entering the

Presbyterian communion, he ruled every subsequent action of his life by

his faith. In 1851 he applied for and obtained a professorship at the

Virginia military institute, Lexington; and here, except for a short

visit to Europe, he remained for ten years, teaching natural science,

the theory of gunnery and battalion drill. Though he was not a good

teacher, his influence both on his pupils and on those few intimate

friends for whom alone he relaxed the gravity of his manner was

profound, and, little as he was known to the white inhabitants of

Lexington, he was revered by the slaves, to whom he showed uniform

kindness, and for whose moral instruction he worked unceasingly. As to

the great question at issue in 1861, Major Jackson's ruling motive was

devotion to his state, and when Virginia seceded, on the 17th of April,

and the Lexington cadets were ordered to Richmond, Jackson went thither

in command of the corps. His intimate friend, Governor Letcher,

appreciating his gifts, sent him as a colonel of infantry to Harper's

Ferry, where the first collision with the Union forces was hourly

expected. In June he received the command of a brigade, and in July

promotion to the rank of brigadier-general. He had well employed the

short time at his disposal for training his men, and on the first field

of Bull Run they won for themselves and their brigadier, by their rigid

steadiness at the critical moment of the battle, the historic name of

"Stonewall."

After the battle of Bull Run Jackson spent some time in the further

training of his brigade which, to his infinite regret, he was compelled

to leave behind him when, in October, he was assigned as a major-general

to command in the Shenandoah Valley. His army had to be formed out of

local troops, and few modern weapons were available, but the Valley

regiments retained the impress of Jackson's training till the days of

Cedar Creek. Discipline was not acquired at once, however, and the first

ventures of the force were not very successful. At Kernstown, indeed,

Jackson was tactically defeated by the Federals under Shields (March 23,

1862). But the Stonewall brigade had been sent to its old leader in

November, and by the time that the famous Valley Campaign (see

SHENANDOAH VALLEY CAMPAIGNS) began, the forces under Jackson's command

had acquired cohesion and power of manoeuvre. On the 8th of May 1862 was

fought the combat of McDowell, won by Jackson against the leading troops

of Frémont's command from West Virginia. Three weeks later the forces

under Banks were being driven over the Potomac at Harper's Ferry, and

Jackson was master of the Valley. Every other plan of campaign in

Virginia was at once subordinated to the scheme of "trapping Jackson."

But the Confederates, marching swiftly up the Valley, slipped between

the converging columns of Frémont from the west and McDowell from the

east, and concluded a most daring campaign by the victorious actions of

Cross Keys and Port Republic (8th and 9th of June). While the forces of

the North were still scattered, Jackson secretly left the Valley to take

a decisive part in Lee's campaign before Richmond. In the "Seven Days"

Jackson was frequently at fault, but his driving energy bore no small

part in securing the defeat of McClellan's advance on Richmond. Here he

passed for the first time under the direct orders of Robert Lee, and the

rest of his career was spent in command of the II. corps of the Army of

Northern Virginia. As Lee's chief and most trusted subordinate he was

throughout charged with the execution of the more delicate and difficult

operations of his commander's hazardous strategy. After his victory over

Banks at Cedar Mountain, near Culpeper, Virginia, Jackson led the daring

march round the flank of General Pope's army, which against all

theoretical rules ended in the great victory of second Bull Run. In the

Maryland campaign Lieut.-General Jackson was again detached from the

main army. Eleven thousand Federals, surrounded in Harper's Ferry, were

forced to surrender, and Jackson rejoined Lee just in time to oppose

McClellan's advance. At the Antietam his corps bore the brunt of the

battle, which was one of the most stubborn of modern warfare. At

Fredericksburg his wing of Lee's line of battle was heavily engaged, and

his last battle, before Chancellorsville, in the thickets of the

Wilderness, was his greatest triumph. By one of his swift and secret

flank marches he placed his corps on the flank of the enemy, and on the

2nd of May flung them against the Federal XI. corps, which was utterly

routed. At the close of a day of victory he was reconnoitring the

hostile positions when suddenly the Confederate outposts opened fire

upon his staff, whom they mistook in the dark and tangled forest for

Federal cavalry. Jackson fell wounded, and on the 10th of May he died at

Guinea's station. He was buried, according to his own wish, at

Lexington, where a statue and a memorial hall commemorate his connexion

with the place; and on the spot where he was mortally wounded stands a

plain granite pillar. The first contribution towards the bronze statue

at Richmond was made by the negro Baptist congregation for which Jackson

had laboured so earnestly in his Lexington years. He was twice married,

first to Eleanor (d. 1854), daughter of George Junkin, president of

Washington College, Virginia, and secondly in 1857 to Mary Anna

Morrison, daughter of a North Carolina clergyman.

That Jackson's death, at a critical moment of the fortunes of the

Confederacy, was an irreparable loss was disputed by no one. Lee said

that he had lost his right arm, and, good soldiers as were the other

generals, not one amongst them was comparable to Jackson, whose name was

dreaded in the North like that of Lee himself. His military character

was the enlargement of his personal character--"desperate earnestness,

unflinching straightforwardness," and absolute, almost fatalist, trust

in the guidance of providence. At the head of his troops, who idolized

him, he was a Cromwell, adding to the zeal of a fanatic and the energy

of the born leader the special military skill and trained soldierly

spirit which the English commander had to gain by experience. His

Christianity was conspicuous, even amongst deeply religious men like Lee

and Stuart, and penetrated every part of his character and conduct.

See lives by R. L. Dabney (New York, 1883), J. E. Cooke (New York,

1866), M. A. Jackson (General Jackson's widow) (New York, 1892); and

especially G. F. R. Henderson, _Stonewall Jackson_ (London, 1898), and

H. A. White, _Stonewall Jackson_ (Philadelphia, 1909).

JACKSON, WILLIAM (1730-1803), English musician, was born at Exeter on

the 29th of May 1730. His father, a grocer, bestowed a liberal education

upon him, but, on account of the lad's strong predilection for music,

was induced to place him under the care of John Silvester, the organist

of Exeter Cathedral, with whom he remained about two years. In 1748 he

went to London, and studied under John Travers, organist of the king's

chapel. Returning to Exeter, he settled there as a teacher and composer,

and in 1777 was appointed subchanter, organist, lay-vicar and master of

the choristers of the cathedral. In 1755 he published his first work,

_Twelve Songs_, which became at once highly popular. His next

publication, _Six Sonatas for the Harpsichord_, was a failure. His third

work, _Six Elegies for three voices, preceded by an Invocation, with an

Accompaniment_, placed him among the first composers of his day. His

fourth work was another set of _Twelve Songs_, now very scarce; and his

fifth work was again a set of _Twelve Songs_, all of which are now

forgotten. He next published _Twelve Hymns_, with some good remarks upon

that style of composition, although his precepts were better than his

practice. A set of _Twelve Songs_ followed, containing some good

compositions. Next came an _Ode to Fancy_, the words by Dr Warton.

_Twelve Canzonets for two voices_ formed his ninth work; and one of

them--"Time has not thinned my Flowing Hair"--long held a place at

public and private concerts. His tenth work was _Eight Sonatas for the

Harpsichord_, some of which were novel and pleasing. He composed three

dramatic pieces,--_Lycidas_ (1767), _The Lord of the Manor_, to General

Burgoyne's words (1780), and _The Metamorphoses_, a comic opera produced

at Drury Lane in 1783, which did not succeed. In the second of these

dramatic works, two airs--"Encompassed in an Angel's Form" and "When

first this Humble Roof I knew"--were great favourites. His church music

was published after his death by James Paddon (1820); most of it is

poor, but "Jackson in F" was for many years popular. In 1782 he

published _Thirty Letters on Various Subjects_, in which he severely

attacked canons, and described William Bird's _Non nobis Domine_ as

containing passages not to be endured. But his anger and contempt were

most strongly expressed against catches of all kinds, which he denounced

as barbarous. In 1791 he put forth a pamphlet, _Observations on the

Present State of Music in London_, in which he found fault with

everything and everybody. He published in 1798 _The Four Ages, together

with Essays on Various Subjects_,--a work which gives a favourable idea

of his character and of his literary acquirements. Jackson also

cultivated a taste for landscape painting, and imitated, not

unsuccessfully, the style of his friend Gainsborough. He died on the 5th

of July 1803.

JACKSON, a city and the county-seat of Jackson county, Michigan, U.S.A.,

on both sides of the Grand River, 76 m. W. of Detroit. Pop. (1890),

20,798; (1900), 25,180, of whom 3843 were foreign-born (1004 German, 941

English Canadian); (1910 census) 31,433. It is served by the Michigan

Central, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Grand Trunk and the

Cincinnati Northern railways, and by inter-urban electric lines. It is

the seat of the state prison (established 1839). Coal is mined in the

vicinity; the city has a large trade with the surrounding agricultural

district (whose distinctive product is beans); the Michigan Central

railway has car and machine shops here; and the city has many

manufacturing establishments. The total factory product in 1904 was

valued at $8,348,125, an increase of 24.4% over that of 1900. The

municipality owns and operates its water-works. The place was formerly a

favourite camping ground of the Indians, and was settled by whites in

1829. In 1830 it was laid out as a town, selected for the county-seat,

and named Jacksonburg in honour of Andrew Jackson; the present name was

adopted in 1838. Jackson was incorporated as a village in 1843, and in

1857 was chartered as a city. It was at a convention held at Jackson on

the 6th of July 1854 that the Republican party was first organized and

so named by a representative state body.

JACKSON, a city and the county-seat of Hinds county, Mississippi,

U.S.A., and the capital of the state, on the W. bank of the Pearl River,

about 40 m. E. of Vicksburg and 185 m. N. of New Orleans, Louisiana.

Pop. (1890), 5920; (1900), 7816, of whom 4447 were negroes. According to

the Federal census taken in 1910 the population had increased to 21,262.

Jackson is served by the Illinois Central, the Alabama & Vicksburg, the

Gulf & Ship Island, New Orleans Great Northern, and the Yazoo &

Mississippi Valley railways, and during the winter by small freight and

passenger steamboats on the Pearl River. In Jackson is the state

library, with more than 80,000 volumes. The new state capitol was

finished in 1903. The old state capitol, dating from 1839, is of

considerable interest; in it were held the secession convention (1861),

the "Black and Tan Convention" (1868), and the constitutional convention

of 1890, and in it Jefferson Davis made his last speech (1884). Jackson

is the seat of Millsaps College, chartered in 1890 and opened in 1892

(under the control of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South), and

having, in 1907-1908, 12 instructors and 297 students; of Belhaven

College (non-sectarian, 1894), for girls; and of Jackson College

(founded in 1877 at Natchez by the American Baptist Home Mission

Society; in 1883 removed to Jackson), for negroes, which had 356

students in 1907-1908. The city is a market for cotton and farm

products, and has a number of manufactories. In 1821 the site was

designated as the seat of the state government, and early in the

following year the town, named in honour of Andrew Jackson, was laid

out. The legislature first met here in December 1822. It was not until

1840 that it was chartered as a city. During the Civil War Jackson was

in the theatre of active campaigning. On the 14th of May 1863 Johnston

who then held the city, was attacked on both sides by Sherman and

McPherson with two corps of Grant's army, which, after a sharp

engagement, drove the Confederates from the town. After the fall of

Vicksburg Johnston concentrated his forces at Jackson, which had been

evacuated by the Federal troops, and prepared to make a stand behind the

intrenchments. On the 9th of July Sherman began an investment of the

place, and during the succeeding week a sharp bombardment was carried

on. In the night of the 16th Johnston, taking advantage of a lull in the

firing, withdrew suddenly from the city. Sherman's army entered on the

17th and remained five days, burning a considerable part of the city and

ravaging the surrounding country.

JACKSON, a city and the county-seat of Madison county, Tennessee,

U.S.A., situated on the Forked Deer river, about 85 m. N.E. of Memphis.

Pop. (1890), 10,039; (1900), 14,511, of whom 6108 were negroes; (1910

census), 15,779. It is served by the Mobile & Ohio, the Nashville,

Chattanooga & St Louis and the Illinois Central railways. The state

supreme court holds its sessions here for the western district of

Tennessee. The city is the seat of Union University (co-educational),

chartered in 1875 as Southwestern Baptist University, and conducted

under that name at Jackson until 1907, when the present name was

adopted. In 1907-1908 the university had 17 instructors and 280

students. At Jackson, also, are St Mary's Academy (Roman Catholic); the

Memphis Conference Female Institute (Methodist Episcopal, South, 1843),

and Lane College (for negroes), under the control of the Colored

Methodist Episcopal Church. Jackson is an important cotton market, and

is a shipping point for the farm products and fruits of the surrounding

country. It has also numerous manufactures and railway shops. The total

value of the factory product in 1905 was $2,317,715. The municipality

owns and operates the electric-lighting plant and the water-works. There

is in the city an electro-chalybeate well with therapeutic properties.

Jackson was settled about 1820, incorporated as a town in 1823,

chartered as a city in 1854, and in 1907 received a new charter by which

the sale of intoxicating liquors is forever prohibited. After General

Grant's advance into Tennessee in 1862 Jackson was fortified and became

an important base of operations for the Federal army, Grant himself

establishing his headquarters here in October.

JACKSONVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Duval county, Florida,

U.S.A., in the N.E. part of the state, on the left bank of the St John's

River, 14 m. from the Atlantic Ocean as the crow flies and about 27 m.

by water. Pop. (1890), 17,201; (1900), 28,429, of whom 16,236 were

negroes and 1166 foreign-born; (1910 census) 57,699; the city being the

largest in the state. It is served by the Southern, the Atlantic Coast

Line, the Seaboard Air Line, the Georgia Southern & Florida and the

Florida East Coast railways, and by several steamship lines.[1] It is

the largest railway centre in the state, and is popularly known as the

Gate City of Florida. In appearance Jacksonville is very attractive. It

has many handsome buildings, and its residential streets are shaded with

live-oaks, water oaks and bitter-orange trees. Jacksonville is the seat

of two schools for negroes, the Florida Baptist Academy and Cookman

Institute (1872; Methodist Episcopal). Many winter visitors are annually

attracted by the excellent climate, the mean temperature for the winter

months being about 55° F. Among the places of interest in the vicinity

is the large Florida ostrich farm. There are numerous municipal and

other parks. The city owns and operates its electric-lighting plant and

its water-works system. The capital invested in manufacturing increased

from $1,857,844 in 1900 to $4,837,281 in 1905, or 160.4%, and the value

of the factory product rose from $1,798,607 in 1900 to $5,340,264 in

1905, or 196.9%. Jacksonville is the most important distributing centre

in Florida, and is a port of entry. In 1909 its foreign imports were

valued at $513,439; its foreign exports at $2,507,373.

The site of Jacksonville was called Cow Ford (a version of the Indian

name, Wacca Pilatka), from the excellent ford of the St John's River,

over which went the King's Road, a highway built by the English from St

Augustine to the Georgia line. The first settlement was made in 1816. In

1822 a town was laid out here and was named in honour of General Andrew

Jackson; in 1833 Jacksonville was incorporated. During the Civil War the

city was thrice occupied by Federal troops. In 1888 there was an

epidemic of yellow fever. On the 3rd of May 1901 a fire destroyed nearly

150 blocks of buildings, constituting nearly the whole of the business

part of the city, the total loss being more than $15,000,000; but within

two years new buildings greater in number than those destroyed were

constructed, and up to December 1909 about 9000 building permits had

been granted.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Shoals in the river and sand rock at its mouth long prevented the

development of an extensive water trade, but in 1896 the United

States Government made an appropriation (supplemented in 1902, 1903

and 1904) for deepening, for a width of 300 ft., the channel

connecting the city and the ocean to 24 ft., and on the bar 27 ft.

(mean low water), and by 1909 the work had been completed; further

dredging to a 24 ft. depth between the navigable channel and pierhead

lines was authorized in 1907 and completed by 1910.

JACKSONVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Morgan county, Illinois,

U.S.A., on Mauvaiseterre Creek, about 33 m. W. of Springfield. Pop.

(1890), 12,935; (1900), 15,078, of whom 1497 were foreign-born; (1910

census), 15,326. It is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the

Chicago & Alton, the Chicago, Peoria & St Louis and the Wabash railways.

It is the seat of several educational and philanthropic institutions.

Illinois College (Presbyterian), founded in 1829 through the efforts of

the Rev. John Millot Ellis (1793-1855), a missionary of the American

Home Missionary Society and of the so-called Yale Band (seven Yale

graduates devoted to higher education in the Middle West), is one of the

oldest colleges in the Central States of the United States. The

Jacksonville Female Academy (1830) and the Illinois Conservatory of

Music (1871) were absorbed in 1903 by Illinois College, which then

became co-educational. The college embraces, besides the collegiate

department, Whipple Academy (a preparatory department), the Illinois

Conservatory of Music and a School of Art, and in 1908-1909 had 21

instructors and 173 students. The Rev. Edward Beecher was the first

president of the college (from 1830 to 1844), and among its prominent

graduates have been Richard Yates, jun., the Rev. Thomas K. Beecher,

Newton Bateman (1822-1897), superintendent of public instruction of

Illinois from 1865 to 1875 and president of Knox College in 1875-1893,

Bishop Theodore N. Morrison (b. 1850), Protestant Episcopal Bishop of

Iowa after 1898, and William J. Bryan. The Illinois Woman's College

(Methodist Episcopal; chartered in 1847 as the Illinois Conference

Female Academy) received its present name in 1899. The State Central

Hospital for the Insane (opened in 1851), the State School for the deaf

(established in 1839, opened in 1845, and the first charitable

institution of the state) and the State School for the Blind (1849) are

also in Jacksonville. Morgan Lake and Duncan Park are pleasure resorts.

The total value of the factory product in 1905 was $1,981,582, an

increase of 17.7% since 1900. Jacksonville was laid out in 1825 as the

county-seat of Morgan county, was named probably in honour of Andrew

Jackson, and was incorporated as a town in 1840, chartered as a city in

1867, and re-chartered in 1887. The majority of the early settlers came

from the southern and border states, principally from Missouri and

Kentucky; but subsequently there was a large immigration of New England

and Eastern people, and these elements were stronger in the population

of Jacksonville than in any other city of southern Illinois. The city

was a station of the "Underground Railroad."

JACOB (Hebrew _ya'aqob_, derived, according to Gen. xxv. 26, xxvii. 36,

from a root meaning "to seize the heel" or "supplant"), son of Isaac and

Rebekah in the Biblical narrative, and the father of the twelve tribes

of Israel. Jacob and his twin brother Esau are the eponyms of the

Israelites and Edomites. It was said of them that they would be two

nations, and that the elder would serve the younger. Esau was born

first, but lost his superiority by relinquishing his birthright, and

Jacob by an act of deceit gained the paternal blessing intended for Esau

(Gen. xxvii., J and E).[1] The popular view regarding Israel and Edom is

expressed when the story makes Jacob a tent-dweller, and Esau a hunter,

a man of the field. But whilst Esau married among the Canaanite

"daughters of the land" (P in xxvi. 34; xxviii. 8 seq.), Jacob was sent,

or (according to a variant tradition) fled from Beer-sheba, to take a

wife from among his Syrian kinsfolk at Haran. On the way he received a

revelation at Bethel ("house of God") promising to him and to his

descendants the whole extent of the land. The beautiful story of Jacob's

fortunes at Haran is among the best examples of Hebrew narrative: how he

served seven years for Rachel, "and they seemed a few days for the love

he had to her," and was tricked by receiving the elder sister Leah, and

how he served yet another seven years, and at last won his love. The

patriarch's increasing wealth caused him to incur the jealousy of his

father-in-law, Laban, and he was forced to flee in secret with his

family. They were overtaken at Gilead,[2] whose name (interpreted "heap

of witness") is explained by the covenant into which Jacob and Laban

entered (xxxi. 47 sqq.). Passing Mahanaim ("camps"), where he saw the

camps of God, Jacob sent to Esau with friendly overtures. At the Jabbok

he wrestled with a divine being and prevailed (cf. Hos. xii. 3 sqq.),

hence he called the place Peniel or Penuel ("the face of God"), and

received the new name Israel. He then effected an unexpected

reconciliation with Esau, passed to Succoth, where he built "booths" for

his cattle (hence its name), and reached Shechem. Here he purchased

ground from the clan Hamor (cf. Judg. ix. 28), and erected an altar to

"God (El) the God of Israel." This was the scene of the rape of Dinah

and of the attack of Simeon and Levi which led to their ruin (xxxiv.;

see DAN, LEVITES, SIMEON). Thence Jacob went down south to Bethel, where

he received a divine revelation (P), similar to that recorded by the

earlier narrator (J), and was called Israel (xxxv. 9-13, 15). Here

Deborah, Rebekah's nurse, died, on the way to Ephrath. Rachel died in

giving birth to Benjamin (q.v.), and further south Reuben was guilty of

a grave offence (cf. xlix. 4). According to P, Jacob came to Hebron, and

it was at this juncture that Jacob and Esau separated (a second time)

and the latter removed to Mount Seir (xxxvi. 6 sqq.; cf. the parallel in

xiii. 5 sqq.). Compelled by circumstances, described with much fullness

and vividness, Jacob ultimately migrated to Egypt, receiving on the way

the promise that God would make of him a great nation, which should come

again out of Egypt (see JOSEPH). After an interview with the Pharaoh

(recorded only by P, xlvii. 5-11), he dwelt with his sons in the land of

Goshen, and as his death drew near pronounced a formal benediction upon

the two sons of Joseph (Manasseh and Ephraim), intentionally exalting

the younger. Then he summoned all the "sons" to gather round his bed,

and told them "what shall befall in the latter days" (xlix.). He died at

the age of 147 (so P), and permission was given to carry his body to

Canaan to be buried.

These narratives are full of much valuable evidence regarding marriage

customs, pastoral life and duties, popular beliefs and traditions, and

are evidently typical of what was currently retailed. Their historical

value has been variously estimated. The _name_ existed long before the

traditional date of Jacob, and the Egyptian phonetic equivalent of

Jacob-el (cf. Isra-el, Ishma-el) appears to be the name of a district of

central Palestine (or possibly east of Jordon) about 1500 B.C. But the

stories in their present form are very much later. The close relation

between Jacob and Aramaeans confirms the view that some of the tribes of

Israel were partly of Aramaean origin; his entrance into Palestine from

beyond the Jordan is parallel to Joshua's invasion at the head of the

Israelites; and his previous journey from the south finds independent

support in traditions of another distinct movement from this quarter.

Consequently, it would appear that these extremely elevated and richly

developed narratives of Jacob-Israel embody, among a number of other

features, a recollection of two distinct traditions of migration which

became fused among the Israelites. See further GENESIS; JEWS.

(S. A. C.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] For the symbols J, E, P, as regards the sources of the book of

Genesis, see GENESIS; BIBLE: _Old Test. Criticism._

[2] Since it is some 300 m. from Haran to Gilead it is probable that

Laban's home, only seven days' journey distant, was nearer Gilead

than the current tradition allows (Gen. xxxi. 22 sqq.).

JACOB, JOHN (1812-1858), Indian soldier and administrator, was born on

the 11th of January 1812, educated at Addiscombe, and entered the Bombay

artillery in 1828. He served in the first Afghan War under Sir John

Keane, and afterwards led his regiment with distinction at the battles

of Meeanee, Shahdadpur, and Umarkot; but it is as commandant of the Sind

Horse and political superintendent of Upper Sind that he was chiefly

famous. He was the pacificator of the Sind frontier, reducing the tribes

to quietude as much by his commanding personality as by his ubiquitous

military measures. In 1853 he foretold the Indian Mutiny, saying: "There

is more danger to our Indian empire from the state of the Bengal army,

from the feeling which there exists between the native and the European,

and thence, spreads throughout the length and breadth of the land, than

from all other causes combined. Let government look to this; it is a

serious and most important truth"; but he was only rebuked by Lord

Dalhousie for his pains. He was a friend of Sir Charles Napier and Sir

James Outram, and resembled them in his outspoken criticisms and

independence of authority. He died at the early age of 46 of brain

fever, brought on by excessive heat and overwork. The town of Jacobabad,

which has the reputation of being the hottest place in India, is named

after him.

See A. I. Shand, _General John Jacob_ (1900).

JACOB BEN ASHER (1280-1340), codifier of Jewish law, was born in Germany

and died in Toledo. A son of Asher ben Yehiel (q.v.), Jacob helped to

re-introduce the older elaborate method of legal casuistry which had

been overthrown by Maimonides (q.v.). The Asheri family suffered great

privations but remained faithful in their devotion to the Talmud. Jacob

ben Asher is known as the Ba'al ha-turim (literally "Master of the

Rows") from his chief work, the four _Turim_ or Rows (the title is

derived from the four _Turim_ or rows of jewels in the High Priest's

breastplate). In this work Jacob ben Asher codified Rabbinic law on

ethics and ritual, and it remained a standard work of reference until it

was edited with a commentary by Joseph Qaro, who afterwards simplified

the code into the more popular _Shulhan Aruch_. Jacob also wrote two

commentaries on the Pentateuch.

See Graetz, _History of the Jews_ (Eng. trans.), vol. iv. ch. iii.;

Weiss, _Dor dor we-dorashav_, v. 118-123. (I. A.)

JACOB OF EDESSA, who ranks with Barhebraeus as the most distinguished

for scholarship among Syriac writers,[1] was born at 'En-debha in the

province of Antioch, probably about A.D. 640. From the trustworthy

account of his life by Barhebraeus (_Chron. Eccles._ i. 289) we learn

that he studied first at the famous monastery of Ken-neshre (on the left

bank of the Euphrates, opposite Jerabis) and afterwards at Alexandria,

which had of course been for some time in the hands of the Moslems.[2]

On his return he was appointed bishop of Edessa by his friend Athanasius

II. (of Balad), probably in 684,[3] but held this office only for three

or four years, as the clergy withstood his strict enforcement of the

Church canons and he was not supported by Julian, the successor of

Athanasius in the patriarchate. Accordingly, having in anger publicly

burnt a copy of the canons in front of Julian's residence, Jacob retired

to the monastery of Kaisum near Samosata, and from there to the

monastery of Eusebhona,[4] where for eleven years he taught the Psalms

and the reading of the Scriptures in Greek. But towards the close of

this period he again encountered opposition, this time from monks "who

hated the Greeks," and so proceeded to the great convent of Tell 'Adda

or Teleda (? modern Telladi, N.W. of Aleppo), where he spent nine years

in revising and emending the Peshitta version of the Old Testament by

the help of the various Greek versions. He was finally recalled to the

bishopric of Edessa in 708, but died four months later, on the 5th of

June.

In doctrine Jacob was undoubtedly Monophysite.[5] Of the very large

number of his works, which are mostly in prose, not many have as yet

been published, but much information may be gathered from Assemani's

_Bibliotheca Orientalis_ and Wright's _Catalogue of Syriac MSS. in the

British Museum_. (1) Of the Syriac Old Testament Jacob produced what

Wright calls "a curious eclectic or patchwork text," of which five

volumes survive in Europe (Wright's _Catalogue_ 38). It was "the last

attempt at a revision of the Old Testament in the Monophysite Church."

Jacob was also the chief founder of the Syriac Massorah among the

Monophysites, which produced such MSS. as the one (Vat. cliii.)

described by Wiseman in _Horae syriacae_, part iii. (2) Jacob was the

author both of commentaries and of scholia on the sacred books; of

these specimens are given by Assemani and Wright. They were largely

quoted by later commentators, who often refer to Jacob as "the

interpreter of the Scriptures." With the commentaries may be mentioned

his _Hexahemeron_, or treatise on the six days of creation, MSS. of

which exist at Leiden and at Lyons. It was his latest work, and being

left incomplete was finished by his friend George the bishop of the

Arabs. Among apocrypha, the _History of the Rechabites_ composed by

Zosimus was translated from Greek into Syriac by Jacob (Wright's

_Catalogue_ 1128, and Nau in _Revue sémitique_ vi. 263, vii. 54, 136).

(3) Mention has been made above of Jacob's zeal on behalf of

ecclesiastical canons. In his letter to the priest Addai we possess a

collection of canons from his pen, given in the form of answers to

Addai's questions. These were edited by Lagarde in _Reliquiae juris

eccl. syriace_, pp. 117 sqq. and Lamy in _Dissert._ pp. 98 sqq.

Additional canons were given in Wright's _Notulae syriacae_. The whole

have been translated and expounded by Kayser, _Die Canones Jacobs von

Edessa_ (Leipzig, 1886). (4) Jacob made many contributions to Syriac

liturgy, both original and translated (Wright, _Short Hist._ p. 145

seq.). (5) To philosophical literature his chief original contribution

was his _Enchiridion_, a tract on philosophical terms (Wright's

_Catalogue_ 984). The translations of works of Aristotle which have

been attributed to him are probably by other hands (Wright, _Short

Hist._ p. 149; Duval, _Littérature syriaque_, pp. 255, 258). The

treatise _De causa omnium causarum_, which was the work of a bishop of

Edessa, was formerly attributed to Jacob; but the publication of the

whole by Kayser[6] has made it clear that the treatise is of much

later date. (6) An important historical work by Jacob--a _Chronicle_

in continuation of that of Eusebius--has unfortunately perished all

except a few leaves. Of these a full account is given in Wright's

_Catalogue_ 1062. (7) Jacob's fame among his countrymen rests most of

all on his labours as a grammarian. In his letter to George, bishop of

Serugh, on Syriac orthography (published by Phillips in London 1869,

and by Martin in Paris the same year) he sets forth the importance of

fidelity by scribes in the copying of minutiae of spelling. In his

grammar[7] (of which only some fragments remain), while expressing his

sense of the disadvantage under which Syriac labours through its

alphabet containing only consonants, he declined to introduce a

general system of vowel-signs, lest the change should contribute to

the neglect and loss of the older books written without vowels. At the

same time he invented, by adaptation of the Greek vowels, such a

system of signs as might serve for purposes of grammatical exposition,

and elaborated the rules by which certain consonants serve to indicate

vowels. He also systematized and extended the use of diacritical

points. It is still a moot question how far Jacob is to be regarded as

the author of the five vowel-signs derived from Greek which soon after

came into use among the Jacobites.[8] In any case he made the most

important contribution to Syriac grammar down to the time of

Barhebraeus. (8) As a translator Jacob's greatest achievement was his

Syriac version of the _Homiliae cathedrales_ of Severus, the

monophysite patriarch of Antioch (512-518, 535-536). This important

collection is now in part known to us by E. W. Brooks's edition and

translation of the 6th book of selected epistles of Severus, according

to another Syriac version made by Athanasius of Nisibis in 669. (9) A

large number of letters by Jacob to various correspondents have been

found in various MSS. Besides those on the canon law to Addai, and on

grammar to George of Serugh referred to above, there are others

dealing with doctrine, liturgy, &c. A few are in verse.

Jacob impresses the modern reader mainly as an _educator_ of his

countrymen, and particularly of the clergy. His writings lack the

fervid rhetoric and graceful style of such authors as Isaac of

Antioch, Jacob of Serugh and Philoxenus of Mabbog. But judged by the

standard of his time he shows the qualities of a truly scientific

theologian and scholar. (N. M.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] "In the literature of his country Jacob holds much the same place

as Jerome among the Latin fathers" (Wright, _Short Hist. of Syr.

Lit._ p. 143).

[2] Merx infers that the fact of Jacob's going to Alexandria as a

student tells against the view that the Arabs burned the great

library (_Hist. artis gramm. apud Syros_, p. 35). On this question

cf. Krehl in _Alli del iv. congr. internaz. degli Orientalisti_

(Florence, 1880), pp. 433 sqq.

[3] Pseudo-Dionysius of Tell-Mahre says 677; but Athanasius was

patriarch only 684-687.

[4] According to Merx (_op. cit._ p. 43) this may be the celebrated

convent of Eusebius near Apamea.

[5] Assemani tried hard to prove him orthodox (_B.O._ i. 470 sqq.)

but changed his opinion on reading his biography by Barhebraeus (ib.

ii. 337). See especially Lamy, _Dissert. de Syrorum fide_, pp. 206

sqq.

[6] Text at Leipzig 1889 (_Das Buch der Erkenntniss der Wahrheit oder

der Ursache aller Ursachen_): translation (posthumously) at

Strassburg 1893.

[7] The surviving fragments were published by Wright (London, 1871)

and by Merx, _op. cit._ p. 73 sqq. of Syriac text.

[8] An affirmative answer is given by Wiseman (_Horae syr._ pp.

181-8) and Wright (_Catalogue_ 1168; _Fragm. of the Syriac Grammar of

Jacob of Edessa_, preface; Short Hist. p. 151 seq.). But Martin (in

_Jour. As._ May-June 1869, pp. 456 sqq.), Duval (_Grammaire

syriaque_, p. 71) and Merx (_op. cit._ p. 50) are of the opposite

opinion. The date of the introduction of the seven Nestorian

vowel-signs is also uncertain.

JACOB OF JÜTERBOGK (c. 1381-1465), monk and theologian. Benedict

Stolzenhagen, known in religion as Jacob, was born at Jüterbogk in

Brandenburg of poor peasant stock. He became a Cistercian at the

monastery of Paradiz in Poland, and was sent by the abbot to the

university of Cracow, where he became master in philosophy and doctor of

theology. He returned to his monastery, of which he became abbot. In

1441, however, discontented with the absence of strict discipline in his

community, he obtained the leave of the papal legate at the council of

Basel to transfer himself to the Carthusians, entering the monastery of

Salvatorberg near Erfurt, of which he became prior. He lectured on

theology at the university of Erfurt, of which he was rector in 1455. He

died on the 30th of April 1465.

Jacob's main preoccupation was the reform of monastic life, the grave

disorders of which he deplored, and to this end he wrote his

_Petitiones religiosorum pro reformatione sui status_. Another work,

_De negligentia praelatorum_, was directed against the neglect of

their duties by the higher clergy, and he addressed a petition for the

reform of the church (_Advisamentum pro reformatione ecclesiae_) to

Pope Nicholas V. This having no effect, he issued the most outspoken

of his works, _De Septem ecclesiae statibus_, in which he reviewed the

work of the reforming councils of his time, and, without touching the

question of doctrine, championed a drastic reform of life and practice

of the church on the lines laid down at Constance and Basel.

His principal works are collected in Walch, _Monimenta med. aev._ i.

and ii. (1757, 1771), and Engelbert Klüpfel, _Vetus bibliotheca

eccles_. (Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1780).

JACOB OF SERUGH, one of the best Syriac authors, named by one of his

biographers "the flute of the Holy Spirit and the harp of the believing

church," was born in 451 at Kurtam, a village on the Euphrates to the

west of Harran, and was probably educated at Edessa. At an early age he

attracted the attention of his countrymen by his piety and his literary

gifts, and entered on the composition of the long series of metrical

homilies on religious themes which formed the great work of his life.

Having been ordained to the priesthood, he became periodeutes or

episcopal visitor of Haura, in Serugh, not far from his birthplace. His

tenure of this office extended over a time of great trouble to the

Christian population of Mesopotamia, due to the fierce war carried on by

Kavadh II. of Persia within the Roman borders. When on the 10th of

January 503 Amid was captured by the Persians after a three months'

siege and all its citizens put to the sword or carried captive, a panic

seized the whole district, and the Christian inhabitants of many

neighbouring cities planned to leave their homes and flee to the west of

the Euphrates. They were recalled to a more courageous frame of mind by

the letters of Jacob.[1] In 519, at the age of 68, Jacob was made bishop

of Batnan, another town in the district of Serugh, but only lived till

November 521.

From the various extant accounts of Jacob's life and from the number

of his known works, we gather that his literary activity was

unceasing. According to Barhebraeus (_Chron. Eccles._ i. 191) he

employed 70 amanuenses and wrote in all 760 metrical homilies, besides

expositions, letters and hymns of different sorts. Of his merits as a

writer and poet we are now well able to judge from P. Bedjan's

excellent edition of selected metrical homilies, of which four volumes

have already appeared (Paris 1905-1908), containing 146 pieces.[2]

They are written throughout in dodecasyllabic metre, and those

published deal mainly with biblical themes, though there are also

poems on such subjects as the deaths of Christian martyrs, the fall of

the idols, the council of Nicaea, &c.[3] Of Jacob's prose works, which

are not nearly so numerous, the most interesting are his letters,

which throw light upon some of the events of his time and reveal his

attachment to the Monophysite doctrine which was then struggling for

supremacy in the Syrian churches, and particularly at Edessa, over the

opposite teaching of Nestorius.[4] (N. M.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] See the contemporary _Chronicle_ called that of Joshua the

Stylite, chap. 54.

[2] Assemani (_Bibl. Orient._ i. 305-339) enumerates 231 which he had

seen in MSS.

[3] Some other historical poems M. Bedjan has not seen fit to

publish, on account of their unreliable and legendary character (vol.

i. p. ix. of preface).

[4] A full list of the older editions of works by Jacob is given by

Wright in _Short History of Syriac Literature_, pp. 68-72.

JACOBA, or JACQUELINE (1401-1436), countess of Holland, was the only

daughter and heiress of William, duke of Bavaria and count of Holland,

Zeeland and Hainaut. She was married as a child to John, duke of

Touraine, second son of Charles VI., king of France, who on the death of

his elder brother Louis became dauphin. John of Touraine died in April

1417, and two months afterwards Jacoba lost her father. Acknowledged as

sovereign in Holland and Zeeland, Jacoba was opposed by her uncle John

of Bavaria, bishop of Liége. She had the support of the Hook faction in

Holland. Meanwhile she had been married in 1418 by her uncle, John the

Fearless, duke of Burgundy, to her cousin John IV., duke of Brabant. By

the mediation of John the Fearless, a treaty of partition was concluded

in 1419 between Jacoba and John of Bavaria; but it was merely a truce,

and the contest between uncle and niece soon began again and continued

with varying success. In 1420 Jacoba fled to England; and there,

declaring that her marriage with John of Brabant was illegal, she

contracted a marriage with Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, in 1422. Two

years later Jacoba, with Humphrey, invaded Holland, where she was now

opposed by her former husband, John of Brabant, John of Bavaria having

died of poison. In 1425 Humphrey deserted his wife, who found herself

obliged to seek refuge with her cousin, Philip V., duke of Burgundy, to

whom she had to submit, and she was imprisoned in the castle of Ghent.

John of Brabant now mortgaged the two counties of Holland and Zeeland to

Philip, who assumed their protectorate. Jacoba, however, escaped from

prison in disguise, and for three years struggled gallantly to maintain

herself in Holland against the united efforts of Philip of Burgundy and

John of Brabant, and met at first with success. The death of the weak

John of Brabant (April 1427) freed the countess from her quondam

husband; but nevertheless the pope pronounced Jacoba's marriage with

Humphrey illegal, and Philip, putting out his full strength, broke down

all opposition. By a treaty, made in July 1428, Jacoba was left

nominally countess, but Philip was to administer the government of

Holland, Zeeland and Hainaut, and was declared heir in case Jacoba

should die without children. Two years later Philip mortgaged Holland

and Zeeland to the Borselen family, of which Francis, lord of Borselen,

was the head. Jacoba now made her last effort. In 1432 she secretly

married Francis of Borselen, and endeavoured to foment a rising in

Holland against the Burgundian rule. Philip invaded the country,

however, and threw Borselen into prison. Only on condition that Jacoba

abdicated her three countships in his favour would he allow her liberty

and recognize her marriage with Borselen. She submitted in April 1432,

retained her title of duchess in Bavaria, and lived on her husband's

estates in retirement. She died on the 9th of October 1436, leaving no

children.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--F. von Löher, _Jakobäa von Bayern und ihre Zeit_ (2

vols., Nördlingen, 1862-1869); W. J. F. Nuyens, _Jacoba van Beieren en

de eerste helft der XV. eeuw_ (Haarlem, 1873); A. von Overstraten,

_Jacoba van Beieren_ (Amsterdam, 1790). (G. E.)

JACOBABAD, a town of British India, the administrative headquarters of

the Upper Sind frontier district in Bombay; with a station on the Quetta

branch of the North-Western railway, 37 m. from the junction at Ruk, on

the main line. Pop. (1901), 10,787. It is famous as having consistently

the highest temperature in India. During the month of June the

thermometer ranges between 120° and 127° F. The town was founded on the

site of the village of Khangarh in 1847 by General John Jacob, for many

years commandant of the Sind Horse, who died here in 1858. It has

cantonments for a cavalry regiment, with accommodation for caravans from

Central Asia. It is watered by two canals. An annual horse show is held

in January.

JACOBEAN STYLE, the name given to the second phase of the early

Renaissance architecture in England, following the Elizabethan style.

Although the term is generally employed of the style which prevailed in

England during the first quarter of the 17th century, its peculiar

decadent detail will be found nearly twenty years earlier at Wollaton

Hall, Nottinghamshire, and in Oxford and Cambridge examples exist up to

1660, notwithstanding the introduction of the purer Italian style by

Inigo Jones in 1619 at Whitehall. Already during Queen Elizabeth's reign

reproductions of the classic orders had found their way into English

architecture, based frequently upon John Shute's _The First and Chief

Grounds of Architecture_, published in 1563, with two other editions in

1579 and 1584. In 1577, three years before the commencement of Wollaton

Hall, a copybook of the orders was brought out in Antwerp by Jan

Vredeman de Vries. Though nominally based on the description of the

orders by Vitruvius, the author indulged freely not only in his

rendering of them, but in suggestions of his own, showing how the orders

might be employed in various buildings. Those suggestions were of a most

decadent type, so that even the author deemed it advisable to publish a

letter from a canon of the Church, stating that there was nothing in his

architectural designs which was contrary to religion. It is to

publications of this kind that Jacobean architecture owes the perversion

of its forms and the introduction of strap work and pierced crestings,

which appear for the first time at Wollaton (1580); at Bramshill,

Hampshire (1607-1612), and in Holland House, Kensington (1624), it

receives its fullest development. (R. P. S.)

JACOBI, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH (1743-1819), German philosopher, was born at

Düsseldorf on the 25th of January 1743. The second son of a wealthy

sugar merchant near Düsseldorf, he was educated for a commercial career.

Of a retiring, meditative disposition, Jacobi associated himself at

Geneva mainly with the literary and scientific circle of which the most

prominent member was Lesage. He studied closely the works of Charles

Bonnet, and the political ideas of Rousseau and Voltaire. In 1763 he was

called back to Düsseldorf, and in the following year he married and took

over the management of his father's business. After a short period he

gave up his commercial career, and in 1770 became a member of the

council for the duchies of Jülich and Berg, in which capacity he

distinguished himself by his ability in financial affairs, and his zeal

in social reform. Jacobi kept up his interest in literary and

philosophic matters by an extensive correspondence, and his mansion at

Pempelfort, near Düsseldorf, was the centre of a distinguished literary

circle. With C. M. Wieland he helped to found a new literary journal.

_Der Teutsche Mercur_, in which some of his earliest writings, mainly on

practical or economic subjects, were published. Here too appeared in

part the first of his philosophic works, _Edward Allwills Briefsammlung_

(1776), a combination of romance and speculation. This was followed in

1779 by _Woldemar_, a philosophic novel, of very imperfect structure,

but full of genial ideas, and giving the most complete picture of

Jacobi's method of philosophizing. In 1779 he visited Munich as member

of the privy council, but after a short stay there differences with his

colleagues and with the authorities of Bavaria drove him back to

Pempelfort. A few unimportant tracts on questions of theoretical

politics were followed in 1785 by the work which first brought Jacobi

into prominence as a philosopher. A conversation which he had held with

Lessing in 1780, in which Lessing avowed that he knew no philosophy, in

the true sense of that word, save Spinozism, led him to a protracted

study of Spinoza's works. The _Briefe über die Lehre Spinozas_ (1785;

2nd ed., much enlarged and with important _Appendices_, 1789) expressed

sharply and clearly Jacobi's strenuous objection to a dogmatic system in

philosophy, and drew upon him the vigorous enmity of the Berlin clique,

led by Moses Mendelssohn. Jacobi was ridiculed as endeavouring to

re-introduce into philosophy the antiquated notion of unreasoning

belief, was denounced as an enemy of reason, as a pietist, and as in all

probability a Jesuit in disguise, and was especially attacked for his

use of the ambiguous term "belief." Jacobi's next important work, _David

Hume über den Glauben, oder Idealismus und Realismus_ (1787), was an

attempt to show not only that the term _Glaube_ had been used by the

most eminent writers to denote what he had employed it for in the

_Letters on Spinoza_, but that the nature of the cognition of facts as

opposed to the construction of inferences could not be otherwise

expressed. In this writing, and especially in the _Appendix_, Jacobi

came into contact with the critical philosophy, and subjected the

Kantian view of knowledge to searching examination.

The outbreak of the war with the French republic induced Jacobi in 1793

to leave his home near Düsseldorf, and for nearly ten years he resided

in Holstein. While there he became intimately acquainted with Reinhold

(in whose _Beiträge_, pt. iii., 1801, his important work _Über das

Unternehmen des Kriticismus, die Vernunft zu Verstande zu bringen_ was

first published), and with Matthias Claudius, the editor of the

_Wandsbecker Bote_. During the same period the excitement caused by the

accusation of atheism brought against Fichte at Jena led to the

publication of Jacobi's _Letter to Fichte_ (1799), in which he made more

precise the relation of his own philosophic principles to theology. Soon

after his return to Germany, Jacobi received a call to Munich in

connexion with the new academy of sciences just founded there. The loss

of a considerable portion of his fortune induced him to accept this

offer; he settled in Munich in 1804, and in 1807 became president of the

academy. In 1811 appeared his last philosophic work, directed against

Schelling specially (_Von den göttlichen Dingen und ihrer Offenbarung_),

the first part of which, a review of the _Wandsbecker Bote_, had been

written in 1798. A bitter reply from Schelling was left without answer

by Jacobi, but gave rise to an animated controversy in which Fries and

Baader took prominent part. In 1812 Jacobi retired from the office of

president, and began to prepare a collected edition of his works. He

died before this was completed, on the 10th of March 1819. The edition

of his writings was continued by his friend F. Köppen, and was completed

in 1825. The works fill six volumes, of which the fourth is in three

parts. To the second is prefixed an introduction by Jacobi, which is at

the same time an introduction to his philosophy. The fourth volume has

also an important preface.

The philosophy of Jacobi is essentially unsystematic. A certain

fundamental view which underlies all his thinking is brought to bear

in succession upon those systematic doctrines which appear to stand

most sharply in contradiction to it, and any positive philosophic

results are given only occasionally. The leading idea of the whole is

that of the complete separation between understanding and apprehension

of real fact. For Jacobi understanding, or the logical faculty, is

purely formal or elaborative, and its results never transcend the

given material supplied to it. From the basis of immediate experience

or perception thought proceeds by comparison and abstraction,

establishing connexions among facts, but remaining in its nature

mediate and finite. The principle of reason and consequent, the

necessity of thinking each given fact of perception as conditioned,

impels understanding towards an endless series of identical

propositions, the records of successive comparisons and abstractions.

The province of the understanding is therefore strictly the region of

the conditioned; to it the world must present itself as a mechanism.

If, then, there is objective truth at all, the existence of real facts

must be made known to us otherwise than through the logical faculty of

thought; and, as the regress from conclusion to premises must depend

upon something not itself capable of logical grounding, mediate

thought implies the consciousness of immediate truth. Philosophy

therefore must resign the hopeless ideal of a systematic (i.e.

intelligible) explanation of things, and must content itself with the

examination of the facts of consciousness. It is a mere prejudice of

philosophic thinkers, a prejudice which has descended from Aristotle,

that mediate or demonstrated cognition is superior in cogency and

value to the immediate perception of truths or facts.

As Jacobi starts with the doctrine that thought is partial and

limited, applicable only to connect facts, but incapable of explaining

their existence, it is evident that for him any demonstrative system

of metaphysic which should attempt to subject all existence to the

principle of logical ground must be repulsive. Now in modern

philosophy the first and greatest demonstrative system of metaphysic

is that of Spinoza, and it lay in the nature of things that upon

Spinoza's system Jacobi should first direct his criticism. A summary

of the results of his examination is thus presented (_Werke_, i.

216-223): (1) Spinozism is atheism; (2) the Kabbalistic philosophy, in

so far as it is philosophy, is nothing but undeveloped or confused

Spinozism; (3) the philosophy of Leibnitz and Wolff is not less

fatalistic than that of Spinoza, and carries a resolute thinker to the

very principles of Spinoza; (4) every demonstrative method ends in

fatalism; (5) we can demonstrate only similarities (agreements, truths

conditionally necessary), proceeding always in identical propositions;

every proof presupposes something already proved, the principle of

which is immediately given (_Offenbarung_, revelation, is the term

here employed by Jacobi, as by many later writers, e.g. Lotze, to

denote the peculiar character of an immediate, unproved truth); (6)

the keystone (_Element_) of all human knowledge and activity is belief

(_Glaube_). Of these propositions only the first and fourth require

further notice. Jacobi, accepting the law of reason and consequent as

the fundamental rule of demonstrative reasoning, and as the rule

explicitly followed by Spinoza, points out that, if we proceed by

applying this principle so as to recede from particular and qualified

facts to the more general and abstract conditions, we land ourselves,

not in the notion of an active, intelligent creator of the system of

things, but in the notion of an all-comprehensive, indeterminate

_Nature_, devoid of will or intelligence. Our unconditioned is either

a pure _abstraction_, or else the impossible notion of a completed

system of conditions. In either case the result is atheism, and this

result is necessary if the demonstrative method, the method of

understanding, is regarded as the only possible means of knowledge.

Moreover, the same method inevitably lands in fatalism. For, if the

action of the human will is to be made intelligible to understanding,

it must be thought as a conditioned phenomenon, having its sufficient

ground in preceding circumstances, and, in ultimate abstraction, as

the outflow from nature which is the sum of conditions. But this is

the fatalist conception, and any philosophy which accepts the law of

reason and consequent as the essence of understanding is fatalistic.

Thus for the scientific understanding there can be no God and no

liberty. It is impossible that there should be a God, for if so he

would of necessity be finite. But a finite God, a God that is _known_,

is no God. It is impossible that there should be liberty, for if so

the mechanical order of phenomena, by means of which they are

comprehensible, would be disturbed, and we should have an

unintelligible world, coupled with the requirement that it shall be

understood. Cognition, then, in the strict sense, occupies the middle

place between sense perception, which is belief in matters of sense,

and reason, which is belief in supersensuous fact.

The best introduction to Jacobi's philosophy is the preface to the

second volume of the _Works_, and Appendix 7 to the _Letters on

Spinoza's Theory_. See also J. Kuhn, _Jacobi und die Philosophie

seiner Zeit_ (1834); F. Deycks, _F. H. Jacobi im Verhältnis zu seinen

Zeitgenossen_ (1848); H. Düntzer, _Freundesbilder aus Goethes Leben_

(1853); E. Zirngiebl, _F. H. Jacobis Leben, Dichten, und Denken_,

1867; F. Harms, _Über die Lehre von F. H. Jacobi_ (1876). Jacobi's

_Auserlesener Briefwechsel_ has been edited by F. Roth in 2 vols.

(1825-1827).

JACOBI, JOHANN GEORG (1740-1814), German poet, elder brother of the

philosopher, F. H. Jacobi (1743-1819), was born at Düsseldorf on the 2nd

of September 1740. He studied theology at Göttingen and jurisprudence at

Helmstedt, and was appointed, in 1766, professor of philosophy in Halle.

In this year he made the acquaintance of J. W. L. ("Vater") Gleim, who,

attracted by the young poet's _Poetische Versuche_ (1764), became his

warm friend, and a lively literary correspondence ensued between Gleim

in Halberstadt and Jacobi in Halle. In order to have Jacobi near him,

Gleim succeeded in procuring for him a prebendal stall at the cathedral

of Halberstadt in 1769, and here Jacobi issued a number of anacreontic

lyrics and sonnets. He tired, however, of the lighter muse, and in 1774,

to Gleim's grief, left Halberstadt, and for two years (1774-1776) edited

at Düsseldorf the _Iris_, a quarterly for women readers. Meanwhile, he

wrote many charming lyrics, distinguished by exquisite taste and true

poetical feeling. In 1784 he became professor of literature at the

university of Freiburg im Breisgau, a post which he held until his death

there on the 4th of January 1814. In addition to the earlier _Iris_, to

which Goethe, his brother F. H. Jacobi, Gleim and other poets

contributed, he published, from 1803-1813, another periodical, also

called _Iris_, in which Klopstock, Herder, Jean Paul, Voss and the

brothers Stollberg also collaborated.

Jacobi's _Sämmtliche Werke_ were published in 1774 (Halberstadt, 3

vols.). Other editions appeared at Zürich in 1807-1813 and 1825. See

_Ungedruckte Briefe von und an Johann Georg Jacobi_ (Strassburg,

1874); biographical notice by Daniel Jacoby in _Allg. Deutsche

Biographie_; Longo, _Laurence Sterne und Johann Georg Jacobi_ (Vienna,

1898); and _Leben J. G. Jacobis, von einem seiner Freunde_ (1822).

JACOBI, KARL GUSTAV JACOB (1804-1851), German mathematician, was born at

Potsdam, of Jewish parentage, on the 10th of December 1804. He studied

at Berlin University, where he obtained the degree of doctor of

philosophy in 1825, his thesis being an analytical discussion of the

theory of fractions. In 1827 he became extraordinary and in 1829

ordinary professor of mathematics at Königsberg, and this chair he

filled till 1842, when he visited Italy for a few months to recruit his

health. On his return he removed to Berlin, where he lived as a royal

pensioner till his death, which occurred on the 18th of February 1851.

His investigations in elliptic functions, the theory of which he

established upon quite a new basis, and more particularly his

development of the theta-function, as given in his great treatise

_Fundamenta nova theoriae functionum ellipticarum_ (Königsberg, 1829),

and in later papers in _Crelle's Journal_, constitute his grandest

analytical discoveries. Second in importance only to these are his

researches in differential equations, notably the theory of the last

multiplier, which is fully treated in his _Vorlesungen über Dynamik_,

edited by R. F. A. Clebsch (Berlin, 1866). It was in analytical

development that Jacobi's peculiar power mainly lay, and he made many

important contributions of this kind to other departments of

mathematics, as a glance at the long list of papers that were

published by him in _Crelle's Journal_ and elsewhere from 1826 onwards

will sufficiently indicate. He was one of the early founders of the

theory of determinants; in particular, he invented the functional

determinant formed of the n² differential coefficients of n given

functions of n independent variables, which now bears his name

(Jacobian), and which has played an important part in many analytical

investigations (see ALGEBRAIC FORMS). Valuable also are his papers on

Abelian transcendents, and his investigations in the theory of

numbers, in which latter department he mainly supplements the labours

of K. F. Gauss. The planetary theory and other particular dynamical

problems likewise occupied his attention from time to time. He left a

vast store of manuscript, portions of which have been published at

intervals in _Crelle's Journal_. His other works include _Commentatio

de transformatione integralis duplicis indefiniti in formam

simpliciorem_ (1832), _Canon arithmeticus_ (1839), and _Opuscula

mathematica_ (1846-1857). His _Gesammelte Werke_ (1881-1891) were

published by the Berlin Academy.

See Lejeune-Dirichlet, "Gedächtnisrede auf Jacobi" in the

_Abhandlungen der Berliner Akademie_ (1852).

JACOBINS, THE, the most famous of the political clubs of the French

Revolution. It had its origin in the Club Breton, which was established

at Versailles shortly after the opening of the States General in 1789.

It was at first composed exclusively of deputies from Brittany, but was

soon joined by others from various parts of France, and counted among

its early members Mirabeau, Sieyès, Barnave, Pétion, the Abbé Grégoire,

Charles and Alexandre Lameth, Robespierre, the duc d'Aiguillon, and La

Revellière-Lépeaux. At this time its meetings were secret and little is

known of what took place at them. After the émeute of the 5th and 6th of

October the club, still entirely composed of deputies, followed the

National Assembly to Paris, where it rented the refectory of the

monastery of the Jacobins in the Rue St Honoré, near the seat of the

Assembly. The name "Jacobins," given in France to the Dominicans,

because their first house in Paris was in the Rue St Jacques, was first

applied to the club in ridicule by its enemies. The title assumed by the

club itself, after the promulgation of the constitution of 1791, was

_Société des amis de la constitution séants aux Jacobins à Paris_, which

was changed on the 21st of September 1792, after the fall of the

monarchy, to _Société des Jacobins, amis de la liberté et de l'égalité_.

It occupied successively the refectory, the library, and the chapel of

the monastery.

Once transferred to Paris, the club underwent rapid modifications. The

first step was its expansion by the admission as members or associates

of others besides deputies; Arthur Young was so admitted on the 18th of

January 1790. On the 8th of February the society was formally

constituted on this broader basis by the adoption of the rules drawn up

by Barnave, which were issued with the signature of the duc d'Aiguillon,

the president. The objects of the club were defined as (1) to discuss in

advance questions to be decided by the National Assembly; (2) to work

for the establishment and strengthening of the constitution in

accordance with the spirit of the preamble (i.e. of respect for legally

constituted authority and the rights of man); (3) to correspond with

other societies of the same kind which should be formed in the realm. At

the same time the rules of order and forms of election were settled, and

the constitution of the club determined. There were to be a president,

elected every month, four secretaries, a treasurer, and committees

elected to superintend elections and presentations, the correspondence,

and the administration of the club. Any member who by word or action

showed that his principles were contrary to the constitution and the

rights of man was to be expelled, a rule which later on facilitated the

"purification" of the society by the expulsion of its more moderate

elements. By the 7th article the club decided to admit as associates

similar societies in other parts of France and to maintain with them a

regular correspondence.

This last provision was of far-reaching importance. By the 10th of

August 1790 there were already one hundred and fifty-two affiliated

clubs; the attempts at counter-revolution led to a great increase of

their number in the spring of 1791, and by the close of the year the

Jacobins had a network of branches all over France. It was this

widespread yet highly centralized organization that gave to the Jacobin

Club its formidable power.

At the outset the Jacobin Club was not distinguished by extreme

political views. The somewhat high subscription confined its membership

to men of substance, and to the last it was--so far as the central

society in Paris was concerned--composed almost entirely of professional

men, such as Robespierre, or well-to-do _bourgeois_, like Santerre. From

the first, however, other elements were present. Besides Louis Philippe,

duc de Chartres (afterwards king of the French), liberal aristocrats of

the type of the duc d'Aiguillon, the prince de Broglie, or the vicomte

de Noailles, and the _bourgeois_ who formed the mass of the members, the

club contained such figures as "Père" Michel Gérard, a peasant

proprietor from Tuel-en-Montgermont, in Brittany, whose rough common

sense was admired as the oracle of popular wisdom, and whose

countryman's waistcoat and plaited hair were later on to become the

model for the Jacobin fashion.[1] The provincial branches were from the

first far more democratic, though in these too the leadership was

usually in the hands of members of the educated or propertied classes.

Up to the very eve of the republic, the club ostensibly supported the

monarchy; it took no part in the petition of the 17th of July 1790 for

the king's dethronement; nor had it any official share even in the

insurrections of the 20th of June and the 10th of August 1792; it only

formally recognized the republic on the 21st of September. But the

character and extent of the club's influence cannot be gauged by its

official acts alone, and long before it emerged as the principal focus

of the Terror, its character had been profoundly changed by the

secession of its more moderate elements, some to found the Club of 1789,

some in 1791--among them Barnave, the Lameths, Duport and Bailly--to

found the club of the Feuillants scoffed at by their former friends as

the _club monarchique_. The main cause of this change was the admission

of the public to the sittings of the club, which began on the 14th of

October 1791. The result is described in a report of the Department of

Paris on "the state of the empire," presented on the 12th of June 1792,

at the request of Roland, the minister of the interior, and signed by

the duc de La Rochefoucauld, which ascribes to the Jacobins all the woes

of the state. "There exists," it runs, "in the midst of the capital

committed to our care a public pulpit of defamation, where citizens of

every age and both sexes are admitted day by day to listen to a criminal

propaganda.... This establishment, situated in the former house of the

Jacobins, calls itself a society; but it has less the aspect of a

private society than that of a public spectacle: vast tribunes are

thrown open for the audience; all the sittings are advertised to the

public for fixed days and hours, and the speeches made are printed in a

special journal and lavishly distributed."[2] In this society--the

report continues--murder is counselled or applauded, all authorities are

calumniated and all the organs of the law bespattered with abuse; as to

its power, it exercises "by its influence, its affiliations and its

correspondence a veritable ministerial authority, without title and

without responsibility, while leaving to the legal and responsible

authorities only the shadow of power" (Schmidt, _Tableaux_ i. 78, &c.).

The constituency to which the club was henceforth responsible, and from

which it derived its power, was in fact the _peuple bête_ of Paris; the

_sans-culottes_--decayed lackeys, cosmopolitan ne'er-do-wells, and

starving workpeople--who crowded its tribunes. To this audience, and not

primarily to the members of the club, the speeches of the orators were

addressed and by its verdict they were judged. In the earlier stages of

the Revolution the mob had been satisfied with the fine platitudes of

the _philosophes_ and the vague promise of a political millennium; but

as the chaos in the body politic grew, and with it the appalling

material misery, it began to clamour for the blood of the "traitors" in

office by whose corrupt machinations the millennium was delayed, and

only those orators were listened to who pandered to its suspicions.

Hence the elimination of the moderate elements from the club; hence the

ascendancy of Marat, and finally of Robespierre, the secret of whose

power was that they really shared the suspicions of the populace, to

which they gave a voice and which they did not shrink from translating

into action. After the fall of the monarchy Robespierre was in effect

the Jacobin Club; for to the tribunes he was the oracle of political

wisdom, and by his standard all others were judged.[3] With his fall the

Jacobins too came to an end.

Not the least singular thing about the Jacobins is the very slender

material basis on which their overwhelming power rested. France groaned

under their tyranny, which was compared to that of the Inquisition, with

its system of espionage and denunciations which no one was too

illustrious or too humble to escape. Yet it was reckoned by competent

observers that, at the height of the Terror, the Jacobins could not

command a force of more than 3000 men in Paris. But the secret of their

strength was that, in the midst of the general disorganization, they

alone were organized. The police agent Dutard, in a report to the

minister Garat (April 30, 1793), describing an episode in the Palais

Égalité (Royal), adds: "Why did a dozen Jacobins strike terror into two

or three hundred aristocrats? It is that the former have a

rallying-point and that the latter have none." When the _jeunesse dorée_

did at last organize themselves, they had little difficulty in flogging

the Jacobins out of the cafés into comparative silence. Long before this

the Girondin government had been urged to meet organization by

organization, force by force; and it is clear from the daily reports of

the police agents that even a moderate display of energy would have

saved the National Convention from the humiliation of being dominated by

a club, and the French Revolution from the blot of the Terror. But

though the Girondins were fully conscious of the evil, they were too

timid, or too convinced of the ultimate triumph of their own persuasive

eloquence, to act. In the session of the 30th of April 1793 a proposal

was made to move the Convention to Versailles out of reach of the

Jacobins, and Buzot declared that it was "impossible to remain in Paris"

so long as "this abominable haunt" should exist; but the motion was not

carried, and the Girondins remained to become the victims of the

Jacobins.

Meanwhile other political clubs could only survive so long as they were

content to be the shadows of the powerful organization of the Rue St

Honoré. The Feuillants had been suppressed on the 18th of August 1792.

The turn of the Cordeliers came so soon as its leaders showed signs of

revolting against Jacobin supremacy, and no more startling proof of this

ascendancy could be found than the ease with which Hébert and his

fellows were condemned and the readiness with which the Cordeliers,

after a feeble attempt at protest, acquiesced in the verdict. It is idle

to speculate on what might have happened had this ascendancy been

overthrown by the action of a strong government. No strong government

existed, nor, in the actual conditions of the country, could exist on

the lines laid down by the constitution. France was menaced by civil war

within, and by a coalition of hostile powers without; the discipline of

the Terror was perhaps necessary if she was to be welded into a united

force capable of resisting this double peril; and the revolutionary

leaders saw in the Jacobin organization the only instrument by which

this discipline could be made effective. This is the apology usually put

forward for the Jacobins by republican writers of later times; they

were, it is said (and of some of them it is certainly true), no mere

doctrinaires and visionary sectaries, but practical and far-seeing

politicians, who realized that "desperate ills need desperate remedies,"

and, by having the courage of their convictions, saved the gains of the

Revolution for France.

The Jacobin Club was closed after the fall of Robespierre on the 9th of

Thermidor of the year III., and some of its members were executed. An

attempt was made to re-open the club, which was joined by many of the

enemies of the Thermidorians, but on the 21st of Brumaire, year III.

(Nov. 11, 1794), it was definitively closed. Its members and their

sympathizers were scattered among the cafés, where a ruthless war of

sticks and chairs was waged against them by the young "aristocrats"

known as the _jeunesse dorée_. Nevertheless the "Jacobins" survived, in

a somewhat subterranean fashion, emerging again in the club of the

Panthéon, founded on the 25th of November 1795, and suppressed in the

following February (see BABEUF; FRANÇOIS NOEl). The last attempt to

reorganize them was the foundation of the _Réunion d'amis de l'égalité

et de la liberté_, in July 1799, which had its headquarters in the

_Salle du Manège_ of the Tuileries, and was thus known as the _Club du

Manège_. It was patronized by Barras, and some two hundred and fifty

members of the two councils of the legislature were enrolled as members,

including many notable ex-Jacobins. It published a newspaper called the

_Journal des Libres_, proclaimed the apotheosis of Robespierre and

Babeuf, and attacked the Directory as a _royauté pentarchique_. But

public opinion was now preponderatingly moderate or royalist, and the

club was violently attacked in the press and in the streets, the

suspicions of the government were aroused; it had to change its

meeting-place from the Tuileries to the church of the Jacobins (Temple

of Peace) in the Rue du Bac, and in August it was suppressed, after

barely a month's existence. Its members revenged themselves on the

Directory by supporting Napoleon Bonaparte.

Long before the suppression of the Jacobin Club the name of "Jacobins"

had been popularly applied to all promulgators of extreme revolutionary

opinions. In this sense the word passed beyond the borders of France and

long survived the Revolution. Canning's paper, _The Anti-Jacobin_,

directed against the English Radicals, consecrated its use in England;

and in the correspondence of Metternich and other leaders of the

repressive policy which followed the second fall of Napoleon, "Jacobin"

is the term commonly applied to anyone with Liberal tendencies, even to

so august a personage as the emperor Alexander I. of Russia.

The most important source of information for the history of the

Jacobins is F. A. Aulard's _La société des Jacobins, Recueil de

documents_ (6 vols., Paris, 1889, &c.), where a critical bibliography

will be found. This collection does not contain all the printed

sources--notably the official Journal of the Club is omitted--but

these sources, when not included, are indicated. The documents

published are furnished with valuable explanatory notes. See also W.

A. Schmidt, _Tableaux de la révolution française_ (3 vols., Leipzig,

1867-1870), notably for the reports of the secret police, which throw

much light on the actual working of the Jacobin propaganda.

(W. A. P.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] "When I first sat among you I heard so many beautiful speeches

that I might have believed myself in heaven, had there not been so

many lawyers present." Instead of practical questions "we have become

involved in a _galimatias_ of Rights of Man of which I understand

mighty little but that it is worth nothing." _Motion du Père Gérard_

in the Jacobins of the 27th of April 1790 (Aulard i. 63).

[2] i.e. _Journal des débats et de la correspondance de la Société_,

&c. For the various newspapers published under the auspices of the

Jacobins see Aulard i. p. cx., &c.

[3] In the published reports only the speeches of members are given,

not the interruptions from the tribunes. But see the report (May 18,

1793) of Dutard to Garat on a meeting of the Jacobins (Schmidt,

_Tableaux_ ii. 242).

JACOBITE CHURCH. The name of "Jacobites" is first found in a synodal

decree of Nicaea A.D. 787, and was invented by hostile Greeks for the

Syrian Monophysite Church as founded, or rather restored, by Jacob or

James Baradaeus, who was ordained its bishop A.D. 541 or 543. The

Monophysites, who like the Greeks knew themselves simply as the

Orthodox, were grievously persecuted by the emperor Justinian and the

graecizing patriarchs of Antioch, because they rejected the decrees of

the council of Chalcedon, in which they--not without good reason--saw

nothing but a thinly veiled relapse into those opinions of Nestorius

which the previous council of Ephesus had condemned. James was born a

little before A.D. 500 at Tella or Tela, 55 m. east of Edessa, of a

priestly family, and entered the convent of Phesilta on Mount Isla.

About 528 he went with a fellow-monk Sergius to Constantinople to plead

the cause of his co-religionists with the empress Theodora, and lived

there fifteen years. Justinian during those years imprisoned, deprived

or exiled most of the recalcitrant clergy of Syria, Mesopotamia,

Cilicia, Cappadocia, and the adjacent regions. Once ordained bishop of

Edessa, with the connivance of Theodora, James, disguised as a ragged

beggar (whence his name Baradaeus, Syriac _Burdeana_, Arabic

_al-Baradia_), traversed these regions preaching, teaching and ordaining

new clergy to the number, it is said, of 80,000. His later years were

embittered by squabbles with his own clergy, and he died in 578. His

work, however, endured, and in the middle ages the Jacobite hierarchy

numbered 150 archbishops and bishops under a patriarch and his

_maphrian_. About the year 728 six Jacobite bishops present at the

council of Manazgert established communion with the Armenians, who

equally rejected Chalcedon; they were sent by the patriarch of Antioch,

and among them were the metropolitan of Urha (Edessa) and the bishops of

Qarhan, Gardman, Nferkert and Amasia. How long this union lasted is not

known. In 1842, when the Rev. G. P. Badger visited the chief Jacobite

centres, their numbers in all Turkey had dwindled to about 100,000

souls, owing to vast secessions to Rome. At Aleppo at that date only ten

families out of several hundred remained true to their old faith, and

something like the same proportion at Damascus and Bagdad. Badger

testifies that the Syrian proselytes to Rome were superior to their

Jacobite brethren, having established schools, rebuilt their churches,

increased their clergy, and, above all, having learned to live with each

other on terms of peace and charity. As late as 1850 there were 150

villages of them in the Jebel Toor to the north-east of Mardin, 50 in

the district of Urfah and Gawar, and a few in the neighbourhoods of

Diarbekr, Mosul and Damascus. From about 1860, the seceders to Rome were

able, thanks to French consular protection, to seize the majority of the

Jacobite churches in Turkey; and this injustice has contributed much to

the present degradation and impoverishment of the Jacobites.

They used leavened bread in the Eucharist mixed with salt and oil, and

like other Monophysites add to the _Trisagion_ the words "Who wast

crucified for our sake." They venerate pictures or images, and make the

sign of the cross with one finger to show that Christ had but one

nature. Deacons, as in Armenia, marry before taking priests' orders.

Their patriarch is styled of Antioch, but seldom comes west of Mardin.

His _maphrian_ (fertilizer) since 1089 has lived at Mosul and ordains

the bishops. Monkery is common among them, but there are no nuns. Next

to the Roman Uniats (whom they term _Rassen_ or Venal) they most hate

the Nestorian Syrians of Persia. In 1882, at the instance of the British

government, the Turks began to recognize them as a separate

organization.

See M. Klein, _Jacobus Baradaeus_ (Leiden, 1882); Assemani, _Bibl.

Or._ ii. 62-69, 326 and 331; G. P. Badger, _The Nestorians_ (London,

1852); Rubens Duval, _La litérature syriaque_ (Paris, 1899); G.

Krüger, _Monophysitische Streitigkeiten_ (Jena, 1884); Silbernagel,

_Verfassung der Kirchen des Orients_ (Landshut, 1865); and G. Wright,

_History of Syriac Literature_ (London, 1894). (F. C. C.)