A SUMMARY, TOGETHER WITH SOME FURTHER CONSIDERATIONS OF THE
ANTHROPOMORPHISM OF THE GORILLA, CHIMPANZEE, ORANG, AND GIBBON.
Huxley’s statement, that the lowest apes are further removed from
the highest apes than the latter are from men, is, according to my
experience, still perfectly valid. It cannot be denied that the highest
order of the animal world is closely connected with the highest created
being.
In the third chapter I have sought to show in what way the pithecoid
characteristics of men may be proved. From the latter chapters, also,
much may be learned with respect to the anthropoid characteristics of
anthropoids. The external form first provokes the comparison. There is
much in the bodily structure which spans the apparent chasm between men
and apes, and this is evident to the simplest understanding. The head,
and the general form of the body, especially in young male and female
gorillas, chimpanzees, and orangs, and even in gibbons, if we exclude
the length of their arms, display many points of resemblance with man.
It is shown even in separate organs of the body--as, for instance, in
the ear. The illustrations given in the second chapter of the ears of
apes, including that of the gorilla, were intentionally taken by me
from such specimens as had least resemblance to man, and yet even in
these a certain likeness must be recognized.
I have already observed that the old males of an anthropoid species are
always further removed from man than the young, and this is especially
the case with the gorilla. The head of an aged male gorilla, with its
great cranial crests and powerful jaw, displays striking differences
from the human type. This is an important fact, since in the case of
man we almost without exception regard the fully developed male adult
as the typical form.
In considering the limbs, the differences between the arms and hands
of man and those of anthropoids are apparent, but less striking than
in the case of the lower limbs. For the prehensile foot of apes has in
it something abnormal which distinctly differs from the human foot,
adapted for walking. Nor can the prehensibility of the human toes
in certain cases be directly compared with the prehensibility of an
ape’s foot, in which the great toe has the action of a thumb. Haeckel
remarks that newly born children can also take a strong grip with the
great toe, and if a spoon is inserted they can hold it with the foot as
firmly as with the hand.[129] This power is, however, only partial and
subordinate, compared with the manifold and developed prehensibility
of an anthropoid’s foot. The possibility of walking upright to a
certain, although sometimes to a very limited, extent is no exclusive
privilege of anthropoids, since this power may be acquired by training
in the case of other apes, as well as of dogs, pigs, horses, etc.
Many apes of the New World, such as the tailed and climbing apes, as
well as some semi-apes, bears, ichneumons, scaled and rodent animals,
can go for some distance in an upright position, quite as readily as
anthropoids, and without being trained to do so.[130] The structure of
anthropoids is, indeed, better adapted for going on all-fours, or for
climbing. The projection of the coccyx in the form of a rudimentary
tail has, as is well known, been observed in some isolated cases in the
human species. This peculiarity is supposed to be hereditary in the
case of some non-European peoples, such as the Niam-Niam of Central
Africa, and some of the Southern Malays. But this surmise has not yet
been confirmed.
It has already been said that when we compare men and anthropoids,
the profile of the coloured man presents a striking likeness to that
of anthropoids. This is believed by the coloured people themselves,
who, especially among negro races, regard the large apes as accursed
individuals of their own species, as dumb and hairy men, and so
on. It should, however, be noticed that anthropomorphism plays an
important part in the religious life of rude peoples, and that it is
comparatively easy for uncivilized men to place themselves on the
same level as animals, while civilized races reject such ideas with
self-conscious pride. I may add that civilized men are revolted by the
proverbial ugliness of apes, and therefore reject with abhorrence any
admission of actual relationship with them. We must, however, remember
that men are by no means generally endowed with physical beauty,
and especially with beauty of feature. Among all nations we find
individuals whose ugliness is little inferior to that of anthropoids,
and which sometimes even exceeds it. A claim to a widely diffused
physical beauty may be made by the peoples of classical antiquity; by
the Teutonic, Roumanian, and Slav races; by the Circassians, Armenians,
Tartars, Turks, Senites, Berbers, Bedja; and by some of the Indians,
Polynesians, American Indians, and negroes: but such attractions
are rare among other peoples of the world, such as the Mongols, the
majority of negroes, Papuans, Guaranis, and Malays. We have already
shown that among some of the lower races it is impossible not to
recognize a purely external and physical approximation to the simian
type.
Some men, again, altogether on psychical grounds, shrink from admitting
any relationship between men and apes, since the mental organization
of the former seems to them to be allied by no connecting-link
with the anthropoids of which they think so meanly. Yet it should
not be forgotten that the modes of living in degraded races differ
little from those of anthropoids. I may here refer to what I have
said of the Australian aborigines, whose brutal instincts demand
our whole attention when we undertake such comparisons. A horde of
Botocudos, mentioned by the intelligent observer Prince Maximilian
of Neuwied,[131] and a village on the upper Yupurá, inhabited by the
Mirenhas, and described by Martius,[132] left upon the travellers a
grisly impression of their brutal degradation. This impression might
be further strengthened if we could inspect a hutted encampment of the
Obongo or the Doko.
It has been observed that the rudest savage is in a condition to show
pity and loyalty to his own fellows. Thus, for example, in the winter
of 1881–82, when some Fuegians were exhibited in Europe, one of them
fell sick, and was cared for by his savage companions with affection,
and even with a certain appearance of tenderness. But, as we have
seen, anthropoids take care of and defend the members of their family
in the same way, and display mutual dependence and loyalty; this has
been especially noticed in the case of several orang-utans which have
tended each other. Love for their young, and not rarely love for their
mates expressed in the strongest manner, is, speaking comparatively,
deeply rooted in the animal world. It is well known that both rude
and civilized peoples are capable of showing unspeakable, and as it
is erroneously termed, inhuman cruelty towards each other. These acts
of cruelty, murder, and rapine are often the result of the inexorable
logic of national characteristics, and are unhappily truly human, since
nothing like them can be traced in the animal world. It would, for
instance, be a grave mistake to compare a tiger with a bloodthirsty
executioner of the Reign of Terror, since the former only satisfies his
natural appetite in preying on other mammals. The atrocities of the
trials for witchcraft, the indiscriminate slaughter committed by the
negroes on the coast of Guinea, the sacrifice of human victims made
by the Khonds, the dismemberment of living men by the Battas, find no
parallel in the habits of animals in their savage state. And such a
comparison is, above all, impossible in the case of anthropoids, which
display no hostility towards men or other animals unless they are first
attacked. In this respect the anthropoid ape stands on a higher plane
than many men.
A great chasm between man and anthropoids is constituted, as I believe,
by the fact that the human race is capable of education, and is able
to acquire the highest mental culture, while the most intelligent
anthropoid can only receive a certain mechanical training. And even
to this training a limit is set by the surly temper displayed by
anthropoids as they get older. They are interesting subjects of study
in the menagerie, but they never become, like our ordinary domestic
animals, useful members of the household economy. I myself hold that
all human races are capable of culture, while differing in the degree
to which it is possible for them to attain. I do not, for example,
suppose that a tribe of Queensland Australians can be so educated as
to be placed on a level with the highest intellects of our own nation.
But how many ages it has taken to raise us so far above the Papuans!
It is indeed manifest that even very rude savages may be constituted
serviceable members of human society, as we may see from the changes
which have taken place among the Sandwich Islanders, the Tahitians,
and the Maoris in the course of the last eighty years. In our days the
envoys of the Queen of Madagascar have understood how to move in the
highest Berlin circles with high-bred demeanour, and we must recognize
this fact as significant, without, however, deluding ourselves by too
wide deductions from it.
The remark has often been made that the African blacks, Indians, etc.,
display great docility when young, and are very receptive of wisdom and
culture, but stop short at a certain point, as if unable to advance
beyond it, and sometimes, indeed, like apes in advancing age, relapse
into their originally savage state. It may, however, be inferred that
these attempts to educate young savages are generally wrecked by
mistaken methods of instruction. The young sons of nature are often
too much indulged, their childish performances are over-estimated,
their minds are over-taxed, the due development of mind and body is
checked; they become arrogant, and then people are surprised that,
as self-consciousness increases in their immature brains, a greater
or less amount of conceit is developed. There are cases in which a
savage, who has been with much labour educated and civilized, relapses
into barbarism, and comes to a violent end as the enemy of his former
protector, as a robber or a rebel; yet, even to the end of his life,
he has developed qualities and conditions which recall to him better
times. We see an example of this in some of the civilized Maoris who
afterwards joined the revolted tribes, and who introduced among their
countrymen the strength of a firmer organization against the English
supremacy. The bearing of these relapsed savages always has in it
something higher than we can trace in the savage obstinacy of a morose
old chimpanzee or orang.
Nor have the attempts to educate savages been uniformly unsuccessful.
The great Indian chief Tekumseh; the presidents Benito Juarez, and
Ramon Castilla; the negro Toussaint l’Ouverture; the Hova king, Radama
I.; the Polynesian rulers, Kamehameha I., Pomare II., Georges, and
Kokabau, show what may be made of such materials under favourable
circumstances. The poor Indian from Oaxaca; the steadfast leader Perus,
who belonged to a needy Arriero family; the Haytian who was formerly
driver on a plantation, are as far removed from aboriginal savages as
the Malagasy and Polynesians educated by European missionaries.
It is well known that nations, in the earliest periods of their
existence, have to pass through certain rude conditions of their
development, and the most highly civilized nations are not exempt
from this law. The transition period of the Stone Age is necessary
for all, and with the use of metals a higher and more cultivated life
has been gradually developed. Even for those who do not recognize any
sharp line of demarcation between the stone and metal periods, yet,
speaking generally, they will admit that the times in which stone
instruments, and those in which bronze and iron instruments were
chiefly used, present tokens of actual epochs in historical culture.
As we know, there are also certain phases of development in the Stone
Age. In its earliest stages the rudely shaped and unworked tool could
not procure for its owner any regular shelter: he lived in caves,
clefts, or under a scanty covering of leaves, and made use of his tool
in killing wild animals; in cutting wood; in preparing skins, tendons,
and gourd-vessels; in dismembering the prey obtained in hunting; and in
extracting marrow from bones. With the art of shaping and sharpening
these stone tools, a progressive improvement in the conditions of human
life went hand in hand.
We can picture to ourselves the physical and psychical conditions of
the first and earliest men of the Stone Age as those of extremely
rude savages, but who were endowed with the gift of working out for
themselves higher conditions of life.
In the year 1868 Colonel Laussedat, of the Berlin Academy of Sciences,
exhibited the lower jaw of a rhinoceros, found in the Miocene at
Billy, Allier, in which there was a notch which must, in the opinion
of many naturalists, have been made by the hand of man. The Abbé
Delaunay found in the Miocene of Pouancé, Maine-et-Loire, the rib
of a Halitherium, which was notched, and which likewise appeared to
have been subjected to human manipulation. Garrigou is of opinion
that certain bones found at Sansan were broken by the hand of man,
and Dücker expressed a similar belief about the fossils of Pikermi.
These ideas have been strongly opposed. Many of the marks on these
bones have been represented to bear traces of the teeth of carnivora,
rodents, etc. The Abbé Bourgeois found flints in the Miocene of Thenay,
near Pont-Levoy, Loir-et-Cher, of which he ascribes the working to
beings of a higher intelligence than the animals of that period.
This opinion is shared by eminent anthropologists, such as Vibraye,
Worsaae, Mortillet, de Quatrefages, and Hamy. Gaudry does not doubt
the accuracy of the account given of their position at Thenay, by so
experienced a geologist as Bourgeois. The illustrious observer of the
quaternary epoch is only concerned with the question whether these
flints at Thenay were artificially worked or not. The stones were found
in a layer of the same kind of rubble. When a number of such flints
are placed together, only a few people can discover an incontestable
distinction between the artificially shaped and the unshaped stones.
The alleged presence of shaped flints in the Miocene Age still demands
careful examination. The epoch of the Middle Miocene is very ancient,
and Léberon distinguishes between fauna found in the limestone of
Beauce and Faluns and those of the Upper Miocene, of Eppelsheim and
Pikermi. According to this author, the next in succession was the Lower
Pliocene of Montpellier; then the Pliocene of Perrier, Solilhac, and
Coupet. Next came the fauna of the forest bed at Cromer, and then those
of the boulder clay. To judge from the Norfolk strata, these latter
were of very long duration. Above the fauna of the boulder clay are
those of the diluvium, followed by the fauna of the reindeer period and
of our own time.
Whatever may be thought of the many changes which have taken place,
whether they are regarded as the result of distinct and independent
creations or as the result of transformations, no geologist can doubt
that an immense tract of time was required for the production of these
forms. In the Middle Miocene there is not a single species of mammal
which corresponds to any of our extant species. If we start from the
standpoint of simple palæontology, it would be difficult to assume that
the being which shaped the flints at Thenay can have remained unaltered
in the midst of all these changes. If, as Gaudry remarks, it can be
shown that the flints collected by Bourgeois in the Beauce limestone
were really artificially shaped, he as a geologist would not hesitate
to recognize in the _Dryopithecus_ the author of this handiwork.[133]
But, speaking provisionally, the _Dryopithecus_ which is assumed to
have used these flints, and of which we, unfortunately, know only
the little which can be gleaned from a few fragments of bone, must
remain the object of an interesting hypothesis, so far as his advanced
anthropomorphism is concerned. No anthropoid now in existence has
shown itself capable of adapting stones, etc., to his personal use.
Moreover, the most fanatical advocates of the doctrine of descent are
becoming ever more convinced that man cannot be the issue of any extant
form of anthropoids. It is true that a close, and in many respects
a very close, physical connection may be traced between men and
anthropoids, but not the possibility of a direct descent from the one
to the other. This is especially shown from the physical development
of the larger apes, which only strongly resemble men in their youthful
stages, and lose this character more and more as they grow older. The
absolute deficiency of any capacity for the further development of the
intellectual qualities of our modern species of anthropoids is another
proof of this fact; their intelligence is, indeed, higher than that of
other mammals, and also of other apes, but they are still far behind
the intelligence of man, which is capable of still further development.
In the process of physical growth, as I feel myself compelled often
to repeat, anthropoids constantly diverge further from the human
organization. C. Vogt justly observes: “When we consider the principles
of the modern theory of evolution, as it is applied to the history of
development, we are met by the important fact that in every respect
the young ape stands nearer to the human child than the adult ape does
to the adult man. The original differences between the young creatures
of both types are much slighter than in their adult condition: this
assertion, made long since in my lectures on the human race, has
received a striking confirmation from recent autopsies of young
anthropoids which have died in the Zoological Gardens of Europe. In
proportion to the age of the specimen, the characteristic differences
in the form of the jaw, the cranial ridges, etc., become more evident.
Both man and apes are developed from an embryonic condition, and from
the period of childhood in a diverging or almost opposite direction
into the final type of their species, yet even adult apes still retain
in their whole organization features which correspond to those of the
human child.”[134] Quenstedt also says: “However much _Homo sapiens_ is
raised by his intelligence above all other animals, however important
the physical differences are which divide him from apes, yet the
scene of their existence in the world is by no means so wide that, as
time goes on, the narrow limits between them may not approximate more
closely.”[135]
In these words the opinion I have already expressed is set forth, an
opinion which continues to gain ground; namely, that man cannot have
descended from any of the fossil species which have hitherto come to
our notice, nor yet from any of the species of apes now extant. It
is more probable “that both types have been produced from a common
ground-form, which is still more strongly expressed in the structure of
young specimens, because the age of childhood is less advanced” (Vogt).
This supposed progenitor of our race is necessarily completely
hypothetical, and all the attempts hitherto made to construct even a
doubtful representation of its characteristics are based upon the
trifling play of fancy.
Darwin came to the conclusion that man has, at any rate, descended from
a highly organized form. He goes on to say:
“The grounds upon which this conclusion rests will never be shaken, for
the close similarity between man and the lower animals in embryonic
development, as well as in innumerable points of structure and
constitution, both of high and of the most trifling importance, the
rudiments which he retains, and the abnormal reversions to which he is
occasionally liable--are facts which cannot be disputed. They have long
been known, but until recently they told us nothing with respect to the
origin of man. Now, when viewed by the light of our knowledge of the
whole organic world, their meaning is unmistakable. The great principle
of evolution stands up clear and firm, when these groups of facts are
considered in connection with others, such as the mutual affinities of
the members of the same group, their geographical distribution in past
and present times, and their geological succession. It is incredible
that all these facts should speak falsely. He who is not content to
look, like a savage, on the phenomena of nature as disconnected, cannot
any longer believe that man is the work of a separate act of creation.
He will be forced to admit that the close resemblance of the embryo of
man to that, for instance, of a dog; the construction of his skull,
limbs, and whole frame, independently of the uses to which the parts
may be put, on the same plan with that of other mammals; the occasional
reappearance of various structures--for instance, of several distinct
muscles, which man does not normally possess, but which are common
to the Quadrumana; and a crowd of analogous facts;--all point in the
plainest manner to the conclusion that man is the co-descendant with
the other mammals of a common progenitor.”[136]
“The most ancient progenitors in the kingdom of the vertebrata,”
observes the same great English naturalist in another place, “at which
we are able to obtain an obscure glance, apparently consisted of a
group of marine animals, resembling the larvæ of existing Ascidians.
These animals probably gave rise to a group of fishes as lowly
organized as the lancelet; and from these the Ganoids, and other fishes
like the Lepidosiren, must have been developed. From such fish a very
small advance would carry us on to the amphibians. We have seen that
birds and reptiles were once intimately connected together; and the
Monotremata now, in a slight degree, connect mammals with reptiles. But
no one can at present say by what line of descent the three higher and
related classes, namely, mammals, birds, and reptiles, were derived
from either of the two lower vertebrate classes, namely, amphibians
and fishes. In the class of mammals, the steps are not difficult
to conceive which led from the ancient Monotremata to the ancient
Marsupials; and from these to the early progenitors of the placental
mammals. We may thus ascend to the Lemuridæ, and the interval is not
wide from these to the Simiadæ. The Simiadæ then branched off into
two great stems, the New World and Old World monkeys; and from the
latter, at a remote period, Man, the wonder and glory of the universe,
proceeded.”[137]
Setting aside for the present this long pedigree of man, let us
consider some of the isolated phases which have been established in
the still incomplete condition of modern science. As far as semi-apes
are concerned, whose near relation to men and apes has of late been
strongly urged, I agree with those who, like Vogt, consider that their
order, with its variety of forms, points to a complex origin, probably
from marsupial animals, with which their organization presents many
common features; hence it appears that some of their forms belong to
the earliest Tertiary mammals with which we are well acquainted. “In
conclusion,” he writes, “it appears, from these facts, that any very
close connection between the semi-apes and apes, and hence with man,
cannot be proved. With the exception of the opposing thumb, which is
and was a widely diffused characteristic common to many species, the
semi-apes have not a single anatomical feature in common with apes.
Their jaw, the most permanent characteristic, places them in the
insectivorous class; to enroll them among the ancestors of man is to
set at nought all the principles of scientific research.”[138]
That purely hypothetical being, the common ancestor of man and apes,
is still to be found, and this is the task assigned to palæontology.
Whether this science, to which a great future belongs, will ever
accomplish the task, is a question which concerns itself. Meanwhile,
considering the great palæontological achievements of our day, the
discovery of the _Odontornithes_, _Ætosauri_, _Rhamphorynchi_,
_Holoptychia_, etc., we need not despair of the possibility of
discovering the true link between the world of man and mammals.
This purely speculative side of research, this purely scientific
mode of treating the descent of man, is no longer satisfied with
unproved assertions, but will rather trust to the strenuous labour of
future times, and this need not disturb any religious or political
convictions. Even if the assumed ancestral type should really be
discovered in some geological stratum, yet research will have to
overcome immense difficulties, if it is to explain the development of
the understanding and of speech, and the growth of independent human
intelligence. Yet we must not, on this account, refuse to recognize
the possibility of achieving some new discoveries in this direction.
To do so would be to stifle the impulse to scientific research, and
this would be unworthy of our former intellectual achievements. Let us
therefore labour on with courage.
In matters which concern ethnology we are constantly shown that even
those races of men which are very remote from each other, and of whom
it cannot be supposed that they were in earlier times united in one
nation, have made the same technical discoveries, and have adopted
similar manners and customs and similar religious observances. This
allows us to infer that there is a physical and psychical unity of
human nature which indeed separates into races and varieties, but not
into distinct species. Certain tokens of what is hypothetically the
primeval type will predominate even in the progeny which has been
modified by a distinct and separate development, and we need not be
surprised by reversions to the animal structure, even in man, the
ultimate scope of organic development. Nor will the developed culture
of man offer any hindrance to such reversions. The theromorphic
conditions which we have pointed out in the third chapter of this work,
such as the frontal process of the squamous temporal portion, the
transverse enlargement of the occipital bone, the pointed ear, etc.,
occur both in the higher and lower races of man; just as, for example,
both in primitive and high-bred races of horses there are reversions to
fossil forms in hind toes, cloven hoofs, etc.
Not only the physical, but the mental development of man advances
uniformly, and not _per saltum_. Physical qualities and defects may
occur in a given number of negroes and Papuans, and may be absent in
an equal number of Europeans, and conversely may occur in the one and
be absent in the other; yet, in their mental condition, negroes and
Papuans must always be regarded as in a lower order than Europeans. And
if physical superiority is more widely diffused in European peoples
than elsewhere, owing to higher culture, less exposure, and better
nourishment, a more regular mode of life, and often also to the sexual
selection prompted by æsthetic considerations, yet the reversion to
such animal characteristics as do not exercise any modifying influence
on the bodily development of the individual, occurs both in these and
other races. I conclude these remarks with the reproduction of the fine
passage with which Darwin ends his work on the descent of man.
“Man may be excused for feeling some pride at having risen, though not
through his own exertions, to the very summit of the organic scale; and
the fact of his having thus risen, instead of having been aboriginally
placed there, may give him hopes for a still higher destiny in the
distant future. But we are not here concerned with hopes or fears,
only with the truth, as far as our reason allows us to discover it.
I have given the evidence to the best of my ability: and we must
acknowledge, as it seems to me, that man, with all his noble qualities;
with sympathy which feels for the most debased; with benevolence which
extends not only to other men, but to the humblest living creature;
with his god-like intellect, which has penetrated into the movements
and constitution of the solar system;--with all these exalted powers,
man still bears in his bodily frame the indelible stamp of his lowly
origin.”
APPENDIX.
It was after I had finished this treatise that Mohnike’s _Blicke auf
das Pflanzen- und Thierleben in den indischen Malaienländern_ (Münster,
1883) came into my hands. The author, who was for several years
physician and medical superintendent in the Dutch Indies, has given
an interesting account of the orang-utan. It appears that this animal
is only found in the northern part of Sumatra, and is more common on
the western than on the eastern coast. Even there the orang is only
occasionally captured. The Dyaks of Borneo are fond of the flesh of
this ape, which they shoot, especially in the interior of the island,
with poisoned darts, projected from a blow-pipe. The wounded part is
then carefully cut out.
Mohnike states that in Borneo _Hylobates concolor_ is called Ouo-ouo
by the Malays, and Kalawet by the Dyaks. Dark specimens of _Hylobates
variegatus_ are in the Malay dialect called _itam_, or black Unko, and
light specimens are called _puti_, or white Unko. A good illustration
of _Hylobates leucogenys_ is given in the _Proceedings of the
Zoological Society_, p. 680, Plate 42: London, 1877.
It should be added to what I have said in the text, that the uvula
of the orang-utan is often absent (Bischoff, _Beiträge zur Anatomie
des Gorilla_, p. 37; and Rückart, _Der Pharynx als Sprach- und
Schluck-apparat_, p. 24, plate iii. fig. 10: Munich, 1882). I have,
however, examined a specimen in which the uvula was quite perceptible,
as well as the palate and arched root of the tongue.
In addition to the lower jaw from Naulette, of which I have spoken
above, the fragment of a lower jaw has lately been found in the Schipka
cave, Moravia, declared by Schaaffhausen to be that of an ape-like
child. Virchow has carefully examined this fragment, and considers that
it belongs to an adult of the mammoth age, who suffered from retention
of the teeth, and that there is nothing pithecoid about it. The same
author subjected the Naulette jaw, which he has repeatedly examined in
Brussels, to a close analysis, and is somewhat disposed to admit the
pithecoid character of this specimen (_Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, p.
277: 1882).
R. Baume, on the other hand, considers that both the Naulette jaw and
that from the Schipka cave are pithecoid forms. He finds in these two
specimens the actual proof of the existence of man-apes in the diluvial
period, since they differ widely, in the form of the lower jaw, from
any living specimens. This author is of opinion that in the diluvial
period there must have been races of men far inferior to the lowest
races now in existence (_Die Kieferfragmente von La Naulette und aus
der Schipkahöhle_, Leipzig, 1883).
See Hartmann, _Sitzungsbericht der Gesellschaft naturforschender
Freunde zu Berlin_, November 19, 1878, for remarks on the tendon, the
blood-vessels of the shoulder and thigh in anthropoids, in addition to
those given in the text.
AUTHORITIES FOR CHAPTER I.
(1) “Hinc (_i.e._ Θεῶν ὄχημα) tridui navigatione torrentes igneos
prætervecti in sinum venimus, qui Noti Ceras dicitur (Νότου Κέρας). In
sinus recessu insula erat priori, illi similis; nam lacum habebat, in
quo insula erat altera, referta hominibus silvestribus. Erant autem
multo plures mulieres hirsutis corporibus, quas interpretes Gorillas
(Γορίλλας) vocabant. Nos persequentes viros quidem capere non potuimus,
omnes enim effugiebant quum per præcipitia scanderent et saxis se
defenderent; sed feminas cepimus tres, quæ mordentes et lacerantes
ductores sequi nolebant. Atque occidimus eas et pelles detractas
asportavimus Carthaginem. Neque enim ulterius navigavimus, quum annona
deficeret” (Hannonis Carthaginiensis Periplus. Geographi Græci Minores,
ed. C. Muelleri, vol. i.).
(2) Comp. Temminck, Esquisses zoologiques sur la cote de Guinée
(Leiden, 1853), p. 3.
(3) Marc. de Serres first directed the attention of naturalists to this
mosaic. Comp. Froriep, Notizen zur Natur- und Heilkunde, book 42. It
has been frequently said that the original of this mosaic is in the
Museum of Antiquities at Berlin. Undoubtedly the mosaic in question
also consists of a landscape with hippopotami, crocodile, etc., but it
cannot be compared with that of Palestrina, which is to my knowledge
in the Barberini palace at Rome.
(4) See the Natural History of the younger Pliny, ii. 172; vii. 2.
(5) Regnum Congo: hoc est Vera Descriptio Regni Africani quod tam ab
incolis quam Lusitanis Congus appellatur, per Philippum Pigafettam,
olim ex Edoardo Lopez acromatis lingua Italica excerpta, nunc Latio
sermone donata ab Aug. Cassiod. Reinio. Iconibus et imaginibus rerum
memorabilium quasi vivis, opera et industria Joan. Theod. et Joan.
Israelis de Bry, fratrum exornata (Francofurti, MDXCVIII.).
(6) Abhandlungen der Königl. Bayrischen Akademie der Wissenschaften
(iii. cl. ix. div. 1).
(7) A voyage to Congo and several other countries in Southern Africa,
Church collection of voyages and travels (London, 1744), i. 651.
(8) Relation d’un voyage fait en 1695–97 aux côtes d’Afrique, etc.
(Paris, 1699).
(9) Nouveau voyage en Guinée, p. 74.
(10) Observationes Medicæ (Amsterdam), § 56. I have recently had
occasion to doubt whether Tulpe’s representation of an ape is not
founded on that of an orang-utan of average size. At any rate, the head
of the animal given by this anatomist reminds me more of an orang than
of a chimpanzee.
(11) The Anatomy of a Pygmy, compared with that of a Monkey, an Ape,
and a Man. With an Essay concerning the Pygmies, etc., of the Ancients
(edit. i., London, 1699; edit. ii., 1751).
(12) Purchas, His Pilgrims. I have made use of the edition published in
London in 1625 (vol. ii. 982).
(13) Beschryvinge des Afrikaensche gewesten van Egypten, Barbaryen,
Lybien, Biledulgerid, Negrosland, Ethiopien, Abyssinie, etc.
(Amsterdam, 1688; edit. ii. 1679). I have made use of the German
version of 1760.
(14) The name Quojas Morrou is also used by Tulpe. A living specimen of
these animals was given by Dapper to Prince Frederick Henry of Orange,
and is perhaps the one described by Tulpe.
(15) Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashanti (London, 1819: trans.
Weimar, 1820; Vienna, 1826). I have made use of the latter translation.
(16) Trans. of the Zoolog. Soc., vol. iii., 1848: On a new species of
Chimpanzee, by Professor Owen.
(17) A description of the external characters and habits of Troglodytes
Gorilla, by Ph. S. Savage, and of the osteology of the same, by
Jeffreys Wyman (Journal of Nat. Hist., Boston, 1847, vol. v.).
(18) Th. Savage: Notice of Troglodytes Gorilla, a new species of Orang
on the Gaboon (Boston, 1847). Comp. Kneeland in Proc. of the Boston
Soc. of Nat. Hist., 1850, 1852.
(19) Ostéographie (Paris, 1839–64). Atlas, vol. iv., Mammifères, plate
i.
(20) Archives du Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle de Paris, vol. x.
(21) Ibid., vol. viii.
(22) An impression on steel: A mode of photographic illustration used
by Nièpce de St. Victor, which has since been materially improved.
(23) Der Gorilla, etc. A coloured illustration by G. Mützel, plate i.
(24) Adventures and explorations in Equatorial Africa (London, 1861).
A journey to Ashango Land (London, 1867). The country of the Dwarfs
(London, 1872).
(25) Reade, Savage Life: being the narrative of a tour in Equatorial,
South-Western, and North-Western Africa, etc. (London, 1863). Brehm,
Thierleben, edit. i., i. 16. See also Hartmann, Der Gorilla, p. 4.
(26) Observations on Du Chaillu’s papers on the new species of mammals
discovered by him in Equatorial Africa: Proceed. of the Zool. Soc.,
London. 1861.
(27) Proceed. of the Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist., 1860. See also Du
Chaillu’s Adventures and Explorations, chap. 22; and Reichenbach’s
Vollständigste Naturgeschichte der Affen (Dresden and Leipzig), p. 196.
(28) Description of cranium of an adult male gorilla from the River
Danger, indicative of a variety of the great chimpanzee (Troglod.
Gorilla): Trans. of Zoolog. Soc., London, vol. iv., 1853. Memoir on
the Gorilla (London, 1865): well illustrated. Odontography (London,
1840–45). Article on Teeth, by Todd and Bowman, in the Cyclopedia of
Anatomy and Physiology, vol. iv. part ii. Lectures on the comparative
anatomy and physiology of Vertebrata (London, 1866–68, vol. iii.).
(29) Burton’s Two Trips to the Gorilla land, and the cataracts of the
Nile (London, 1876).
(30) Compiègne’s L’Afrique Equatoriale (Paris, 1875; Gabonais, p. 260).
(31) De Brazza’s Le Tour du Monde, Année 1878, No. 936.
(32) Lenz’s Skizzen aus Westafrika (Berlin, 1878), p. 171.
(33) Die Loango Expedition, pt. ii., by Falkenstein, p. 149.
(34) Koppenfels’ Die Gartenlaube (1877), No. 25.
(35) Zoologiska Studier, Andra Häftet. (Lund, 1857).
(36) Revue d’Anthropologie (1876), p. 1, etc.
(37) The Medical Times, 1872.
(38) Descrizione di una scimmia antropomorfa proveniente dall’ Africa
centrale, in den Annali del Museo Civico di Genova, i. 53.
(39) Studii craniologici sui Cimpanzé. Ibid., iii. 3.
(40) Proceedings of the Academy of Nat. Sciences (Philadelphia, 1879),
pt. iii. p. 385.
(41) On the Appendicular Skeleton of the Primates: Philosophical
Transactions (1867), 299.
(41A) Macalister’s Muscular Anatomy of the Gorilla: Proceedings of the
Royal Irish Academy of Science, 2nd series, vol. i.
(42) Ueber die Schädelform des Menschen und der Affen, Leipzig, 1867.
(43) Die Hand und der Fuss. Abhandlungen der Senckenbergischen
Naturforschenden Gesellschaft, vol. v.
(44) Archiv. für Anthropologie, viii. 67.
(45) Abhandl. aus dem Gebiete der Naturwissenschaften, herausgeg. vom
Naturwis. Verein zu Hamburg-Altona (Hamburg, 1876), pp. 74–83.
(46) Ibid., p. 84, etc.
(47) Die anthropomorphen Affen des lübecker Museums (Lübeck, 1876).
(48) Mittheilungen aus dem königl. Zoolog. Museum zu Dresden (1877),
No. 2, p. 225.
(49) Der Gorilla, mit Berücksichtigung des Unterschiedes zwischen
Menschen und Affen, etc. Denkschrift des Offenbacher Vereins für
Naturkunde (Offenbach, 1863).
(50) Ueber die Verschiedenheit in der Schädelbildung des Gorilla,
Chimpanse und Orang-utan, etc. (München, 1867). Vergleichende
anatomische Untersuchungen über die äussern weiblichen Geschlechts-
und Begattungsorgane des Menschen und der Affen. Abhandl. der königl.
bayrischen Akad. d. Wissensch., cl. ii. vol. xiii. plate ii. Beiträge
zur Anatomie des Gorilla. Ibid. cl. ii. vol. xiii. plate iii.
(51) Beiträge zur Kenntniss des Gorilla und Chimpanse. Abhandl. der K.
Gesellsch. der Wissensch. Göttingen, vol. 28.
(52) Ueber den Schädel des jungen Gorilla. Monatsberichte der königl.
Akademie der Wissensch. zu Berlin (June 7, 1880), p. 516.
(53) Studien aus dem Gebiete der Naturwissensch., plate ii.
(Petersburg, 1876), v. 235.
(54) Various works on the gorilla under the following titles:--Beiträge
zur Kenntniss der sogen. anthropomorphen Affen, Zeitschrift für
Ethnologie, series iv. 198; viii. 129; ix. 117. Ueber das Hüftgelenk
der anthropoiden Affen. Sitzungsber. der Gesellsch. Naturforsch.
Freunde zu Berlin, April 17, 1877. Ueber den Torus occipitalis
transversus am Hinterhauptbeine des Menschen; Ibid., Nov. 26, 1880. Die
menschenähnlichen Affen, No. 247 of the Sammlung gemeinverständlicher
wissensch. Vorträge, by Virchow and Holtzendorff, p. 11.
(55) Vogt’s Vorlesungen über den Menschen (Giessen, 1863).
(56) L’homme et les singes. Bulletin de la Société d’Anthropologie,
vol. iv. series ii., 1870.
(57) Magitot, Bulletin de la Soc. d’Ethnographie de Paris, 1872.
(58) Gesammelte Werke. A. d. Engl. von J. V. Carus, v. 1, 2 (Stuttgart,
1875).
(59) Gervais’s Hist. Nat. des Mammifères (Paris, 1854), vol. i. p. 27.
(60) Huxley’s Manual of the Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals (London,
1871).
(61) Flower’s Introduction to the Osteology of the Mammalia (London,
1870).
(62) Giebel’s Odontographie. Vergleichende Darstellung des Zahnsystems
der lebenden und fossilen Wirbelthiere (Leipzig, 1855).
(63) Proceed. of the Zoolog. Soc. (London, 1876).
(64) Hist. Nat. générale et particulière, vol. 35 (Paris).
(65) I quote here the passage which Bosman has taken from the foregoing
work by Buffon: “Les singes que l’on appelle smitten (forgerons) en
flamand, sont de couleur fauve, et deviennent extrêmement grands: j’en
ai vu un de mes propres yeux qui avait cinq pieds de haut et de bien
moins grand que l’homme. Ils sont méchants et très forts; un marchand
m’a conté, que dans le voisinage du fort de Wimba, le pays est occupé
par un très-grand nombre de ces singes, qui sont de force à attaquer
l’homme, ce dont on citait des exemples.” Bosman goes on to speak of
another species of ape in the same district, which is as hideous as
those of the larger kind (Beschrijving van Guiné (1737), p. 34; Voyage
de Guinée, p. 258).
(66) Comp. on this point Huxley’s very lucid remarks in his work on the
position of man in nature.
(67) Le Jardin des Plantes, by Bernard, Couailhac, Gervais and Lemaout
(Paris, 1842), i. 82.
(68) Ibid., p. 83, together with the illustration.
(69) Copied by Chenu, Encycl. d’Hist. Nat. Quadrumanes (Paris, 1851),
plate i. fig. 36. By Gervais, Hist. Nat. des Mammifères (Paris, 1854),
i. 16, 22. By A. B. Reichenbach, Praktische Naturgesch. des Menschen
und der Säugethiere (New edit., Leipzig), plate i. fig. 4. H. G. L.
Reichenbach, Die Vollständigste Naturgesch. der Affen (Dresden and
Leipzig), plate xxxiv., fig. 466; etc.
(70) J. B. Brehm’s Thierleben (Leipzig, 1876), i. 46, 68.
(71) Hartmann, Der Gorilla, etc. Woodcuts, Nos. vi., vii., viii., xiii.
(72) Beobachtungen an zwei lebenden Chimpanse, by H. Tiedemann,
Philadelphia. Nach brieflichen Mittheilungen bearbeitet by L. Bischoff
(Bonn, 1879).
(73) Temminck’s Esquisse Zoologique, pt. i., etc.
(74) Vrolik, Recherches d’anatomie comparée sur le Chimpanse
(Amsterdam, 1841).
(75) On the muscles and nerves of a Chimpanzee, etc. (Journal of
Anatomy and Physiology, series ii. 1871, p. 176).
(76) Brühl, Myologisches über die Extremitäten des Chimpanse (Wiener
Medicin. Wochenschrift. Jahrg. 1817).
(77) Ontleedkundige nasporingen over de hersenen van den Chimpanse
(Amsterdam, 1849).
(78) Des caractères anatomiques des grands singes
pseudo-anthropomorphes, Archives du Muséum, vol. viii. Vergleichung
der Anatomie des Gorilla mit derjenigen des Chimpanse: very well
illustrated.
(79) Recherches sur l’anatomie du Troglodytes Aubryi (Nouvelles
Archives du Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle. Mémoires, vol. ii.).
(80) Mittheilungen aus dem königl. Zoologischen Museum zu Dresden, No.
2 (Dresden, 1877).
(81) Comp. the works cited in note 54. Also Hartmann, Beiträge zur
Zoologischen und Zootomischen Kenntniss der sogenannten anthropomorphen
Affen. Archiv. für Anatomie, Physiologie, etc., by Reichert and Du
Bois-Reymond. Series for the years 1872–76, with many plates, some of
them chromo-lithographs.
(82) Description de l’espèce de singe aussi singulier que très rare,
nommé Orang-Outang, de l’isle de Borneo. Apporté vivant dans la
ménagerie de M. le Prince d’Orange. Description d’un recueil exquis
d’animaux rares, etc. (Amsterdam, 1804). The plates, representing the
orang, which accompany this work are not badly done.
(83) Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap. Tweede Deel.
(Derde Druk, 1826).
(84) Beschrijving van der groote Borneosche Orang-outang of de
Oostindische Pongo. Ibid. Also Briefe des Herrn v. Wurmb und des Herrn
Baron v. Wollzogen (Gotha, 1794).
(85) General and particular descriptions of the vertebrated animals;
order quadrumana (London, 1831): with coloured plates.
(86) Monographies de Mammalogie, vol. ii.
(87) Verhandelingen over de natuurlijke geschiedenis der Nederlandsche
overzeesche besittingen (1839–45). Zoologie, p. 1.
(88) Description des mammifères nouveaux ou imparfaitement connus de la
collection du Muséum d’histoire naturelle. Nouv. Archives du Muséum,
etc., ii. 485.
(89) Annals and Magazine of Natural History (1842), ix. 54.
(90) Calcutta Government Gazette, Jan. 13, 1853. Asiatic Researches,
xv. 489, 491.
(91) Wallace’s Malay Archipelago.
(92) Naturgeschichte des Orang-Utan und einiger anderer Affenarten.
Herbell (Düsseldorf, 1791).
(93) On the Comparative Osteology of the Orang-utan and Chimpanzee:
London and Edinburgh Philosoph. Magazine, vi. 457; x. 259. Trans. of
the Zoolog. Soc. of London, i. pt. iv.
(94) Archiv. für Anatomie, Physiologie, etc., 1836, p. 46; 1839, p. 209.
(95) L. s. cit.
(96) Vier Abbildungen des Schädels der Simia Satyrus von verschiedenem
Alter zur Aufklärung der Fabel vom Orañ-Utañ (Marburg, 1838).
(97) Note sur les métamorphoses du crâne de l’Orang-Outang, Bulletins
de l’Académie de Bruxelles (1838). Annales des Sciences Naturelles
(1839), p. 56.
(98) Zur Kenntniss des Orangkopfes und der Orangarten (Wien, 1856).
(99) Die Muskulatur der Extremitäten als Grundlage einer
vergleichend-myologischen Untersuchung.
(100) L. s. c., Fig. 42, plate vii.
(101) L. s. c., plate i. p. 30 (left figure).
(102) Zeitschrift für Ethnologie (1876), vol. 15. Brehm’s Thierleben,
i. 83.
(103) Copied in Cassell’s Natural History, i. 8 (52), with the
erroneous title, “Sick Chimpanzee.”
(104) Naturhistorische Früchte der ersten kais. russischen
Erdumsegelung (Petersburg, 1813), p. 130.
(105) Le règne animal (nouv. edit.), i. 88.
(106) Is. Geoff. Saint-Hilaire et F. Cuvier, Hist. Nat. des mammifères
(Paris, 1819–35), plate iii. fig. 4.
(107) Wanderings in New South Wales (London, 1834), vol. ii. chap. viii.
(108) Man and Monkeys (London, 1840), p. 423.
(109) Boston Journal of Nat. Hist., i.
(110) See work cited in note 83.
(111) See work cited in note 63, p. 140.
(112) Hist. Nat. des Singes (Paris, an. ix.), p. 154.
(113) Archives du Muséum d’Hist. Nat., v. 529.
(114) Blyth in Journal of the Asiatic Soc., 1846, xv. 172; Ibid., 1847,
xvi. 730.
(115) Proceed. of the Zoolog. Soc. of London, xiv. 11.
(116) Beiträge zur Anatomie des _Hylobates leuciscus_. From the
Proceedings of the Bavarian Academy of Science, 2nd series, vol. x.
plate iii.
FOOTNOTES.
[2] _Vorträge über Viehzucht und Rassenkenntniss_, i. 61: Berlin, 1872.
[3] Comp. Is. Geoffr. Saint-Hilaire, table v.; also Hartmann, _Der
Gorilla_, p. 14, Anm. 4.
[4] Owen, _Memoir_, etc., plate ii.; Brehm, _Thierleben_, i. 56.
[5] Comp. Hartmann, _Der Gorilla_, fig. 8. This is undoubtedly one
of the most successful illustrations of the chimpanzee, its habits,
expression, and disposition.
[6] Comp. Hartmann, _Der Gorilla_, fig. 27, representing the Hamburg
animal in middle age. Fig. 6 gives the wild Paulina of the German
Loango expedition. The inscription, by an error of the press, states
that it is a male, not a female chimpanzee.
[7] While writing these words I obtained a dried specimen, _Hylobates
lenciscus_ (Kuhl), injected with Wickersheiner’s fluid; a large
_Hylobates_ of the same species, preserved in spirits of wine; another
_Hylobates albimanus_ (Is. Geoffr. Saint-Hilaire), preserved in the
same way; and the skeletons of _Hylobates syndactylus_ (F. Cuvier), and
of _Hylobates agilis_.
[8] A very good illustration of this animal may be seen in Ed.
Poeppig’s _Illustrirter Naturgeschichte des Thierreichs_, vol. i. fig.
24 (Leipzig, 1847), which is taken from some English source with which
I am not acquainted. Another woodcut of this animal is in Bock’s _Unter
den Kannibalen auf Borneo_, p. 342: Jena, 1882.
[9] A specimen of _Hylobates leucogenys_ (Ogilby) may be seen in the
British Museum. Comp. J. E. Gray, Catalogue of monkeys, lemurs, etc.:
London, 1870.
[10] A good woodcut of _Hylobates pileatus_ (J. E. Gray) appears in
Huxley’s work, _Man’s Place in Nature_.
[11] A very good coloured illustration of _Hylobates funereus_,
probably taken from life by Werner, may be seen in Is. Geoff.
Saint-Hilaire’s _Description des mammifères nouveaux, ou imparfaitement
connus de la collection du Muséum d’histoire naturelle_. _Archives du
Muséum_, v. 26.
[12] The coronal crest has attained to a quite unusual height in the
fine specimen of the skull of an aged male gorilla, No. 92, in the
Natural History Museum in Paris.
[13] _Ethnologische Schriften, nach dem Tode des Verfassers gesammelt
von dessen Sohne Professor Gustav Retzius_, p. 33: Stockholm, 1864.
[14] _Zur Kenntniss des Orangskopfes_, etc., p. 3. Virchow observes
(_Verhandlungen der Berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft_, March
18, 1876): “The fact that the gibbon, as well as the orang-utan, is
brachycephalous is of great geographical interest.”
[15] Monthly report of the Royal Academy of Sciences, Berlin, June 7,
1880.
[16] Virchow, _Ueber einige Merkmale niederer Menschenrassen am
Schädel_, p. 41: Berlin, 1875. _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xii. 23:
1880. _Monatsbericht der Königlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu
Berlin_, p. 523: 1880. The _os epiptericum_ may be observed in cranium
No. 92 of the Paris collection. It is plainly seen in Fig. 4, p. 127,
in _Darwinismus und Thierproduction_ (Munich, 1876), in which I refer
to this skull. See also Bischoff, _Schädelwerk_.
[17] This illustration is from Duvernoy’s _Des caractères anatomiques
des grandes singes pseudo-anthropomorphes_, plate ii. It is an
excellent illustration of the characteristic spinous processes of the
vertebral column, and of the relative position of the limbs.
[18] Duvernoy, table vi. fig. B.
[19] Brühl, _Zur Kenntniss des Orangkopfes_, pp. 2, 3.
[20] “The Missing Link,” _Engineering and Mining Journal_, xx. 3: New
York.
[21] _Report of Anthropological Society_, Berlin, April 16, 1881.
[22] Darwin’s _Descent of Man_, p. 21.
[23] Virchow’s _Archiv. für Pathologische Anatomie_, liii. 485: 1871.
[24] _Report of Anthropological Society_, Berlin, March 9, 1878.
[25] Darwin’s _Descent of Man_, vol. i. p. 192.
[26] _Geologische Bilder zur Geschichte der Erde und ihrer Bewohner_,
ii. 120: Leipzig, 1851–53.
[27] _Voyage pittoresque dans le Brésil_: Paris, 1839.
[28] _Anthropogenie_, p. 482: Leipzig, 1874.
[29] It appears to be very common among Japanese apes (_Inuus
speciosus_).
[30] Brühl has noted the intermittent occurrence of a connection
between the greater wing of the sphenoid bone and the temporal bone.
[31] _Archiv. für Anthropologie_, p. 121: 1878.
[32] Schlocker, _Ueber die Anomalien des Pterion_. Inaugural
dissertation. Dorpat, 1879.
[33] _Zur Kraniologie der Mongoloiden: Beobachtungen und Messungen_, p.
56. Dissertation. Heidelburg, Berlin, 1882.
[34] _Bulletin de la Société d’Anthropologie_, iv. fig. 305.
[35] _Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie_, p.
164: 1872.
[36] _Die vierte allgemeine Versammlung der deutschen Gesellschaft für
Anthropologie_, p. 49.
[37] _Die Urbevölkerung Europas_, p. 46.
[38] _Quarterly Journal of Science_, January, 1864. Comp, also
Fuhlrott, _Der fossile Mensch aus dem Neanderthal_: Duisburg, 1865.
[39] _Archiv. für Anthropologie_, viii. fig. 63.
[40] _Zeugnisse_, etc., 157.
[41] _Crania Ethnica_, plate xxvi.; _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_,
series 12, plate viii. fig. 2.
[42] _Crania Ethnica_, plate xxxvi.
[43] Ten Kate, _loc. cit._ pp. 17, 42. Virchow is of opinion that the
facts are not sufficiently clear to enable us to judge how far this
formation affects men (_Monatsbericht der Akademie der Wissenschaft
zu Berlin_, p. 258: 1881). The detachment of the malar bone from the
spheno-maxillary fissure of the orbit has up to this time been too
rarely observed in anthropoids to merit serious consideration in this
work.
[44] Joly, _Man before Metals_: London.
[45] Gaudry, _Les enchainements du monde animal_, p. 232: Paris, 1878.
[46] Hartmann, _Der Gorilla_, pp. 68, 109.
[47] _Correspondenzblatt der Deutscher Anthropologischen Gesellschaft_,
p. 148, with illustration: 1878.
[48] _Zur Morphologie des Gesichtsschädel_, pp. 73, 85, 89: Stuttgart,
1877.
[49] Welcker on His und Braune, _Archiv. für Anatomie_, 1881.
Rosenberg, Gegenbaur’s _Morphologisches Jahrbuch_, i. 172.
[50] _Beiträge zur Geburtshülfe_, p. 161.
[51] _Sitzungsberichte der Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Wien_, lxxxv.
fig. 1: 1882.
[52] Hartmann in _Archiv. für Anatomie_, etc., by Reichert and Du
Bois-Reymond, pp. 639–643: 1876.
[53] Wiedersheim, _Morphologisches Jahrbuch_, ii. 421.
[54] _Archiv. für Anthropologie_, p. 463: 1880.
[55] _Alttrojanische Gräber und Schädel. Aus der Abhandlungen der
Königl. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin_, p. 47: 1882.
[56] _Sitzungsbericht der Berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft_:
April 17, 1880.
[57] See Spengel’s _Caves and Primitive Inhabitants of Europe_.
[58] _Manual of the Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals_, p. 481: London,
1871.
[59] _An Introduction to the Osteology of the Mammalia_, p. 310:
London, 1870.
[60] _On the Anatomy of the Vertebrates_, ii. 551. Also see my own
works in _Archiv. für Anatomie_, p. 648: 1876.
[61] _Studien aus dem Gebiete du Naturwissenschaften_, ii. 316: St.
Petersburg, 1876.
[62] Hartmann in _Archiv. für Anatomie_, etc., p. 653: 1876.
[63] Welcker in His and Braune’s _Archiv. Jahrg._, i. p. 71.
[64] Camper, _Œuvres_, i. 152; _Naturgeschichte des Orang-utan_, etc.;
Owen, _Transactions of the Zoological Society of London_, i. 365–368;
Ibid., v. 15; Welcker in His and Braune’s _Archiv. Jahrg._, ii. p. 106.
[65] _Wiener medicinische Wochenschrift_, p. 4: 1871.
[66] Duchenne’s _Mécanisme de la physiognomie humaine_. Darwin’s
_Expression of the Emotions_. Gamba’s _Lezioni di anatomo-fisiologia
applicata alle arti belle_.
[67] Macalister, in the _Annals and Magazine of Natural History_, vii.
342 (1871), asserts that he was unable to distinguish the corrugator
from the orbicular muscle, and I have been equally unsuccessful.
[68] Darwin’s _Expression of the Emotions_.
[69] Darwin, _Expression of the Emotions_.
[70] _Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia_,
1879. _Revue d’Anthropologie_, 1873, 1874.
[71] _Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia_,
1879.
[72] Hartmann in _Archiv. für Anatomie_, by Reichart and Du
Bois-Reymond, p. 743 (1875); p. 636 (1876).
[73] Halford, _Not like man, bimanous and biped, nor yet quadrumanous,
but cheiropodus_: Melbourne, 1863. _Lines of demarcation between Man,
the Gorilla, and the Macaca_: Melbourne, 1863. I only know these two
treatises from Bischoff’s quotation. _Anatomie, etc., des Hylobates
leuciscus_, pp. 23, 24.
[74] Ruge also considers this muscle to be part of the extensor longus
digitorum.
[75] _Beiträge zur Kenntniss des Gorilla und Chimpanse_, p. 32, plate
ii. fig. 3.
[76] _Bulletin de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris_ (1869), pp. 83,
113.
[77] As, for example, in _Hylobates syndactylus_. Comp. Giobel,
_Odontographia_, p. 2: Leipzig, 1855.
[78] _Ortleetkundige Beschryving van een volvassen Orang Oetan.
Verhandelingen over de natuurlijke geschiedenis der Neederlandsche
Bezittingen_: Leiden, 1840. _Bulletin de la Société d’Anthropologie de
Paris_, iv. pp. 368–371: 1869.
[79] Comp. Aeby, _Der Bronchialbaum der Säugethiere und des Menschen_,
p. 7, table v. fig. 11: Leipzig, 1880.
[80] _The Brain as an Organ of Mind._ International Scientific Series.
[81] Pansch writes of a gorilla’s brain: “The cerebellum ought, in a
horizontal position, to be somewhat overlapped by the cerebrum.” I do
not understand what he means by the expression _ought_.
[82] _Natural History Review_, p. 201: 1861.
[83] _Sitzung der Mathematisch-physikalischen Klasse der königl.
bairischen Akademie der Wissenschaften_, p. 100: Feb. 4, 1871.
[84] Gratiolet, _Mém. sur les plis cérébraux de l’homme et des
primates_.
[85] _Correspondenzblatt der deutschen Anthropologischen Gesellschaft_,
p. 133: 1878.
[86] _Verhandlungen der berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft_, 1877.
[87] Ibid., p. 25: 1878.
[88] _Verhandlungen der berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft_, p.
28: 1878.
[89] _Archiv. für Anthropologie_, p. 129: 1867.
[90] _Verhandlungen der berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft_, p.
283: 1877.
[91] _Correspondenzblatt der deutschen Anthropologischen Gesellschaft_,
p. 134: 1877. H. Gerhartz, _Ueber die Ursachen der Microcephalie_.
Inaugural dissertation. Bonn, 1874.
[92] _Anatomische Untersuchung eines Microcephalen Knaben._ Reprint of
a paper written for the celebration of the three hundredth year of the
University of Wurzburg, p. 27.
[93] _Verhandlungen der berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft_, p.
248: 1877.
[94] _Das peripherische Nerversystem der Wirbelthiere_, p. 219:
Leipzig, 1878.
[95] _Bulletin de la Société Zoologique de France_, p. 1: 1877.
[96] _Die Vollständigste Naturgeschichte der Affen_, p. 191: Leipzig
and Dresden.
[97] See Chenu, _Encyclopédie d’Historie Naturelle, Quadrumanes_, p. 34.
[98] Catalogue of Monkeys, Lemurs, and Fruit-eating Bats in the British
Museum. Appendix, p. 127: London, 1870.
[99] For example, the ears are represented as somewhat too small.
Although the growth of hair on the crown of the head makes them look
larger, the want of proportion must be admitted. It might easily have
been altered, but I preferred to reproduce the original sketch as it
stood.
[100] _Die Säugethiere in Wort und Bild._, by C. Vogt and Specht, p.
11: Munich, 1882.
[101] _Mafoca Betreffendes._ Reprinted from the reports of the
_Gesellschaft für Natur und Heilkunde zu Dresden_, Sitzung, xxvii. p.
9: 1876.
[102] _Thierleben_, ii. 80, 81. _Illustrirte Naturgeschichte des
Thierreichs_, i. 11: Leipzig, 1880.
[103] _Der Gorilla_, vi. p. 25. The inscription to this fine cut
erroneously gives this as a male instead of a female specimen.
[104] Series for 1876, plate vii. figs. 2, 4.
[105] _Livingstone’s Last Journals in Central Africa from 1865 to his
death_, ii. 52–55: London, 1874.
[106] _Die Loango Expedition_, Abth. iii. p. 248: Leipzig, 1882.
[107] Ibid., Abth. ii. p. 150.
[108] _Die Loango Expedition_, Abth. i. p. 123.
[109] _Die Loango Expedition_, p. 103.
[110] The account given by H. von Koppenfels, whose early death we must
all deplore, is taken from his article in the _Gartenlaube_ (1877, No.
25); from his correspondence with his family, which I have been allowed
to see; and from a long paper addressed to Professor Bastian from
Adalinalonga, dated March 26, 1874.
[111] _Illustrirtes Thierleben_, i. 17: Hildburghausen, 1864.
[112] Schweinfurth, _Im Herzen von Afrika_, p. 335: New edition,
Leipzig, 1878.
[113] Duirentuin: Illustrated description of the mammals and birds kept
in the Zoological Gardens, Amsterdam. Published in the Dutch language
about 1862.
[114] _Unter den Kannibalen auf Borneo_, etc., p. 31.
[115] This illustration confirms the remark already made, that the
posterior of this ape somewhat resembles the rump of a bird in
structure.
[116] _Verhandelingen over de natuurlijke geschiedenis der
Nederlandsche overzeesche Bezittingen_: Leiden, 1840–45.
[117] _Unter den Kannibalen auf Borneo_, p. 31.
[118] _Die Preussiche Expedition nach Ostasien. Zoologische
Abtheilung_, vol. i. p. 249: Berlin, 1876.
[119] _Unter der Kannibalen auf Borneo_, p. 327.
[120] Sir Stamford Raffles saw a perfectly white specimen of this
species (_Transactions of the Linnæan Society_, xiii. 241).
[121] G. Broesike, _Sitzungtbericht der Gesellschaft naturforschender
Freunde zu Berlin_: December 18, 1877.
[122] _Verhandlungen der berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft_,
March 18, 1876, p. 93.
[123] See also Nissle, _Die Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, pp. 56, 57:
1876.
[124] Wallace’s _Malay Archipelago_, vol. i.
[125] _Unter den Kannibalen auf Borneo_, p. 31.
[126] _Enchainements_, p. 235.
[127] Fraas, _Wurtembergische Jahresheft_, xxvi. plate iv. fig. 1: 1870.
[128] Forsyth, _Atti della Societá Italiana di Scienze Naturali_, xiv.:
1872.
[129] _Anthropogenie_, p. 482: Leipzig, 1874.
[130] We do not here include the leaping and running mice.
[131] _Reise nach Brasilien_, ii. 177: Frankfurt-am-Main, 1821.
[132] _Beiträge zur Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde Amerikas_, etc., i.
534: Leipzig, 1867.
[133] _Les Enchainements du monde animal_, p. 240.
[134] _Die Säugethiere in Wort und Bild_, p. 49.
[135] _Handbuch der Petrefactenkunde_, 3rd edit., i. 38: Tübingen, 1882.
[136] Darwin’s _Descent of Man_, 1st edit., vol. ii. p. 385.
[137] Darwin’s _Descent of Man_, i. p. 212.
[138] _Die Säugethiere in Wort und Bild_, p. 67.
INDEX.
A
A-Bantu, 86
Abel, 10
Abors, 253
Aeby, 6, 130, 131, 206
Africa, 90
African negroes, pithecoid structure of, 86
Aidanill, 88
Ainos, 96
Alix, 9, 149, 207, 213
Angola, 225
Anthropoid apes, development of acquaintance with, 1;
external form of, 11;
external and anatomical structure of, compared with the human, 55;
ears of, and men, 89;
neck of, 100;
trunk of, 100;
carpus of, 102;
hand of, 102;
upper limbs of, 102;
skull of, 107;
vertebral column of, and men, 125;
humerus of, 131;
tibia of, 137;
hinder extremities of, 145;
muscular system of, 150;
skin of head of, 156;
clavicle of, 160;
digestive system of, 181;
teeth of, 182;
tongue of, 182;
vertebral column of, 182;
liver of, 187;
stomach and intestines of, 187;
spleen of, 188;
sexual organs of, 190;
brain of, 192;
nervous system of, 192;
peripheral, 207;
vascular system of, 208;
structure of, 210;
varieties in the form of, 210;
geographical distribution, habits in a state of nature, and native
names of, 225;
life in captivity of, 257;
position of, in the zoological system, 285.
Anthropomorphism of gorilla, orang, chimpanzee, and gibbon, 290
Aschangolo, 236
Aschira, 240
Ashanti, 86
Astarte, temple of, 2
Authorities for Chapter I., 311
Australian blacks, 86, 96
B
Baboon, 11, 92
Baker, 122
Ballone, river, 88
Bam (_Troglodytes niger_), 222, 237
Banya, 237
Bär, K. E. von, 6, 143
Bari, 86
Bartels, 96
Bastian, Ch., 192, 197
Battel, 3, 8
Bennet, 10
Beyrich, 285
Biceps of anthropoids, 165
Bischoff, 6, 78, 152, 167, 188
Blainville, D. de, 4, 134
Blyth, 10
Bock, 45, 241, 284
Bolau, 7, 188, 260
Bond, 87
Borneo, 241
Bosman, 8
Boucher de Perthes, 119
Bourgeois, 299
Bouvier, 210
Bowdich, E., 4
Brain of apes, 192
Brazza, De, 6, 235
Brehm, A. E., 6, 9, 217
Brooke, 10
Brosse, 269
Brühl, 10, 58, 78, 150, 176
Broca, 110
Broderip, 269
Buala, plateau of, 226
Buchholz, 235, 258
Buchta, 107
Buffon, 8, 267
Burmeister, 101
Burton, R., 6
Bushmen, 87
Busu, Bakalaya, 236
C
Cachêu, 237
Camaroon river, 225
Carpus of anthropoid apes, 102
Catharcludi, land of, 2
Champneys, 9
Chapman, 6, 164
Chenu, 10
Chimpanzee, 2, 8, 29, 33, 58, 91, 219, 237, 267;
anthropomorphism of, 290
Chimpezée, 8
Chinchoxo, 7
Chudzinsky, 165
Clavicle of anthropoids, 160
Colobus, 286
Compiègne, A. de, 6, 235
Congo, 226
Cuvier, G., 10, 45, 50
D
Dabulamanzi, 86
Dahlbom, 6, 9
Dahomey, 86
Danger, river, 225
Dapper, O., 4
Darwin, 7, 91, 97, 157, 303, 308
Delaunay, 298
Devéria, A., 5
Diard, 10, 45, 252
Digestive system of anthropoids, 181
Dippel, 148
_Dryopithecus_, 286
Du Chaillu, 6, 215, 227, 257
Duchenne, 154
Dücker, Von, 299
Dumortier, 10
Duncan, P. M., 220
Durand, 122
Duvaucel, 10, 50, 254
Duvernoy, 6, 149, 172, 215
Dyaks, 245;
of Dusun, 251
E
Ears of anthropoids and men, 89
Ecker, 6, 96
Ehlers, 6, 7, 153, 188
Eliva, lake, 236
Engeco, 4
Eyelids of anthropoids and of man, 94
F
Fan, 236
Falkenstein, 7, 219, 260
Femur of mammals, 136
Flower, 6, 142
Foot of anthropoids, 22
Ford, 5, 225
Fortuna, temple of, 2
Four-handed, rejection of the term, 146
Franquet, 5
Froger, 3
Froriep, 126
G
Gaboon district, 5, 226, 240
Galloa, 240
Gamba, 154
Garrau mountains, 253
Garrigou, 298
Gaudry, 285, 299
Gautier Laboulaye, 5
Gegenbaur, 134
Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 5, 9
Geographical distribution of anthropoids, 225
Gervais, 7, 9
Ghauts, 87
Gibbon, anthropomorphism of, 290
Gibbon, skeleton of, 81
Gibbon (_Hylobates_), 11, 45, 251, 281
---- _H. albimanus_, 49, 282
---- _H. entelloides_, 52
---- _H. funereus_, 54, 283
---- _H. Hoolock_, 52, 282
---- _H. Lar agilis_, 45, 50, 283
---- _H. leuciscus_, 51
---- _H. leucogenys_, 53
---- _H. pileatus_, 53
---- _H. Rafflesii_, 52
Giebel, 7
Giglioli, 6, 9
Glover, 86
Gorilla, 12, 26, 55, 60, 210, 225, 257;
skull of an aged male, 56;
skull of young male, 60;
skeleton of aged male, 65;
skeleton of female, 68
Gorilla, anthropomorphism of, 290
Grandpré, 268
Gratiolet, 9, 152, 199, 209
Gray, 214
Griffith, E., 10
Gruber, 111, 135, 175
Gulliver, 10
Gulnarber, 89
Güssfeldt, 228
H
Habit of anthropoids in a state of nature, 225
Haeckel, 6, 107, 146, 291
Hair, growth of, in man and anthropoids, 96
Hamadryas (_Cynocephalus_), 251
Hand of anthropoids, 102;
muscles of, 166
Hanno, 1
Harlan, 253, 281
Hausanese, 86
Head, skin of, 156;
muscles of, 151
Henle, 153
Hermes, 7, 243, 269, 283
Heusinger, 10
Hoeven, Van der, 103
Holl, 128
Hooker, 97
Human foot, skeleton of, 140
Human structure compared with that of anthropoid apes, 55
Humerus of gorilla, 131
Huxley, 114, 143, 176, 190
Hyrtl, 111
I
Ibos, natives of, 86
Ihering, H. von, 207
Issel, 222
J
Japanese, the, 87
Jeffreys Wyman, 5, 215
Jockos, 8
K
Kamma, 240
Klebs, 205
Kolk, Van der, 9
Koolo-Kamba, the anthropoid, 221
Koppenfels, H. von, 6, 219, 231
Kotaringin, 241
Krause, R., 192, 202
Kuilu, 226, 237
L
Lainier, 214
Lambdoidal suture, 58
Langer, 10, 173
_Laopithecus_, 287
Lartet, 286
Larynx, 188
Laussedat, 298
Lewis, 10
Lenz, H., 6, 9, 235, 258
Life in captivity of anthropoid apes, 257
Ligaments of anthropoids, 146
Ligaments, 187
Limbs of anthropoids, 102
Liver of anthropoid apes, 187
Livingstone, 223, 240
Loango, 7, 226, 237
Lopez, Ed., 3
Lucae, 6
Lucan, 210
Luemme, 226, 237
M
Macacu, 92
Macalister, 152
Mafuca, 95, 215, 240
Magitot, 7
Mahakkam, 250
Malays, 87, 250
Malacca peninsula, 53
Malimba, people of, 240
Malzac, A. de, 220
Mammals, femur of, 136
Mammals, systematic scheme of, 288
Mandril, 3
Mandjaruma, 222
Martens, Von, 251
Martin, W. L., 221
Martius, Von, 294
Max, G., 10, 281
Maximilian of Neuwied, Prince, 294
Mayombe, 228
Meckel, J. F., 147
Meias, 251
Merolla, 3
Meyer, A. B., 6, 216
Meyer, B., 93
Meyer, R, 6
Miklucho-Maclay, 89, 94
Mivart, F., 6
Mpongwe, 236, 240
Müller, 10, 247
Muni (Mooney), 225
Mirenhas, 294
Muscular system of anthropoid apes, 150
Mützel, 10, 25
N
Naga, 253
Nathusius, H. von, 13
Native names of anthropoids, 225
Ndjéko (nschégo), 4, 215, 220, 239
Niam-Niam, 86, 240
Nervous system of anthropoids, 192
Neck of anthropoids, 100
Ntondo, village of, 227
Nuehr, 86
O
Obongo, 294
Ogōwē, 6, 225
Orang-utan, anthropomorphism of, 290
Orang-utan, 8, 11, 41, 43, 91, 223, 242, 273;
skull of, 76;
skeleton of, 76, 79
Ornstein, 96
Orungu, 240
Owen, R., 7, 25, 143, 226, 286
P
Pansch, 6, 197, 260
Pechuël-Lösche, 226, 229
Papuans, 87
Pedro da Cintra, 3
Pelvis of anthropoids, 130
Penaud, 5
Petit, 210
Pigafetta, P., 3
Platysma myoides, 159
Plinius, 2
_Pliopithecus_, 286
Pongo, 4
Ponta-Negra, 226
_Primarii_, 288
Prince, Mrs., 5
_Protopithecus_, 287
Pruner-Bey, 7, 114
Q
Quatrefages, 117
Quenstedt, 286, 302
Quojas morrau, 4
R
Rademacher, 10
Reade, W., 235, 258
Reichenbach, 9
Retzius, 60, 194
Rolleston, 197
Rosenberg, 126, 135, 172, 242
Rousseau, 5
S
Sachs, Dr., 110
Sadong, 241
Sambas, 241
Sarawak, 241
Satyrs, 2
Savage, Dr., 4, 227
Schaaffhausen, 205
Schilluk, 86
Schlegel, 10, 247
Schweinfurth, 220, 238
Scott, J., 97
_Semnopithecus_, 285
Sexual organs of anthropoids, 190
Siam, 53
Siamang, 252
Siebold, 96
Simiina, 28
Skeleton of human foot, 140
Skeleton of aged male gorilla, 65;
of female gorilla, 68;
structure of, 107
Skeleton of chimpanzee, 73
Skin of head of anthropoids, 156
Skull of adult chimpanzee, 72
Skull of aged male gorilla, 56;
of young male gorilla, 60
Skull of orang-utan, 77;
of anthropoids, 107
Smith, W., 3
Soko, 240
Spengel, 114
Spleen of anthropoids, 188
Stieda, 111
Structure of anthropoid apes, 210
Stomach of anthropoid apes, 187
Sumatra, 241, 252
Sungi-Kapajan, 241
T
Tapanoli, 242
Teeth of anthropoids, 182
Temminck, 10
Teweh, 241
Throat pouch, 161
Thorax of anthropoids, 131
Tibia of anthropoids, 137
Tiedemann, 156
Tilesius, 10
Tongue of anthropoids, 182
Traill, Dr., 267
Trinchese, Salvatore, 92
_Troglodytes Gorilla_, 5
Trunk of anthropoids, 100
Tscheladas (_Cynocephalus Geleda_), 250
Tschissambo, 237
Tulpe, N. von, 3, 8
Tyson, E., 3, 9
U
Unko, (_Hylobates Rafflesii_), 52, 252
V
Vascular system of anthropoids, 208
Vélins, 10
Vertebræ, cervical, of chimpanzee, 73
Vertebral column of anthropoids and men, 182
Virchow, R., 6, 58, 96, 111, 114, 138, 202
Vogt, C., 7, 204, 218, 301
Vosmaer, 10
Vrolik, 9, 207
W
Waldeyer, 136
Wallace, 10, 99, 158, 223, 244, 273
Wau-wau (_Hylobates agilis_), 45, 50, 253
Welcker, 126, 147
Wilson, 5
Wimba, Fort, 8
Woolner, 91
Wurmb, 10
Z
Zuckerkandl, 124
PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, LONDON AND BECCLES.
Transcriber’s Notes
Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a
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